98:, who were often taken to be Arabs. The permits issued stipulated strictly the time given for any Palestinian moving in the country and the routes permitted. Officers were rewarded if they achieved compliance with the figures set forth in a monthly quota system for arresting a given number of Palestinians halted by such procedures and caught out in permit infractions. The overwhelming majority of those arrested, be they Palestinians returning late for missing a bus, peasants retrieving flocks that had wandered from their set pastures, old men overstaying a permit during an evening visit to a mosque, women taking buses to markets to sell produce, were tried not in civil tribunals, but in military courts. Down to 1967, it has been estimated that 95% of all convictions by Israel's military tribunals regarded Palestinians rounded up for such permit infractions or for trespassing.
285:"Israel has marketed itself as a global expert in combating the 'Islamic' or 'Arab' terrorism held to be responsible for the type of security threats associated with the 9/11 attacks, and with an intensification of profiling based on the techniques and experiences of the conflict zone of Israel/Palestine. This is despite the reality that what might be labelled terrorist attacks—such as the one by an anti-Muslim activist that took the lives of 91 victims in Oslo and Utoya Island in Norway in July, 2011—often in fact defy the efficacy of racial profiling."
796:, 2018 p. 235:'Israel's territorial expansion into the OPT, coupled with its demographic angst and with its security cult, generates the perception that Palestinians . .cease to be conceived of as citizens or protected persons endowed with rights; they are construed as an "objective enemy". Such enmity is not grounded in either a concrete action or a concrete risk assessment, which defines "real enemies": it is grounded in racism. Profiling is its methodological procedure.'
224:
rather than seeking anomalous behavior ticks as risk identifiers, the
Israeli system reflects the larger structural nature of Israel as a Jewish state, with 'ethnic and religious profiling' making up the core of the vetting. While the systems developed to profile behavior along ethnic and religious lines have proved functional, they are also, Whitaker asserts, intrinsically discriminatory and repugnant to human rights.
83:, impeding Palestinians from returning to their villages and home, and for assisting Jewish immigrants to settle and displace them. It was the permit system that formed part of the body of non-statutory regulations, enforced from the earliest days by the new-found military, that, in Shira Robinson's view, 'created a culture of racial profiling and served to criminalize the Palestinian public at large'.
298:, countries have emulated Israeli security profiling techniques that are widely regarded as effective, necessary, and successful in preventing airplane hijacking or bombing. Some critics claim that there has been an 'Israelization of surveillance' and the 'Palestinianization of the racial contracts of liberal democracies.'
192:
groups which had threatened to take to the courts the issue of passenger screening and security checks of non-Jews before the courts. He directed the airport authority to implement a policy of 'visible equality' and thereby put an end to the practice, regarding as humiliating, of racial profiling, in
234:
Many passengers have complained of the discrimination they claim to have suffered on entering Israel from intrusive searches based upon suspicion related to their Arab or
Palestinian identity, or association with such people. Israeli Arabs are included in the terror profile notwithstanding the fact
223:
In a 2010 book on Israel's airport screening, Reg
Whitaker notes 'neutral scientific impartiality' in screening to be difficult: 'it would be delusional to expect that any security screening process for Israel could escape the constraints of national ideology'. The result has been, in his view, that
117:
designed to "swallow up" the predominantly
Palestinian village below. Local activists, fearing they would become residents of a 'new Johannesburg' but also reacting to the deaths of 22 Palestinian children from land mines and military exercises nearby, protested that the plans were based on racial
79:: the involvement of low-level officers in looting, theft, rape and murder would, he thought, also complicate matters. On deliberation, it was decided to suspend military law only in mixed cities with a Jewish presence, while applying it elsewhere as the most effective measure for
173:
based on name or physical appearance. Additionally, all passengers, including those who do not appear to be of Arab descent, are questioned as to why they are traveling to Israel, followed by several general questions about the trip in order to search for inconsistencies.
