890:, 1687). He based the whole description of planetary motions on a theoretical law of dynamic interactions. He renounced standing attempts at accounting for this particular form of interaction between distant bodies by introducing a mechanism of propagation through an intervening medium. He calls this intervening medium aether. In his aether model, Newton describes aether as a medium that "flows" continually downward toward the Earth's surface and is partially absorbed and partially diffused. This "circulation" of aether is what he associated the force of gravity with to help explain the action of gravity in a non-mechanical fashion. This theory described different aether densities, creating an aether density gradient. His theory also explains that aether was dense within objects and rare without them. As particles of denser aether interacted with the rare aether they were attracted back to the dense aether much like cooling vapors of water are attracted back to each other to form water. In the
843:
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746:, physical models known as "aether theories" made use of a similar concept for the explanation of the propagation of electromagnetic and gravitational forces. As early as the 1670s, Newton used the idea of aether to help match observations to strict mechanical rules of his physics. The early modern aether had little in common with the aether of classical elements from which the name was borrowed. These aether theories are considered to be scientifically obsolete, as the development of
599:. He noted that the four terrestrial classical elements were subject to change and naturally moved linearly. The first element however, located in the celestial regions and heavenly bodies, moved circularly and had none of the qualities the terrestrial classical elements had. It was neither hot nor cold, neither wet nor dry. With this addition the system of elements was extended to five and later commentators started referring to the new first one as the fifth and also called it
866:
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790:, who was recognized in 1736 with the prize of the French Academy. In his theory, all space is permeated by aether containing "excessively small whirlpools". These whirlpools allow for aether to have a certain elasticity, transmitting vibrations from the corpuscular packets of light as they travel through.
809:
via an "omnipresent, perfectly elastic medium having zero density, called aether". At the time, it was thought that in order for light to travel through a vacuum, there must have been a medium filling the void through which it could propagate, as sound through air or ripples in a pool. Later, when it
707:
This elemental system spread rapidly throughout all of Europe and became popular with alchemists, especially in medicinal alchemy. Medicinal alchemy then sought to isolate quintessence and incorporate it within medicine and elixirs. Due to quintessence's pure and heavenly quality, it was thought that
687:
name of the fifth element used by medieval alchemists for a medium similar or identical to that thought to make up the heavenly bodies. It was noted that there was very little presence of quintessence within the terrestrial sphere. Due to the low presence of quintessence, earth could be affected by
894:
he attempts to explain the elasticity and movement of aether by relating aether to his static model of fluids. This elastic interaction is what caused the pull of gravity to take place, according to this early theory, and allowed an explanation for action at a distance instead of action through
899:
in 1679. He illustrated aether and its field around objects in this letter as well and used this as a way to inform Robert Boyle about his theory. Although Newton eventually changed his theory of gravitation to one involving force and the laws of motion, his starting point for the modern
1154:: "Αἰθίοψ, οπος, ὁ, fem. Αἰθιοπίς, ίδος, ἡ (Αἰθίοψ as fem., A.Fr.328, 329): pl. 'Αἰθιοπῆες' Il.1.423, whence nom. 'Αἰθιοπεύς' Call.Del.208: (αἴθω, ὄψ):— properly, Burnt-face, i.e. Ethiopian, negro, Hom., etc.; prov., Αἰθίοπα σμήχειν 'to wash a blackamoor white', Luc.Ind. 28." Cf.
1026:
Believing that the movements of the heavenly bodies are continuous, natural and circular, and that the natural movements of the four terrestrial elements are rectilinear and discontinuous, Aristotle concluded that the heavenly bodies must be composed of a fifth element, aither
462:. The concept of aether was used in several theories to explain several natural phenomena, such as the propagation of light and gravity. In the late 19th century, physicists postulated that aether permeated space, providing a medium through which light could travel in a
614:
Aether differed from the four terrestrial elements; it was incapable of motion of quality or motion of quantity. Aether was only capable of local motion. Aether naturally moved in circles, and had no contrary, or unnatural, motion. Aristotle also stated that
758:
Despite the early modern aether models being superseded by general relativity, occasionally some physicists have attempted to reintroduce the concept of aether in an attempt to address perceived deficiencies in current physical models. One proposed model of
696:. The use of quintessence became popular within medieval alchemy. Quintessence stemmed from the medieval elemental system, which consisted of the four classical elements, and aether, or quintessence, in addition to two chemical elements representing metals:
754:
do not require the aether for the transmission of these forces. Einstein noted that his own model which replaced these theories could itself be thought of as an aether, as it implied that the empty space between objects had its own physical properties.
785:
The motion of light was a long-standing investigation in physics for hundreds of years before the 20th century. The use of aether to describe this motion was popular during the 17th and 18th centuries, including a theory proposed by
767:" by its proponents, in honor of the classical element. This idea relates to the hypothetical form of dark energy postulated as an explanation of observations of an accelerating universe. It has also been called a
619:
made of aether held the stars and planets. The idea of aethereal spheres moving with natural circular motion led to
Aristotle's explanation of the observed orbits of stars and planets in perfectly circular motion.
