Monogamy in animals - Knowledge (XXG)

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that the goby will have multiple monogamous relationships throughout its life – but only be in one relationship at a time. The red-backed salamander exhibited signs of social monogamy, which is the idea that animals form pairs to mate and raise offspring, but still will partake in extra pair copulation with various males or females in order to increase their biological fitness. This is a relatively new concept in salamanders, and has not been seen frequently – it is also concerning that the act of monogamy may inhibit the salamanders reproductive rates and biological success. However, the study which was conducted in cooperation by the University of Louisiana, Lafayette, and the University of Virginia showed that the salamanders are not inhibited by this monogamy if they show alternative strategies with other mates.

162:. Extra pair coupling refers to male and females mating with several mates but only raising offspring with one mate. The male may not be related to all of the offspring of his main mate, but some offspring are being raised in other broods by other males and females, thereby offsetting any limitation of monogamy. Males are cuckolds, but because they have other female sexual partners, they cuckold other males and increase their own fitness. Males exhibit parental care habits in order to be an acceptable mate to the female. Any males that do not exhibit parental care would not be accepted as a sexual partner for socially monogamous females in an enforcement pattern. 228:

monogamous species sexual conflict is thought to be lessened, and typically little to no sexual dimorphism is noted as there is less ornamentation and armor. This is because there is a relaxation of sexual selection. This may have something to do with a feedback loop caused by a low population density. If sexual selection is too strenuous in a population where there is a low density the population will shrink. In the continuing generations sexual selection will become less and less relevant as mating becomes more random. A similar feedback loop is thought to occur for the sperm quality in genetically monogamous pairs.

461:. This hormone is released when a male mates and cares for young. Due to this hormone's rewarding effects, the male experiences a positive feeling when they maintain a monogamous relationship. To further test this theory, the receptors that control vasopressin were placed into another species of vole that is promiscuous. After this addition, the originally unfaithful voles became monogamous with their selected partner. These very same receptors can be found in human brain, and have been found to vary at the individual level—which could explain why some human males tend to be more loyal than others. 71:, a monogamous pair will care for eggs and young together, but the eggs may not all be fertilized by the male giving the care. Monogamy in mammals is rather rare, only occurring in 3–9% of these species. A larger percentage of avian species are known to have monogamous relationships (about 90%), but most avian species practice social but not genetic monogamy in contrast to what was previously assumed by researchers. Monogamy is quite rare in fish and amphibians, but not unheard of, appearing in a select few species. 249:

monogamous species has a higher variation and lower quality sperm have been noted in several species. The lack of sperm competition is not advantageous for sperm quality. An example of this is in the Eurasian bullfinch which exhibits relaxed selection and sperm competition. The sperm of these males have a lower velocity than other closely related but polygamous passerine bird species and the amount of abnormalities in sperm structure, length, and count when compared to similar bird families is increased.

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in choosing mates. Monogamy is suggested to limit fitness differences, as males and females will mate in pairs. This would seem to be non-beneficial to males, but may not be in all cases. Several behaviors and ecological concerns may have led to the evolution of monogamy as a relevant mating strategy. Partner and resource availability, enforcement, mate assistance, and territory defense may be some of the most prevalent factors affecting animal behavior.

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searching for another mate. The monogamous behavior allows the male to have a mate consistently, without having to waste energy searching for other females. Furthermore, there is an apparent connection between the time a male invests in their offspring and their monogamous behavior. A male which is required to care for the offspring to ensure their survival is much more likely to exhibit monogamous behavior over one that does not.

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is not seen in all species, such as some primates, in which the female may be more dominant than the male and may not need help to avoid unwanted mating; the pair may still benefit from some form of mate assistance, however, and therefore monogamy may be enforced to ensure the assistance of males. Bi-parental care is not seen in all monogamous species, however, so this may not be the only cause of female enforcement.

