256:, in the late 1664, no one's telescope was definitely declared as best performer. In 1665 the Grand Duke Ferdinand II and Prince Leopold acquired a number of Campani and new Divini telescopes and subjected them to tests of their own in astronomical observations. Sometimes no clear advantage accrued either to Campani or Divini, until in July a 50-palm Campani telescope made for Cardinal Borromeo resulted to be much better than all other telescopes of similar length. Divini did not take Campani's victory well, arguing a freak or bare luck. Both the antagonists proposed to the Accademia del Cimento an impartial test based on the manufacturing of the best objective lenses with given curvature starting from the same piece of glass divided in two parts. In this way their skills as lens-makers could have been assessed, but Prince Leopold did not act on the proposal: the dispute was over and Campani was the undisputed winner. Despite the undeniable merits of Divini's telescopes, it was just one of Campani's telescopes that won the day. Rather than this single defeat, they were mainly Cassini's discoveries that promoted the products by Campani, up to the end of the century. Divini, resigned to leave the top position of his art to the antagonist, wrote with pride in 1666: "my glasses have lost nothing in these
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most faithful representation of the planet in circulation, while congratulating him as "praestantissimus percillorum artifex", but he ascribed to Divini's – and criticized as intentional – the introduction of "arbitrary nonexistent shadows, darker than the sky, between the body of the planet and the "bent handles". Divini, who just wanted to represent the best that his telescopes permitted to see and not to solve astronomical queries, resented
Huygens' criticism. Also Divini had noticed in 1657 the satellite of Saturn, which previously he had considered a simple fixed star. Actually, the gap of the quality of his observations wasn't big (all the instruments of that age had a resolution not better than 10'’, as to say that Saturn's ring was indeed invisible to everybody. But perhaps, as it often happens in Science, it was the availability or the insight of a good theory to allow Huygens a better representation of the whole Saturn's system. Unfortunately Huygens's attitude offended Divini and provoked a series of attacks and retorts that led to mutual insults.
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to make all the arrangements and substitutions without notifying Divini beforehand. Then Divini arrived in the test place to find his telescope arranged on chairs and was not allowed to check the conditions of the lenses or to make any changes on it, while
Campani's telescope was beautifully mounted. Divini's telescope gave a worse performance of Campani's, but Divini, rather than making excuses, admitted that Campani's instrument was better than his and begged to be allowed to make the Cardinal a better telescope to replace the manifestly defective one. This easy victory and the humiliation of Divini initiated Campani to the success. The academy of Cimento and Prince Leopold was eager to know if Campani's telescopes were, indeed, better than those of Divini that had served them so well in Florence. So they inquired that the previous
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73:. In the early 1640s Divini practiced as a clock-maker. Subsequently, his good relationship and friendship with Torricelli led him to cultivate a shared interest, the construction of optical instruments, microscopes and telescopes and their improvement. Divini's factory of instruments was located in the area of Navona square in Rome, and it is very probable that quite a high number of artisans (mechanics, glassmakers, tanners etc.) where working under Divini's direction. Since 1646 to about mid-century his lenses and glasses spread all over Europe granting him the role of Italy's foremost optician.
153:. Eustachio Divini was one of the most relevant protagonists, against his will, of these contests. And he was the most honest of all competitors because of his fair and humble nature that prevented him to defraud the tests or to put forward mysterious (as much as sham) theoretical reasons, supposedly based on the laws of optics, to praise his lenses and instruments, as was done by more famous scientists. Divini was sponsor and promoter of himself, based on his expertise, innovation and messages of superior quality that his lenses directly communicated to their owners in all Europe.