861:
formulated the theory that the hardness of the bodies depended on the pressure of the aether. Aether has been used in various gravitational theories as a medium to help explain gravitation and what causes it.
830:
in which evidence for the motion of aether was conclusively absent. The results of the experiment influenced many physicists of the time and contributed to the eventual development of
Einstein's
574:(58d) speaking about air, Plato mentions that "there is the most translucent kind which is called by the name of aether (αἰθήρ)" but otherwise he adopted the classical system of four elements.
1852:
712:, a 15th-century English translation of a continental text, quintessence was used as a medicine for many of man's illnesses. A process given for the creation of quintessence is
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1847:
882:
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Medieval concept of the cosmos. The innermost spheres are the terrestrial spheres, while the outer are made of aether and contain the celestial bodies.
390:
826:, which rejected the existence and necessity of aether to explain the various optical phenomena. These theories were supported by the results of the
627:
changes of density, in which the bodies of the planets were considered to be more dense than the medium which filled the rest of the universe.
582:, agreed on this point with his former mentor, emphasizing additionally that fire has sometimes been mistaken for aether. However, in his Book
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Einstein, Albert: "Ether and the Theory of
Relativity" (1920), republished in Sidelights on Relativity (Methuen, London, 1922)
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A History of the
Theories of Aether and Electricity from the Age of Descartes to the Close of the 19th Century
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direct contact. Newton also explained this changing rarity and density of aether in his letter to
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The
Enlightenment Cyborg: A History of Communications and Control in the Human Machine, 1660-1830
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what takes place within the heavenly bodies. This theory was developed in the 14th century text
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In a 1675 paper, he also wrote a number of pages speculating that aether may explain how the
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understanding and explanation of gravity came from his original aether model on gravitation.
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instead of longitudinal, Huygens' theory was replaced by subsequent theories proposed by
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of alcohol seven times. Over the years, the term quintessence has become synonymous with
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stated that the aether was "subtler than light". Fludd cites the 3rd-century view of
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AETHER : Greek protogenos god of upper air & light; mythology : AITHER
700:, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and
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1405:, Early English Text Society original series number 16, edited by F. J. Furnivall.
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1336:(1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–428.
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100:
1749:"Isaac Newton's Letter to Robert Boyle, on the Cosmic Ether of Space - 1679"
1748:
1734:
1356:
Robert Fludd, "Mosaical
Philosophy". London, Humphrey Moseley, 1659, p. 221.
575:
545:
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through consumption one may rid oneself of any impurities or illnesses. In
671:
536:"to incinerate", and intransitive "to burn, to shine" (related is the name
1540:
684:
632:
579:
541:
489:
455:
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466:, but evidence for the presence of such a medium was not found in the
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1446:
The Edge of
Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas
1271:
1057:
The Great Rift: Literacy, Numeracy, and the
Religion-Science Divide
1696:
Rosenfeld, L. (1969). "Newton's views on aether and gravitation".
1232:
950:
864:
841:
704:, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties.
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1524:"Quintessence, Cosmic Coincidence, and the Cosmological Constant"
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110:
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1449:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 129–30.
647:
A stylized 𝓠 is sometimes used as a symbol for quintessence.
426:
420:
1599:"The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"
1171:
1161:
531:
495:
423:
1334:
Planets, Stars, & Orbs: The
Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687
1254:
Hahm, David E. (1982). "The fifth element in
Aristotle's
635:, concerning the aether as penetrative and non-material.
588:
he introduced a new "first" element to the system of the
1644:
Shankland, R. S. (1964). "Michelson-Morley Experiment".
518:
breathed by mortals. It is also personified as a deity,
470:, and this result has been interpreted to mean that no
1185:(in Greek). Leipzig: Lipsiae Apud J.A.G. Weigel. 1818.
530:
in traditional Greek mythology. Aether is related to
1014:, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., pp. 133–139,
417:
1012:Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought
548:), meaning "people with a burnt (black) visage").
876:A few years later, aether was used in one of Sir
1691:
1689:
1377:
1375:
1041:The Classical Theory of Fields: Electromagnetism
946:Godai (Japanese philosophy) § Void (Aether)
1430:The Johns Hopkins University Press 2010. (155).
454:, is the material that fills the region of the
1853:Words and phrases derived from Greek mythology
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1522:Zlatev, I.; Wang, L.; Steinhardt, P. (1999).
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149:
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8:
880:'s first published theories of gravitation,
810:was proved that the nature of light wave is
1479:Dirac, Paul (1951). "Is there an Aether?".
1084:, p. 63, University of Toronto Press, 2007
883:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
508:means "pure, fresh air" or "clear sky". In
1131:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
655:A symbol for quintessence in the works of
391:
377:
29:
1539:
805:, in which light traveled in the form of
623:Medieval scholastic philosophers granted
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1000:
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32:
1781:The Esoteric Codex: Esoteric Cosmology
1680:"Bernoulli nell'Enciclopedia Treccani"
675:The symbol for aether in the works of
578:, who had been Plato's student at the
1848:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics
1759:from the original on 20 December 2016
1735:"Isaac Newton to Robert Boyle, 1679."