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there is less of a chance for a given male to find multiple females to mate with. In such a case, it becomes more advantageous for a male to remain with a female, rather than seeking out another and risking (a) not finding another female and or (b) not being able to fight off another male from interfering with his offspring by mating with the female or through

84:. Social monogamy has been shown to increase fitness in prairie voles. It has been shown that female prairie voles live longer when paired with males in a social monogamous relationship. This could be because of the shared energy expenditure by the males and females lower each individual's input. In largemouth bass, females are sometimes seen to exhibit 379: 241:

number of unsuccessful sperm which will cost a certain level of expenditure on energy without a benefit from the individual sperm. Sperm in polygamous sexual encounters have evolved for size, speed, structure, and quantity. This competition causes selection for competitive traits which can be pre or post copulatory. In species where

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his own fitness by seeing that his offspring live long enough to reproduce. If the male is not present in these populations, the survivorship of the offspring is drastically lowered and there is a lowering in male fitness. Without monogamy, bi-parental care is less common and there is an increased chance of

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often reflect mating systems. In species with promiscuous mating systems, where many males mate with many females, the testes tend to be relatively large. This appears to be the result of sperm competition. Males with large testes produce more sperm and thereby gain an advantage impregnating females.

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Humans may have been partially unique in that selection pressures for sexual dimorphism might have been related to the new niches that humans were entering at the time, and how that might have interacted with potential early cultures and tool use. If these early humans had a differentiation of gender

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refers to differences in body characteristics between females and males. A frequently studied type of sexual dimorphism is body size. For example, among mammals, males typically have larger bodies than females. In other orders, however, females have larger bodies than males. Sexual dimorphism in body

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In genetically monogamous species it can be expected that sperm competition is absent or otherwise severely limited. There is no selection for the highest quality sperm amongst the sperm of multiple males, and copulation is more random than it is in polygamous situations. Therefore, sperm quality for

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Sexual dimorphism denotes the differences in males and females of the same species. Even in animals with seemingly no morphological sexual dimorphism visible there is still dimorphism in the gametes. Among mammals, males have the smaller gametes and females have the larger gametes. As soon as the two

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Bi-parental care may occur when there is a lower chance of survival of the offspring without male care. The evolution of this care has been associated with energetically expensive offspring. Bi-parental care is exhibited in many avian species. In these cases, the male has a greater chance to increase

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The introduction of anisogamy has caused males and females to tend to have different optimal mating strategies. This is because males may increase their fitness by mating with many females, whereas females are limited by their own fecundity. Females are therefore typically more likely to be selective

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behavior by laying some of their eggs in another female's nest, thus "stealing" fertilizations from other females. Sexual conflicts that have been proposed to arise from social monogamy include infidelity and parental investment. The proposed conflict is derived from the conflict-centric differential

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and female choice. In polygamous species there is a noted sexual dimorphism. The sexual dimorphism is seen typically in sexual signaling aspects of morphology. Males typically exhibit these dimorphic traits and they are typically traits which help in signaling to females or male male competition. In

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Male care for offspring is rather rare in some taxa of species. This is because males may increase their fitness by searching for multiple mates. Females are limited in fitness by their fecundity, so multiple mating does not affect their fitness to the same extent. Males have the opportunity to find

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is not monogamous at all and often partakes in promiscuous behavior. The two species are quite similar in ecology, but American beavers tend to be less aggressive than European beavers. In this instance, the scarcity of the European beavers' population could drive its monogamous behavior; moreover,

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are another species that proved to be monogamous. In an 18-year study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania, these monkeys proved to be entirely monogamous, exhibiting no genetic information or visual information that could lead to the assumption that extra pair copulation was occurring. This

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The selection factors in favor of different mating strategies for a species of animal, however, may potentially operate on a large number of factors throughout that animal's life cycle. For instance, with many species of bear, the female will often drive a male off soon after mating, and will later

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species, males compete for control over sexual access to females. Large males have an advantage in the competition for access to females, and they consequently pass their genes along to a greater number of offspring. This eventually leads to large differences in body size between females and males.

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In species where mate guarding is not needed, there may still be a need for the pair to protect each other. An example of this would be sentinel behavior in avian species. The main advantage of sentinel behavior is that many survival tactics are improved. As stated, the male or female will act as a

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Monogamous mating may also be caused simply by enforcement through tactics such as mate guarding. In these species, the males will prevent other males from copulating with their chosen female or vice versa. Males will help to fend off other aggressive males, and keep their mate for themselves. This

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First introduced by Kleiman, facultative monogamy occurs when females are widely dispersed. This can either occur because females in a species tend to be solitary or because the distribution of resources available cause females to thrive when separated into distinct territories. In these instances,

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and reproduce with only each other. Monogamy may either be short-term, lasting one to a few seasons or long-term, lasting many seasons and in extreme cases, life-long. Monogamy can be partitioned into two categories, social monogamy and genetic monogamy which may occur together in some combination,