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169:, the mysterious formation accompanying the planet, and reasoned that If that body had to rotate remaining attached to the planet in a few days, its appearance should have been changing shape more frequently than it did. He recognized the role of that fortuitous circumstance in permitting him to guess and declare – in 1659 – the real nature of the planet's ring. Nevertheless, while writing: "I perceive this ring very plainly with the eyes", he was underestimating the role of his insights and
188:(a powerful French Jesuit anti-Copernican who lived in Rome and was user-estimator of Divini's telescopes) to translate his defense of the effectiveness of his own telescopes. But Fabri imposed on Divini by making an issue out of Huygens' avowed Copernicanism, imagining a number of light and dark satellites moving behind the planet in tight formation, in such a way to reproduce the appearance of the anses. The academicians of Cimento in Florence were involved in the quarrel receiving the
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and
Jupiter. He deserved fame mainly for his use of micrometer eyepiece consisting in a grid of wires inserted in a biconvex eyepiece, thanks to which he could draw the moonspots in the exact position. A copy of that selenography was given later by Eustachio Divini to his hometown San Severino, his birth town he kept in touch continuously together with his brother Cipriano, a well-established painter in Rome.
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different places and times (autumn 1964), Campani moved a lamp closer to the sheet to be read, whose letters could be recognized also by insight as being made of known words and famous phrases. The
Accademia of Cimento devised better criteria, more similar to nowadays ophthalmic characters tables, but in the subsequent
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who first used Divini's telescopes when he was living in Rome). These discoveries had permitted previously to argue out the rotation of
Jupiter around its axis, whereas Divini was able to demonstrate the amateurs and astronomers community that his instruments were as effective as the ones made by his
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Divini's first publication was a print appeared in 1649 where he intended to document the possibilities offered by his telescopes. Indeed, at the centre he depicted a selenography derived from his observations of the full moon in March 1649, using two telescopes, and around the crescent Saturn, Venus
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in triggering astronomical research in all Europe. So it isn't a surprise that the prestigious
Science Academy of London dedicated to Divini with the inscription: "Divinus Eustachius De Sancto Severini, Insignis Mathematicus". The astronomers of the Accademia del Cimento substituted several Divini's
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of April, 30th 1664 Divini used a telescope manufactured by him with a very complex optical system and previously sold to the nephew of Pope
Alexander VII, Cardinal Flavio Chigi, for a very high price. Since Divini's instruments was in the possession of Cardinal Chigi, the Campani brothers were able
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Many types of telescopes of various lengths were owned by prominent secular and ecclesiastic authorities in Rome. Divini's reputation and earnings were obtained not only thanks to the manufacture of optical instruments, but also thanks to the frequenting of a circle of scholars of the Roman
College,
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In 1674 Eustachio Divini still lived in Rome, but at some time later he decided to return to live finally in San
Severino, preceded by Vincenzo (doctor until 1670) and Cipriano, charged for important public office. He had a considerable wealth, saved during his career. This is demonstrated by Saint
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objectives for
Torricelli's lenses, obtaining a perfect combination with Divini's convex oculars and composed eyepieces. Recent tests and analysis of telescopes conserved in Florence Science Museum confirm these changes on Divini's telescopes and the better quality of Torricelli's objective lenses.
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The tardy back out of Fabri, who communicated to Huygens the untenableness of his theory in 1664–1665, was not at all enough to recovery Divini's reputation, severely tarnished by this episode, even because Fabri subtly justified his withdrawal to the better quality of the most recent observations
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Prince Leopold, a skilled astronomer, knew that the question of telescopes was disjointed from the theoretical one, and he was yet perfectly acquainted with Divini's telescopes quality. In fact in 1660 he had viewed Saturn's shadow on its ring with a telescope made by Divini, a result that Huygens
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So Huygens, in his memorial dedicated to Prince Leopold of Medici, suggested that the previous wrong interpretations as "opposite bodies" or "handle like formations" of Saturn ring were due to the inferior quality of the instruments. In the same opera Huygens attributed to Divini's silkscreen the
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in Rome was unfair and commanded specially designed experiments based on the reading of texts at a distance. The first of these does not permitted to establish the winner because the competitors used different telescopes; as Campani refuted to do the experiment in Florence, the test was done in
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Lorenzo's pastor that registered Divini's death on 22 February 1685 dedicating an unusual space quoting details of the notorial act of Divini's donation. Eustachio Divini was buried in the second left chapel of San Domenico Church, close to a famous ancestor of him, the inlayer and woodcarver
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In the meanwhile Prince Leopold had built models of both hypotheses by Fabri's and Huygens' and had the academicians of Cimento observed them lighted from a distance, to decide which one was more adequate to explain Saturn's appearances. After this interesting early application of the
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later on). The Dutch astronomer, discovered it in 1655 using his own telescopes, then followed its movements for months, seeing the satellite make a complete revolution of Saturn "arms" every sixteen days. During those months he recognized also phases of different width in the
260:, in fact after the contest and even today I have new orders from Florence" (from letter to C. A. Manzini). There are also witnesses that as late as in 1671 lenses were commissioned to both Campani and Divini from the great Observatoire de Paris, directed by Cassini.