305:
said with regard to
Israeli predictive profiling that the "US Secretary of Homeland Security returned from a security tour of Israel and pledged to adopt some of their techniques to make us all safer." Former Arkansas governor and two-time presidential candidate
212:, an Israeli terrorism expert and retired professor of psychology "It's foolishness not to use profiles when you know that most terrorists come from certain ethnic groups and certain age groups"; he notes further that a terrorist on an airplane "is likely to be
973:
Israeli-style profiling first came to the United States after
September 11, when Boston's Logan International Airport hired Rafi Ron as a security consultant. Before joining New Age Security Solutions, Ron had been director of security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion
118:
grounds. Some concessions were made in reducing the severity of the permit system, which was claimed to regulate movements along territorial rather than racial lines, but widespread protests continued and when, in 1958, two
Palestinians were tried for entering
231:, has said that Israeli security almost exclusively profiled Arabs and Muslims until the 1972 airport massacre, and that as a result of that massacre, Israel began to use threat-based profiling in addition to racial profiling at Ben Gurion Airport.
243:
Airport security is not the only area where Israel employs techniques of ethnic profiling. The military governance of the
Palestinian territories uses these methods extensively, and it has been argued that, with regard to the administration of
160:. Since then, security at the airport has relied on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalized as "the inescapable fact that
122:, which was freely accessible to tourists and Jews, the local police chief admitted under interrogation that entry into this so-called "closed zone" was determined by a less visible racial profiling system designed to bar only Palestinians.
140:
on 23 July 1968, and these have persisted down to the present day (2012). The measures have proved highly effective, and a high percentage of respondents, both Jewish and Arab have affirmed that they feel safer with such checks in place.
248:, 'Profiling is its methodological procedure.' The gamut of informal and formal control and monitoring techniques used by Israel to profile and control what it considers a 'dangerous population' in the occupied territories has led
267:
reported that security guards working for a company which provides security at Tel Aviv's
Central Bus Station said they were instructed to demand ID from people who look Arab and detain those who do not have an ID with them.
1007:
But recently the US Secretary of
Homeland Security returned from a security tour of Israel and pledged to adopt some of their techniques to make us all safer. "Predictive Profiling" seems a very likely candidate for the
201:, while the prior use of coloured stickers was replaced by uniform white stickers for all passengers, airport security officials simply wrote over the stickers with a numbering system that conserved the distinctions.
31:. Racial profiling is the act of suspecting or targeting a person of a certain race on the basis of observed characteristics or behavior, rather than on individual suspicion. Bio-social profiling has been seen as "
66:
communities, the maintenance of such provisions was no longer necessary, since, in their view, the civil police force could handle the application of the existing emergency regulations. Ministers such as
164:
are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology." As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor," Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using
301:"Israeli-style profiling" started in the U.S. in the wake of 11 September 2001, when Boston's Logan airport hired the former director of security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion airport. Dave McIntyre of the
986:
909:
Hasisi, Badi, Yoram Margalioth, and Liav Orgad. "Ethnic Profiling In Airport Screening: Lessons From Israel, 1968-2010." American Law and Economics Review 14, no. 2 (2012): 517-60.
204:
Israel does not admit that it employs profiling based on ethnic criteria, but a 2012 empirical study based on interviews with 918 passengers, evenly covering 308 Israeli Jews, 306
55:
had already established a functional system of non-statutory regulations regarding residence permits which Israel had inherited and could use without passing further legislation.
922:
GRAHAM, STEPHEN. "Laboratories of War: United States-Israeli Collaboration in Urban War and Securitization." The Brown Journal of World Affairs 17, no. 1 (2010): 35-51.
1060:
278:, stated in 2016 that "All over the world it is proven that migrants are more involved in crime than others... This also goes for Arabs… and also in east Jerusalem."
752:
416::'Racial profiling describes the practice of targeting or stopping an individual based primarily on his or her race rather than any individualized suspicion p.52.'
318:
has stated: "I traveled to Israel, and I tell you what... They have very good procedures and you don't have to go through all of these very draconian practices."
677:
339:
516:
825:
768:
736:
721:'This is our Israel, this is for the Jews. No Palestinian should come to Israel': A Palestinian-American's story of being detained at Ben Gurion airport
560:'Muslim profiles Post-9/11: Is Racial Profiling an Effective Counter-terrorist Measure and Does It Violate the Right to be Free fronm Discrimination?,'
181:, it appeared that Israel had not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling. In the spring of 2008,
302:
327:
937:'The "Israelization" of social sorting and the "Palestinianization" of the racial contract: reframing Israel/Palestine and the war on terror,'
867:
Abu-Laban, Yasmeen; Bakan, Abigail B. (2012). "After 9/11: Canada, the Israel/Palestine Conflict, and the Surveillance of Public Discourse".