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practice monogamy as well. However, the male Caribbean cleaner goby fish has been found to separate from the female suddenly, leaving her abandoned. In a study conducted by Oregon State University, it was found that this fish practices not true monogamy, but serial monogamy. This essentially means

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also stay together to care for their young. This is due to the harshness of the Antarctic weather, predators and the scarcity of food. One parent will protect the chick, while the other finds food. However, these penguins only remain monogamous until the chick is able to go off on their own. After

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in the very least. Sperm competition is defined as a post copulatory mode of sexual selection which causes the diversity of sperm across species. As soon as sperm and egg are the predominant mating types there is an increase in the need for the male gametes. This is because there will be a large

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Kleiman also offered a second theory. In obligate monogamy, the driving force behind monogamy is a greater need for paternal investment. This theory assumes that without biparental care fitness level of offspring would be greatly reduced. This paternal care may or may not be equal to that of the

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are a socially monogamous bird species that usually only have one mate throughout their lives, much like the prairie vole. The female will close herself up in a nest cavity, sealed with a nest plug, for two months. At this time, she will lay eggs and will be cared for by her mate. The males are

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In species where the young are particularly vulnerable and may benefit from protection by both parents, monogamy may be an optimal strategy. Monogamy tends to also occur when populations are small and dispersed. This is not conductive to polygamous behavior as the male would spend far more time

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Studies of sexual dimorphism raise the possibility that early human ancestors were polygamous rather than monogamous. But this line of research remains highly controversial. It may be that early human ancestors showed little sexual dimorphism, and it may be that sexual dimorphism in early human

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is a form of sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of two unequally-sized gametes. In many animals, there are two sexes: the male, in which the gamete is small, motile, usually plentiful, and less energetically expensive, and the female, in which the gamete is larger, more energetically

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Monogamy as a mating system in animals has been thought to lower levels of some pre and post copulatory competition methods. Because of this reduction in competition in some instances the regulation of certain morphological characteristics may be lowered. This would result in a vast variety of

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With resource availability limited, mating with multiple mates may be harder because the density of individuals is lowered. The habitat cannot sustain multiple mates, so monogamy may be more prevalent. This is because resources may be found more easily for the pair than for the individual. The

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This list is not complete. Other factors may also contribute to the evolution of social monogamy. Moreover, different sets of factors may explain the evolution of social monogamy in different species. There is no one-size-fits-all explanation of why different species evolved monogamous mating

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In some species, genetic monogamy has been enforced. Female voles have shown no difference in fecundity with genetic monogamy, but it may be enforced by males in some instances. Mate guarding is a typical tactic in monogamous species. It is present in many animal species and can sometimes be

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Social monogamy refers to the cohabitation of one male and one female. The two individuals may cooperate in search of resources such as food and shelter and/or in caring for young. Paternal care in monogamous species is commonly displayed through carrying, feeding, defending, and socializing

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Polygynous males are often 1.5 to 2.0 times larger in size than females. In monogamous species, on the other hand, females and males have more equal access to mates, so there is little or no sexual dimorphism in body size. From a new biological point of view, monogamy could result from

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explained the question as to why the male owl monkey invested so much time in protecting and raising their own offspring. Because monogamy is often referred to as "placing all your eggs in one basket" the male wants to ensure his young survive, and thus pass on his genes.

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guard her cubs from him. It is thought that this may be due to the fact that too many bears close to one another may deplete the food available to the relatively small but growing cubs. Monogamy may be social but rarely genetic. For example, in the cichlid species

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stay together as it is more beneficial for their young to be taken care of by both parents. They take turns incubating the eggs, and then supplying their fledglings with food. Black vultures will also attack other vultures that are participating in

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a new mate earlier than females when there is internal fertilization or the females exhibit the majority of the care for the offspring. When males are shown to care for offspring as well as females, it is referred to as bi-parental care.

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Related to paternal care, some researchers have argued that infanticide is the true cause of monogamy. This theory has not garnered much support, however, critiqued by several authors including Lukas and Clutton-Brock and Dixson.

354:, other studies have shown the relationship between sexual dimorphism and mating system is unreliable. Some polygamous species show little or no sexual dimorphism. Some monogamous species show a large amount of sexual dimorphism. 456:

will mate exclusively with the first female he ever mates with. The vole is extremely loyal and will go as far as to even attack other females that may approach him. This type of behavior has been linked to the hormone

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Genetic monogamy refers to a mating system in which fidelity of the bonding pair is exhibited. Though individual pairs may be genetically monogamous, no one species has been identified as fully genetically monogamous.