177:. We can interpret Huygens' worry to attribute his discovery to a visual fact as a sort of pre-defensive attitude, demonstrating that any change of the heavens based on the strongest logical reason, was still hampered by the Inquisition in that post-Galilean age.
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His brother Vincenzo, who frequented the literary and scientific circle in Rome, incited him to follow the lessons of monk Benedetto Castelli, disciple of Galilei. So Eustachio began his new fertile formative experience with people of his same generation such as
230:, in an ironic play, with two hundred scudi bet to the challenger. Huygens, after receiving from Leopold a print copy of that second reply, rejoiced in his victory over Fabri not responding to this challenge either, being sickened by both Divini and Fabri.
226:, signed again by Divini, where Fabri was yet reinforcing his hypothesis of multiple satellites (Saturn's companions), claiming that he and Divini could not help seeing Saturn surrounded by a ring, while Divini was suggesting a
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looked after him and his basic education before moving to Rome. At that time Divini was initiated into the military career but after a severe disease in 1629 he had to give up. After that he joined again his brothers.
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The Technical Institute of San Severino Marche was named after the famous scientist Eustachio Divini in 1983, on the occasion of renewed historical studies on his scientific and technological development.
553:"lettera di Eustachio Diuini intorno alle macchie nuouamente scoperte nel mese di luglio 1665 nel pianeta di Gioue con suoi cannocchiali, all'illustrissimo a Carlo Antonio Manzini 1666", free search in
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The same academy of Cimento in Florence was involved in another disputation to compare Divini's and Campani's instruments in 1664. First tests were not favourable to either of them, notwithstanding the
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It was around the middle of seventeenth century, after the development of telescope handicraft initiated by Galilei, Francini, Fontana, Torricelli and others, that direct comparisons of telescopes –
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would have been looking for a long time yet. So he proposed Huygens to submit his better telescope to a test in Holland, while the same test would be done in Italy to Divini's better telescope.
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in Florence bought many Divini's telescopes and was not only a test bench for him, but also a spreading engine for the notoriety of the optician, because of the role of the associated
219:, Huygens' ring hypothesis was decidedly preferred, as Leopold communicated to Huygens in the late 1660 (even if this decision remained unpublished to avoid diplomatic troubles).
43:, from the illustrious Divini's family. At the age of 4 his mother, Virginia Saracini, died and 7 years later his father, Tardozzo Divini, also died, so his brothers Vincenzo and
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Eustachio Divini re-discovered the spot, the satellites shadows and the changing shape belt upon Jupiter in 1665, with his telescopes (after the famous astronomer
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Lettera all'ill.mo sig. conte Carl'Antonio Manzini. Si ragguaglia di un nuovo lauoro e componimento di lenti, che servono a occhialoni, o semplici, o composti
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211:, once again addressed to the Prince Leopold diminishing both his opponents, and humiliating Divini with the name of "vitrarius artifex" (glassworker).
93:'s artisan, this group produced new working methods and new optical systems. These discoveries were published and spread all over Europe. The Court of
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Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes, Vol. III. Correspondence, n. 862, June, 1st 1661, from Leopoldo de Medicis to Christiaan Huygens
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19:(4 October 1610 – 22 February 1685) was an Italian manufacturer and experimenter of optical instruments for scientific use in Rome.