994:
310:
has stated: "What the Israelis do - and I've flown on El Al about a dozen times to Israel - what they do is the way it ought to be done".
51:, Israel, in a contentious measure, decided to keep in place the military rule that had prevailed during hostilities. The authorities of
76:
488:
235:
that only one of the 102 terrorists involved in attacks on Israeli aviation over the period 1968-2010 came from that background.
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323:
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Israel first introduced a new set of protocols for profiling potential terrorists for airport passenger screening after the
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to govern the Palestinians as conflicting with the article guaranteeing the equality of all citizens set forth in the
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44:
227:
Amotz Brandes, a former intelligence officer in the Israeli Defense Forces and a security agent and profiler at
524:
431:
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and stopping anyone with an 'Arab appearance' to examine their papers. Such profiling became vexatious for the
1080:
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and young", and argues that the goal of preventing numerous casualties "justifies inconveniencing a certain
205:
194:
95:
28:
449:
59:
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use racial profiling at military checkpoints and during some of the duties they perform. In August 2017
86:
The measures were implemented quickly, with patrols of both the military and border police establishing
256:, a term usually applied to neighbouring Arab countries, meaning an 'intelligence surveillance state'
344:
153:
1028:
790:
The ABC of the OPT: A Legal Lexicon of the Israeli Control over the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
102:
80:
52:
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853:
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which had been in place for decades. The vetting procedures were duly modified but, according to
157:
87:
769:'Palestinian Women Are Harassed And Humiliated At Checkpoints. Here Are A Few Of Their Stories,'
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in 1956, Israel began a Jewish settlement project on land expropriated from Palestinians on
20:
382:
Warren, Patricia Y.; Farrell, Amy (2009). "The Environmental Context of Racial Profiling".
62:
opposed it, being of the view that, given the devastation and shock affecting the defeated
755:
208:, and 304 non-Israelis found strong indications suggesting that it does so. According to
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Territory Surveillance and Control in Israel/Palestine: Population, Territory and Power,
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653:'Behavioural profiling in Israeli aviation security as a tool for social control,'
771:
451:
Citizen Strangers: Palestinians and the Birth of Israel's Liberal Settler State,
72:
941:
Surveillance and Control in Israel/Palestine: Population, Territory and Power,
880:
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178:
145:
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888:
395:
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753:'Palestinian women sue Israeli airlines over 'unwarranted' strip searches,'
601:
546:
626:
517:"Israeli airport security order dancer to prove identity with dance steps"
826:"Guards at Tel Aviv's Central Bus Station Ordered Racially Profile Arabs"
114:
923:
910:
486:'Ethnic Profiling In Airport Screening: Lessons From Israel, 1968–2010,'
485:
403:
1064:
1025:"Dana Milbank - Why the Israeli security model can't work for the U.S."
739:
264:
110:
330:(TSA) to adopt Israeli profiling methods, including racial profiling.
213:
24:
991:
Integrative Center for Homeland Security at Texas A&M University
737:'Arab Actress Tells of Humiliating Security Check at the Airport,'
384:
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
228:
119:
1061:
Minister backs Israel's top cop over racial profiling controversy
295:
170:
678:"Trump claim on Israel profiling misses full security context"
850:'Comment: The 'natural' excuse for Israeli racial profiling,'
491:, Volume 14, Issue 2, 1 December 2012, pp.517–560,pp.518,552.
369:
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate® Dictionary, Eleventh Edition
993:. Texas A&M University. 26 June 2008. Archived from
939:
in Elia Zureik, David Lyon, Yasmeen Abu-Laban (eds.),
808:
Israel's Colonial Project in Palestine: Brutal Pursuit,
655:
in Elia Zureik, David Lyon, Yasmeen Abu-Laban (eds.),
588:
Israel and South Africa: The Many Faces of Apartheid,
627:"Rights group challenges Israel's airport security"
602:"New study delves inside a suicide bomber's mind"
156:that led to the deaths of at least 24 people at
281:Scholars in Canada have recently written that:
340:Airport racial profiling in the United States
47:between Israel and other belligerents to the
8:
705:Israeli Airport Security Now Checking Emails
484:Badi Hasisi, Yoram Margalioth, Liav Orgad,
444:
442:
440:
33:integral to the Israeli security apparatus
503:Aviation Management: Global Perspectives,
480:
478:
476:
303:Integrative Center for Homeland Security
16:Application of systematic discrimination
356:
580:'Visible Equality' as Confidence Trick
328:Transportation Security Administration
169:, singling out those who appear to be
1018:
1016:
924:https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590756
911:https://www.jstor.org/stable/42705624
672:
670:
668:
506:Global India Publications, 2009 p.271
7:
935:Yasmeen Abu-Laban, Abigal B. Bakan,
869:Canadian Journal of Law and Society
562:in Ben Goold, Liora Lazarus (eds.),
523:. September 9, 2008. Archived from
77:Israeli Declaration of Independence
956:Jonathan Last (1 September 2006).