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Sefc, Kristina M.; Mattersdorfer, Karin; Sturmbauer, Christian; Koblmüller, Stephan (2008). "High Frequency of Multiple Paternity in Broods of a Socially Monogamous Cichlid Fish with Biparental Nest Defence".

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In polygynous species, where one male controls sexual access to females, the testes tend to be small. One male defends exclusive sexual access to a group of females and thereby eliminates sperm competition.

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Sefc, Kristina M.; Karin Mattersdorfer; Christian Sturmbauer; Stephan Koblmüller (2008). "High Frequency of Multiple Paternity in Broods of a Socially Monogamous Cichlid Fish with Biparental Nest Defence".

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0.5 to 2 million years ago. This line of reasoning suggests human ancestors started out polygamous and began the transition to monogamy somewhere between 0.5 million and 2 million years ago.

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are quite fragmentary. This makes it difficult to identify the sex of the fossils. Researchers sometimes identify the sex of the fossils by their size, which, of course, can exaggerate findings of sexual

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offspring. With social monogamy there may not be an expected sexual fidelity between the males and the females. The existence of purely social monogamy is a polygamous or polyandrous social pair with

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With increased resource availability, males may be offsetting the restriction of their fitness through several means. In instances of social monogamy, males may offset any lowered fitness through

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is mostly monogamous as well. Male size is the determining factor in fights over a female, with the larger male emerging as the winner since their size signifies success in future offspring.

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Some researchers have attempted to infer the evolution of human mating systems from the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Several studies have reported a large amount of sexual dimorphism in

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Avise, J. C., Liu, J.-X., & Avise1, J. C. (2010). Multiple mating and its relationship to alternative modes of gestation in male-pregnant versus female-pregnant fish species. Source:

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of mating systems in animals has received an enormous amount of attention from biologists. This section briefly reviews three main findings about the evolution of monogamy in animals.

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it lowers the risk of parasite transmission which is correlated with biological fitness. Monogamy is proving to be very efficient for this beaver, as their population is climbing.

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Monogamy is defined as a pair bond between two adult animals of the same species. This pair may cohabitate in an area or territory for some duration of time, and in some cases may

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sexes emerge the dimorphism in the gamete structures and sizes may lead to further dimorphism in the species. Sexual dimorphism is often caused through evolution in response to

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willing to work to support himself, his mate, and his offspring in order for survival; however, unlike the emperor penguin, the hornbills do not find new partners each season.

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Harding, J. A.; Almany, G. R.; Houck, L. D.; Hixon, M. A. (2003). "Regular Articles: Experimental analysis of monogamy in the Caribbean cleaner goby, Gobiosoma evelynae".

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The amount of social monogamy in animals varies across taxa, with over 90% of birds engaging in social monogamy while only 3–9% of mammals are known to do the same.

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is one of the main sources of competition females are able to choose sperm from among various male suitors. Typically the sperm of the highest quality are selected.

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Arsuaga, J.L.; Carretero, J.M.; Lorenzo, C.; Gracia, A.; Martínez, I.; de Castro, Bermúdez; Carbonell, E. (1997). "Size variation in Middle Pleistocene humans".

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argument for resource availability has been shown in many species, but in several species, once resource availability increases, monogamy is still apparent.

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Winslow, J.T.; Hastings, N; Carter, C.S.; Harbaugh, C.R.; Insel, T.R. (1993). "A role for central vasopressin in pair bonding in monogamous prairie voles".

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Simmons, L.W.; Firman, R.E.C.; Rhodes, G.; Peters, M. (2004). "Human sperm competition: testis size, sperm production and rates of extrapair copulations".

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had a polygamous mating system. Sexual dimorphism then began to decrease. Studies suggest sexual dimorphism reached modern human levels around the time of

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Stanback, M.; Richardson, D. S.; Boix-Hinzen, C.; Mendelsohn, J. (2002). "Regular Articles: Genetic monogamy in Monteiro's hornbill, Tockus monteiri".

2133: 417:, have moderately sized testes. The moderate amounts of sexual non-monogamy in humans may result in a low to moderate amount of sperm competition. 4445: 4339: 3794: 2150:

Lockwood, C.A.; Richmond, B.G.; Jungers, W.L.; Kimbel, W.H. (1996). "Randomization procedures and sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis".

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roles, with men hunting and women gathering, selection pressures in favor of increased size may have been distributed unequally between the sexes.