1698:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
1313:from the original on 20 December 2016
7:
603:, a word that Aristotle had used in
1367:The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy
25:
1054:Hobart, Michael E. (2018-04-16).
744:18th century physics developments
1778:Andrew Robishaw (9 April 2015).
434:, alternative spellings include
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1260:The Journal of Hellenic Studies
1384:, F. Sherwood Taylor, page 95.
1258:: A Critical Re-Examination".
1:
1597:Michelson, Albert A. (1881).
1202:. Routledge. pp. 25–26.
1044:Berlin, Springer 2012, p. 26.
1060:. Harvard University Press.
832:theory of special relativity
1646:American Journal of Physics
1603:American Journal of Science
1441:Gillispie, Charles Coulston
828:Michelson–Morley experiment
468:Michelson–Morley experiment
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1623:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120
1415:The Dictionary of Alchemy
1196:Fage, John (2013-10-23).
683:Quintessence (𝓠) is the
403:According to ancient and
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18:Ether (classical element)
1579:Whittaker, Edmund Taylor
1530:(Submitted manuscript).
1428:Reconfiguring the World.
1395:The book of Quintessence
984:interacts with the body.
710:The book of Quintessence
690:The testament of Lullius
1843:Mythological substances
1784:. Lulu.com. p. 6.
1528:Physical Review Letters
1151:A Greek–English Lexicon
769:fifth fundamental force
1332:Grant, Edward (1996).
873:
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838:Aether and gravitation
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1303:"Aristotle's Physics"
1168:Etymologicum Gudianum
1157:Etymologicum Genuinum
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851:De gravitate aetheris
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801:of light proposed by
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446:), also known as the
1828:Energy (esotericism)
1747:James DeMeo (2009).
1365:B.J.T. Dobbs (1983)
926:Energy (esotericism)
797:would influence the
478:Mythological origins
1658:1964AmJPh..32...16S
1615:1881AmJS...22..120M
1587:(1910), pp. 101-02.
1550:1999PhRvL..82..896Z
1493:1951Natur.168..906D
1199:A History of Africa
1183:Etymologicum Magnum
1148:in Liddell, Scott,
795:luminiferous aether
788:Johann II Bernoulli
781:Luminiferous aether
752:Maxwell's equations
726:philosopher's stone
659:. Also abbreviated
472:luminiferous aether
1838:History of science
1833:Esoteric cosmology
1823:Classical elements
1710:10.1007/BF00327261
1401:2015-09-24 at the
1301:George Smoot III.
1266:: 60–74, at p.62.
1038:Carl S. Helrich,
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807:longitudinal waves
803:Christiaan Huygens
748:special relativity
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661:⟨q̄⟩
649:
590:classical elements
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484:Aether (mythology)
460:terrestrial sphere
34:Classical elements
1737:28 February 1679.
1666:10.1119/1.1970063
1487:(4282): 906–907.
1343:978-0-521-56509-7
1067:978-0-674-98516-2
916:Celestial spheres
665:⟨ē⟩
617:celestial spheres
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878:Isaac Newton
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714:distillation
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657:Isaac Newton
639:Quintessence
629:Robert Fludd
624:
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613:
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452:quintessence
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1797:20 December
1763:20 December
1317:20 December
1112:January 16,
921:Dark matter
799:wave theory
761:dark energy
694:Ramon Llull
609:Meteorology
458:beyond the
44:Hellenistic
1812:Categories
1215:20 January
1090:0802088503
963:References
824:de Broglie
812:transverse
724:, and the
679:(ca. 1775)
597:philosophy
542:Ethiopians
488:See also:
1718:122494617
1652:(1): 16.
1631:130423116
1566:119073006
1369:, p. xiv.
1288:170926485
992:Citations
968:Footnotes
892:Principia
888:Principia
857:In 1682,
742:With the
576:Aristotle
546:Aethiopia
538:Aithiopes
494:The word
1757:Archived
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1399:Archived
1311:Archived
1179:"Αἰθίοψ"
1129:(1959).
1103:"AITHER"
1010:(1968),
904:See also
820:Einstein
728:itself.
685:Latinate
633:Plotinus
607:and the
490:Empyrean
474:exists.
456:universe
203:Japanese
90:Buddhism
82:Hinduism
1654:Bibcode
1611:Bibcode
1546:Bibcode
1509:4288946
1489:Bibcode
1307:lbl.gov
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1170:s.v.v.
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1133:, s.v.
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722:alchemy
718:elixirs
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1163:Αἰθίοψ
1146:Αἰθίοψ
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853:, 1683
732:Legacy
625:aether
601:aether
594:Ionian
544:; see
524:Erebus
520:Aether
502:aithḗr
464:vacuum
442:, and
440:aither
409:aether
309:Aether
238:Fire (
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106:Akasha
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1627:S2CID
1562:S2CID
1536:arXiv
1505:S2CID
1284:S2CID
1276:JSTOR
1233:Plato
1160:s.v.
951:Prana
886:(the
566:Plato
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285:Water
182:Earth
170:Metal
146:Water
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1338:ISBN
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1217:2015
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