633:. Associated Press. March 19, 2008
14:
489:American Law and Economics Review
987:"Profiling Predictive Profiling"
428:Space and Mobility in Palestine,
71:also opposed the maintenance of
188:, responded to complaints from
324:President of the United States
132:Airport security § Israel
1:
958:"Behavioral Profiling Needed"
1023:Milbank, Dana (2010-11-25).
521:International Herald Tribune
326:, repeatedly called for the
290:Emulation in other countries
138:hijacking of an El Al plane
1117:
794:Cambridge University Press
564:Security and Human Rights,
547:Airport Security in Israel
129:
81:depopulating Arab villages
881:10.1017/S082932010001053X
824:Lior, Ilan (2017-08-23).
455:Stanford University Press
183:Israel's Attorney General
177:As of 2007, according to
45:1949 Armistice Agreements
946:, 2010 pp.276-293 p.288.
662:, 2010 pp.371-384 p.383.
600:Lee, Dave (2010-11-17).
432:Indiana University Press
396:10.1177/0002716208330485
274:, the then head of the
261:Israeli Security Forces
96:Yemenite Jews in Israel
29:Israeli security forces
19:An extensive system of
287:
43:On the signing of the
590:Zed Books 2015 p.123.
567:Bloomsbury Publishing
558:Bernard E. Harcourt,
527:on September 14, 2008
500:Cited K. C. Khurana,
283:
126:At Ben Gurion Airport
49:1948 Arab–Israeli War
39:Historical background
345:Israel and apartheid
206:Palestinian Israelis
195:Palestinian Israelis
1101:Terrorism in Israel
1029:The Washington Post
848:Seth J. Frantzman,
569:2007 pp.73-98 p.93.
549:, November 27, 2007
448:Shira N. Robinson,
103:Kafr Qasim massacre
53:Mandatory Palestine
1096:Politics of Israel
1091:Offender profiling
854:The Jerusalem Post
783:Orna Ben-Naftali,
767:Mariam Barghouti,
468:Citizen Strangers,
252:to define it as a
158:Ben Gurion Airport
101:Shortly after the
92:flying checkpoints
1067:, August 31, 2016
997:on 18 August 2010
857:3 September 2016.
751:Bethan McKernan,
239:In other contexts
162:terrorist attacks
150:Japanese Red Army
23:is used in or by
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814:2015 pp3-5. p.5.
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787:, Hedi Viterbo,
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735:Nirit Anderman,
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726:29 July 29, 2015
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371:. 24 March 2024.
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254:Mukhabarat state
167:racial profiling
21:racial profiling
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875:(3): 319–339.
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457:2013 pp.41-42.
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229:El Al Airlines
193:particular of
186:Menachem Mazuz
130:Main article:
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69:Bechor Shitrit
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1086:Race and law
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999:. Retrieved
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965:. Retrieved
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742:29 July 2016
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210:Ariel Merari
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152:launched an
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772:The Forward
710:5 June 2012
682:@politifact
545:Volokh.com
531:January 10,
434:, 2017 p.9.
365:"Profiling"
73:martial law
64:Palestinian
1075:Categories
1043:2018-06-22
835:2018-06-22
724:Mondoweiss
701:Marc Tracy
687:2018-06-22
637:January 8,
584:Ilan Pappé
351:References
316:Allen West
250:Ilan Pappé
179:Boaz Ganor
146:terrorists
1038:0190-8286
944:Routledge
897:144820742
889:1911-0227
812:Routledge
660:Routledge
466:Robinson,
412:146368789
390:: 52–63.
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