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Sundin, Josefin. The evolution of animal mating systems. Department of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, 2009.

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sentinel and signal to their mate if a predator is present. This can lead to an increase in survivorship, foraging, and incubation of eggs.

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Dunn, P.O.; Whittingham, L.A.; Pitcher, T.E. (2001). "Mating systems, sperm competition, and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in birds".

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the chick no longer needs their care, approximately 85% of parents will part ways and typically find a new partner every breeding season.

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While the evolution of monogamy in animals cannot be broadly ascertained, there are several theories as to how monogamy may have evolved.

1914: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4185: 3105: 536:. This beaver is particularly interesting, as it is practicing monogamy in its reintroduction to certain parts of Europe; however, its 3847: 3507: 205:. Infanticide with monogamous pairing would lead to a lowered fitness for socially monogamous males and is not seen to a wide extent. 2281:"Equality for the sexes in human evolution? Early hominid sexual dimorphism and implications for mating systems and social behavior" 2118: 1486: 1505: 236:

Once anisogamy has emerged in a species due to gamete dimorphism there is an inherent level of competition. This could be seen as

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Harcourt, A.H.; Harvey, P.H.; Larson, S.G.; Short, R.V. (1981). "Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates".

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Syruckova, A (2015). "Genetic relationships within colonies suggest genetic monogamy in the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber)".

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had the same amount of sexual dimorphism as modern humans. This raises questions about the amount of sexual dimorphism in

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Gillette, J. R.; Jaeger, R. G.; Peterson, M. G. (2000). "Regular Article: Social monogamy in a territorial salamander".

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Seddon, N.; Botero, C. A.; Tobias, J. A.; Dunn, P. O.; MacGregor, H. E. A.; Rubenstein, D. R.; Safran, R. J. (2013).

1180:"Genetic Monogamy and Biparental Care in an Externally Fertilizing Fish, the Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides)" 143:. In these situations, male-to-male competition is reduced and female choice is limited. The end result is that the 4679: 4674: 4063: 3237: 592: 5221: 4985: 4970: 3857: 3654: 3464: 3232: 3125: 2084: 147:

is more random than in a more dense population, which has a number of effects including limiting dimorphism and

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Attempts to infer the evolution of monogamy based on sexual dimorphism remain controversial for three reasons:

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Alcock, J. (2009). Animal behavior: An evolutionary approach (9th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.

2612:"Animal Attraction: The Many Forms of Monogamy in the Animal Kingdom | NSF - National Science Foundation" 2978: 436:, a monogamous pair will care for their eggs and young but the eggs are not all fertilized by the same male. 5236: 4706: 4417: 4409: 4285: 4215: 4124: 3852: 3734: 3502: 3098: 555: 499: 432: 67: 5002: 4647: 4625: 4558: 4548: 4543: 4324: 3973: 3914: 3842: 3804: 3705: 3676: 3649: 3644: 3242: 3066:

World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective

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It is relatively uncommon to find monogamous relationships in fish, amphibians and reptiles; however, the

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expressed in lieu of parental care by males. This may be for many reasons, including paternity assurance.

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Herr, J.; Rosell, F. (2004). "Use of space and movement patterns in monogamous adult Eurasian beavers".

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allocation hypothesis, which states that there is a tradeoff between investment and attractiveness.

5052: 4590: 4467: 4457: 4440: 4430: 4302: 4260: 4210: 4129: 3977: 3969: 3879: 3825: 3759: 3669: 3422: 3365: 3227: 3210: 3188: 2040: 4363: 2791:"Correlates of genetic monogamy in socially monogamous mammals: Insights from Azara's owl monkeys" 4657: 4521: 4462: 4275: 4227: 4220: 3817: 3729: 3590: 3551: 3375: 3319: 3309: 3269: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3091: 2879: 2771: 2728: 2693: 2658: 2581: 2514: 2427:"Sexual selection and the comparative anatomy of reproduction in monkeys, apes, and human beings" 2404: 2369: 2096: 2053: 1696: 1509: 1063: 1018: 967: 917: 794: 736: 681: 508: 122:

expensive, made at a lower rate, and largely immobile. Anisogamy is thought to have evolved from

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Geary, D.C.; Flinn, M.V. (2001). "Evolution of human parental behavior and the human family".