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had been carefully arranged by Matteo and Giuseppe Campani brothers to put Divini at as much of a disadvantage as possible. In the
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Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes, Vol. III. Correspondence, n. 730, March, 16th 1660, from Carlo Dati to Nicolas Heinsius
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Eustachius de Diuinis Septempedanus pro sua annotatione in Systema Saturnium Christiani Hugenii aduersus eiusdem assertionem
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Eustachius de Diuinis Septempedanus pro sua annotatione in Systema Saturnium Christiani Hugenii aduersus eiusdem assertionem
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Then, in spite of Prince Leopold's suggestion to desist, Divini and Fabri counter-replied printing a new booklet in 1661,
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where the astronomical research and the quality of the instruments of observation were both important. Differently from
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Albert Van Helden, Saturn and his Anses, in Journal for the History of Astronomy, V, 1974, pag. 130, pag. 151
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Albert Van Helden, Catalogue of early telescopes, Istituto e museo di storia della scienza (Italy), 1999.
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Fabri Honoré; Eustachii de Diuinis Brevis annotatio in systema Saturnium Christiani Hugenii, 1660
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Divini's reputation as the best European maker of telescopes begun to be superseded in 1656, when
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Huygens did not comply, but, in September 1660, after receiving a full copy of Divini's booklet
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Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes, Vol. III. Correspondence, n. 783, September, 30th 1660,
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Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres Complètes, Vol. III. Correspondence, n. 769, August, 13th 1660,
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533:, L'invenzione del microscopio, in "Rivista Ciba", n. 27, December 1950, Milan, pp. 870–871
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history of microscope technology, by Institute and Museum of History of Science, Florence
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145:– became regular and exciting events in the Italian world of science, also hailed by the
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Pro sua Annotatione in Systema Saturnium Christiani Hugenii Adversus Ejusdem Assertionem
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Pro sua Annotatione in Systema Saturnium Christiani Hugenii adversus ejusdem Assertionem
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that was living in Rome in contact with Fabri – that Divini was preparing an offensive.
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Breuis assertio systematis Saturnii sui ad serenissimvm principem Leopoldum ab Hetruria
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Breuis assertio systematis Saturnii sui ad serenissimvm principem Leopoldum ab Hetruria
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signed only by Divini. Huygens promptly replied as soon as he became aware – thanks to
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Divini's contributes to microscope optics and mechanics, shared with Campani brothers (
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in Science History Publications Ltd, provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
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Divini and Campani: a forgotten chapter in the history of the Accademia del Cimento
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The content of this article is partially translated and adapted from the essay of
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117:), are unquestionable. He designed, among the others, coupled lenses to reduce
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announced the discovery of a "moon" of Saturn (the satellite that was called
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Court Scientists, Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence
341:. Download from the Institute and Museum of History of Science, Florence:
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La Forma del Pianeta Saturno in un'Esperienza dell'Accademia del Cimento
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in his discovery of red blood cells flowing in capillaries around 1660.
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with Campani's telescopes, the next rising star in lenses manufacture.
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Divini's paper on Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society, 1668
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download Latin original text searching for Divini in IMSS Florence
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rivals, Campani brothers, manufacturer of telescopes for Cassini.
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21:
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Experiment and Natural Philosophy in Seventheeth Century Tuscany
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in Florence, one of the earliest societies dedicated to the
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Divini at Federico II de Medici court (M. Piervittori 1884)
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Brevis annotatio in systema Saturnium Christiani Eugenii
361:"Annulo Cingitur" The Solution of the Problem of Saturn
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Divini's contribution to limiting chromatic aberration
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concezione della matematica e segreto degli occhiali
486:enlarged image of Divini's most famous achievement
184:As Divini was unable to write in Latin, he asked
437:with the contribute of students and teachers of
323:(in Italian). Roma: Giacomo Dragondelli. 1663.