1929: 1895: 1846: 1797: 1748: 1688: 1636: 1582: 1467: 1386: 1345: 1281: 1209: 1129: 1010: 959: 909: 786: 728: 673: 305:, an evolutionary ancestor of human beings that lived between 2 and 5 million years ago. 276: 237: 5037: 4857: 4686: 4620: 4531: 4425: 3909: 3476: 3454: 3262: 3060: 3038: 2913: 2863: 2810: 2802: 2755: 2720: 2685: 2650: 2565: 2498: 2438: 2396: 2351: 2310: 2300: 2251: 2241: 2194: 2167: 2080: 2045: 2003: 1885: 1877: 1836: 1828: 1817:"Cryptic female choice favours sperm from major histocompatibility complex-dissimilar males" 1787: 1779: 1738: 1730: 1678: 1626: 1618: 1572: 1562: 1501: 1457: 1447: 1376: 1335: 1327: 1271: 1263: 1199: 1191: 1119: 1109: 1055: 1002: 951: 937:"A key ecological trait drove the evolution of biparental care and monogamy in an amphibian" 901: 778: 720: 665: 636:

Social but not genetic monogamy is associated with greater breeding success in prairie voles

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This article is about pairing for animals in non-human species. For monogamy in humans, see

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There are species which have adopted monogamy with great success. For instance, the male

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morphological and physiological differences such as sexual dimorphism and sperm quality.

2899:"Canid reproductive biology: an integration of proximate mechanisms and ultimate causes" 2859: 2561: 2494: 2296: 2237: 2163: 1558: 1443: 1259: 998: 774: 661: 472:, this is an attempt to increase monogamy and decrease promiscuous behavior. Similarly, 405:, which have a promiscuous mating system, have large testes compared to other primates. 5111: 4110: 3982: 3284: 3279: 3217: 3195: 2839: 2815: 2790: 1890: 1865: 1841: 1816: 1792: 1767: 1743: 1718: 1631: 1606: 1577: 1542: 1462: 1340: 1315: 1276: 1243: 1204: 1179: 1124: 1097: 368: 2315: 2280: 2256: 2222:"Sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis was similar to that of modern humans" 2221: 440:

argued that monogamy should result from conflict of interest between the sexes called

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Dewoody, J. A.; Fletcher, D. E.; Wilkins, S. D.; Nelson, W. S.; Avise, J. C. (2000).

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(2016). 516:Other monogamous species include 491:as well as the Caribbean cleaner 415:socially monogamous mating system 209:Consequences of monogamous mating 40:refers to the natural history of 4362: 4353: 4352: 2570:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03763.x 2357:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00874.x 1184:Proceedings: Biological Sciences 670:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03763.x 588:Evolution of sexual reproduction 556:Animal sexual behaviour#Monogamy 106:Evolution of monogamy in animals 4165:Extended evolutionary synthesis 3354:Gene-centered view of evolution 2344:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2028:Parenting: Science and Practice 2008:10.1146/annurev.anthro.14.1.429 875:Archiv für Fischereiwissenschaf 4293:Hologenome theory of evolution 4160:History of molecular evolution 3386:Evolutionarily stable strategy 3275:Last universal common ancestor 2443:10.1080/10532528.2001.10559796 292:and is engaged as a result of 1: 4087:Renaissance and Enlightenment 2655:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.09.022 2431:Annual Review of Sex Research 2401:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.11.013 2199:10.1126/science.277.5329.1086 2050:10.1080/15295192.2001.9681209 1996:Annual Review of Anthropology 528:, a few hooved animals, some 38:Monogamous pairing in animals 4298:Missing heritability problem 3925:Gamete differentiation/sexes 1369:Molecular Human Reproduction 4601:semelparity and iteroparity 713:Quarterly Review of Biology 421:Monogamy as a best response 389:The relative sizes of male 5258: 3930:Life cycles/nuclear phases 3482:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 2152:Journal of Human Evolution 593:History of human sexuality 29: 4692:Non-reproductive behavior 4348: 3428:Parent–offspring conflict 3233:Earliest known life forms 3121: 3043:10.1017/s0952836903004606 1494:Evolutionary Anthropology 1060:10.1007/s13364-015-0219-z 906:10.1017/S1464793103006304 506:The desert grass spider, 4281:Cultural group selection 4145:The eclipse of Darwinism 4117:On the Origin of Species 4092:Transmutation of species 1410:, 107(44), 18915–18920. 327:The skeletal remains of 4410:Animal sexual behaviour 4286:Dual inheritance theory 4125:History of paleontology 2531:T. R. Birkhead (2000), 2445:(inactive 2024-09-12). 2306:10.1073/pnas.1633678100 2247:10.1073/pnas.1133180100 1913:Reichard, U.H. (2002). 1568:10.1073/pnas.1318645110 1485:Palombit, R.A. (1999). 1453:10.1073/pnas.1307903110 858:Black, Jeffrey (1996). 783:10.1126/science.1238677 433:Variabilichromis moorii 68:Variabilichromis moorii 4559:traumatic insemination 3974:Punctuated equilibrium 3295:Non-adaptive radiation 3243:Evolutionary arms race 2807:10.1098/rspb.2014.0195 2760:10.1006/anbe.2000.1437 2725:10.1006/anbe.2003.2144 2690:10.1006/anbe.2001.1975 2172:10.1006/jhev.1996.0078 1928:: 62–7. Archived from 1882:10.1098/rspb.2013.1735 1833:10.1098/rspb.2013.1296 1784:10.1098/rspb.2013.1065 1735:10.1098/rstb.2015.0532 1623:10.1098/rspb.2000.0979 1332:10.1098/rstb.2005.1784 1196:10.1098/rspb.2000.1302 386: 375: 357: 4687:Interspecies breeding 4266:Evolutionary medicine 4140:Mendelian inheritance 3848:Biological complexity 3836:Programmed cell death 3528:Phenotypic plasticity 3248:Evolutionary pressure 3238:Evidence of evolution 3136:Timeline of evolution 2279:Larsen, C.S. (2003). 1541:Dixson, A.F. (2013). 1382:10.1093/molehr/gau068 706:"Monogamy in Mammals" 571:Varieties of monogamy 520:, certain species of 500:Azara's night monkeys 489:red-backed salamander 470:extra pair copulation 381: 371: 324: 243:cryptic female choice 225:male male competition 18:Evolution of monogamy 5232:Evolution of animals 5201:Short-beaked echidna 4941:side-blotched lizard 4458:sexual ornamentation 4240:Teleology in biology 4135:Blending inheritance 3513:Genetic assimilation 3376:Artificial selection 3115:Evolutionary biology 2918:10.1093/icb/38.1.251 1955:The Myth of Monogamy 1438:(33): 133328–13332. 603:r/K selection theory 538:American counterpart 134:Facultative monogamy 5028:Homosexual behavior 4993:Homosexual behavior 4848:Spawning strategies 4648:Bateman's principle 4468:sexy son hypothesis 4446:hormonal motivation 4441:reproductive system 4431:Sexual reproduction 4303:Molecular evolution 4261:Ecological genetics 4130:Transitional fossil 3920:Sexual reproduction 3760:endomembrane system 3689:pollinator-mediated 3645:dolphins and whales 3423:Parental investment 2860:1995BEcoS..36..313S 2614:. 13 February 2013. 2562:2008MolEc..17.2531S 2495:1981Natur.293...55H 2297:2003PNAS..100.9103L 2238:2003PNAS..100.9404R 2193:(5329): 1086–1088. 2164:1996JHumE..31..537L 1922:Max Planck Research 1559:2013PNAS..110E4937D 1553:(51): E4936–E4937. 1444:2013PNAS..11013328O 1260:2016NatSR...632472S 1190:(1460): 2431–2437. 999:1993Natur.365..545W 944:American Naturalist 775:2013Sci...341..526L 704:Kleiman, D (1977). 662:2008MolEc..17.2531S 160:extra pair coupling 82:extra pair coupling 4976:Breeding behaviour 4697:Fisher's principle 4522:sexual intercourse 4463:handicap principle 4276:Cultural evolution 3391:Fisher's principle 3320:Handicap principle 3310:Parallel evolution 3174:Adaptive radiation 3021:Journal of Zoology 2906:American Zoologist 2868:10.1007/bf00167792 2840:Riechert, Susan E. 2801:(1782): 20140195. 1876:(1772): 20131735. 1827:(1769): 20131296. 1778:(1766): 20131065. 1248:Scientific Reports 509:Agelenopsis aperta 448:Monogamous species 387: 376: 5209: 5208: 5023:Lordosis behavior 4903:Frog reproduction 4853:Polyandry in fish 4633:Sexual dimorphism 4554:sperm competition 4473:Fisherian runaway 4453:Courtship display 4376: 4375: 3992:Uniformitarianism 3945:Sex-determination 3450:Sexual dimorphism 3445:Natural selection 3349:Unit of selection 3315:Signalling theory 3076:978-0-7734-6310-3 3061:Korotayev, Andrey 3000:Missing or empty 2956:Missing or empty 2556:(10): 2531–2543. 2550:Molecular Ecology 2291:(16): 9103–9104. 