459:Il Cielo sopra Roma: I Luoghi dell'astronomia
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396:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
313:(in Latin). Roma: Giacomo Dragondelli. 1661.
303:(in Latin). Roma: Giacomo Dragondelli. 1660.
855:Memorie Storiche di S.ta Maria del Glorioso
584:Paolo Galluzzi, "Evangelista Torricelli:
39:Eustachio was born on 4 October 1610 in
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371:Gli astronomi romani e i loro strumenti
843:from IMSS Digital Collection, Florence
173:for the interpretation of what he had
30:by Carlo Antonio Manzini, Bologna 1660
190:Brevis annotatio in Systema Saturnium
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906:People from the Province of Macerata
837:Eustachius de Divinis Septempedanus
707:from Huygens to Leopoldo de Medicis
692:from Huygens to Leopoldo de Medicis
574:Go to: The Comparison of Telescopes
209:Brevis Assertio Systematis Saturnii
601:Saturn's Ring in Systema Saturnium
14:
507:Description of a new Microscope
26:Portrait of Eustachio Divini in
891:17th-century Italian scientists
448:in San Severino Marche, Italy.
1:
428:Biography of Eustachio Divini
207:, published a complete reply,
663:Analysing Early Observations
599:"Huygens' paper of 1659 on
335:Maria Luisa Righini Bonelli
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841:Dragondelli ed. Rome 1661
873:Works by Eustachio Divini
130:Giovanni Domenico Cassini
543:Divini's Vase microscope
63:Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
444:31 January 2017 at the
393:Hockey, Thomas (2009).
337:and Albert Van Helden,
137:Challenges and disputes
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59:Evangelista Torricelli
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779:preview pages 207–217
425:Gualberto Piangatelli
369:Antonella del Prete,
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147:Accademia del Cimento
99:Accademia del Cimento
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67:Bonaventura Cavalieri
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791:"Gianfranco Anzini:
757:Christiani Hugenii;
741:Christiani Hugenii;
649:29 June 2012 at the
560:29 June 2012 at the
433:23 July 2011 at the
348:29 June 2012 at the
264:Back to San Severino
119:chromatic aberration
773:Luciano Boschiero,
401:Springer Publishing
359:Albert Van Helden,
343:library search page
217:experimental method
151:experimental method
41:San Severino Marche
609:on 1 December 2008
457:Roberto Buonanno:
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158:Christiaan Huygens
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71:Michelangelo Ricci
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853:Giuseppe Ranaldi
677:Opera Astronomica
630:Systema Saturnium
410:978-0-387-31022-0
271:Domenico Indivini
28:Dioptrica Pratica
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248:
243:
239:
236:
232:
227:
223:
221:
213:
208:
204:
202:
198:
189:
186:Honoré Fabri
183:
179:
174:
170:
166:
155:
142:
140:
127:
108:
104:
83:
55:
38:
27:
16:
15:
901:1685 deaths
896:1610 births
777:, Springer
356:afterwards.
35:The origins
885:Categories
795:, Italian"
329:References
628:Huygens'
475:(preview)
374:(Italian)
763:pag. 627
747:pag. 619
710:pag. 152
695:pag. 127
680:pag. 597
647:Archived
558:Archived
442:Archived
431:Archived
346:Archived
258:paragoni
254:paragoni
249:paragone
244:paragone
240:paragoni
228:paragone
143:paragoni
123:Malpighi
111:Giuseppe
87:Francini
45:Cipriano
859:pag. 51
857:, 1837
827:pag.298
463:pag. 17
91:Galilei
811:2 July
731:pag.63
632:, 1659
613:6 July
407:
292:, 1661
115:Matteo
95:Medici
805:(PDF)
798:(PDF)
380:Notes
281:Works
167:anses
162:Titan
813:2013
615:2009
405:ISBN
175:seen
113:and
69:and
875:at
887::
675:In
403:.
399:.
352:,
89:,
65:,
61:,
815:.
617:.
603:"
413:.
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