2232:(16): 9404–9409. 1684:10.1002/mrd.22277 1617:(1439): 147–150. 1268:10.1038/srep32472 993:(6446): 545–548. 817:Science in Poland 769:(6145): 526–530. 656:(10): 2531–2543. 650:Molecular Ecology 277:Sexual dimorphism 272:Sexual dimorphism 238:sperm competition 218:Sexual dimorphism 166:Obligate monogamy 56:Monogamous mating 44:in which species 16:(Redirected from 5249: 5222:Animal sexuality 5179:ringtailed lemur 5038:African wild dog 5011:Sexual selection 4971:Sexual selection 4891:Sexual selection 4532:pseudocopulation 4426:Sexual selection 4403: 4396: 4389: 4380: 4366: 4356: 4355: 4155:Modern synthesis 3915:Multicellularity 3910:Mosaic evolution 3795:auditory ossicle 3477:Social selection 3460:Flowering plants 3455:Sexual selection 3108: 3101: 3094: 3085: 3080: 3047: 3046: 3036: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3003: 2998: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2976:academic.oup.com 2972: 2966: 2965: 2959: 2954: 2952: 2944: 2942: 2941: 2932:academic.oup.com 2928: 2922: 2921: 2903: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2818: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2754:(6): 1241–1250. 2748:Animal Behaviour 2743: 2737: 2736: 2713:Animal Behaviour 2708: 2702: 2701: 2678:Animal Behaviour 2673: 2667: 2666: 2649:(3): 1143–1154. 2643:Animal Behaviour 2640: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2608: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2544: 2538: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2503:10.1038/293055a0 2478: 2469: 2468: 2462: 2454: 2422: 2413: 2412: 2389:Animal Behaviour 2384: 2378: 2377: 2359: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2318: 2308: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2259: 2249: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2147: 2141: 2130: 2121: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2043: 2023: 2012: 2011: 1991: 1978: 1977:B, 265, 397-407. 1967: 1958: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1934: 1919: 1910: 1904: 1903: 1893: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1844: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1795: 1763: 1757: 1756: 1746: 1714: 1705: 1704: 1686: 1662: 1645: 1644: 1634: 1602: 1591: 1590: 1580: 1570: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1528: 1522: 1516:. 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4073: 4000: 3962:Tempo and modes 3956: 3811: 3715: 3532: 3491: 3367: 3360: 3337:Species complex 3150: 3141:History of life 3117: 3112: 3077: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3050: 3034:10.1.1.588.2907 3018: 3017: 3013: 2999: 2989: 2983: 2981: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2955: 2945: 2939: 2937: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2901: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2710: 2709: 2705: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2638: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2597: 2593: 2546: 2545: 2541: 2530: 2526: 2489:(5827): 55–57. 2480: 2479: 2472: 2455: 2424: 2423: 2416: 2386: 2385: 2381: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2278: 2277: 2273: 2219: 2218: 2214: 2184: 2183: 2179: 2149: 2148: 2144: 2131: 2124: 2112: 2108: 2070: 2069: 2065: 2025: 2024: 2015: 1993: 1992: 1981: 1968: 1961: 1952: 1948: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1917: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1765: 1764: 1760: 1716: 1715: 1708: 1664: 1663: 1648: 1604: 1603: 1594: 1540: 1539: 1535: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1427: 1422: 1421: 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5030: 5025: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5007: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4944: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4922: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4887: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4844: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4812: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4763: 4762: 4761: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4711: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4683: 4682: 4677: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4630: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4568: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4509: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4480:Mating systems 4477: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4450: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4428: 4422: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4408: 4406: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4383: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4370: 4360: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4289: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4237: 4236: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4224: 4223: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4183: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4121: 4120: 4111:Charles Darwin 4108: 4107: 4106: 4094: 4089: 4083: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4049:Non-ecological 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4010: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3999: 3998: 3989: 3980: 3966: 3964: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3954: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3866: 3865: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3833: 3822: 3820: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3809: 3808: 3807: 3802: 3800:nervous system 3797: 3792: 3787: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3726: 3724: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3692: 3691: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3657: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3636: 3635: 3630: 3620: 3610: 3605: 3604: 3603: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3566: 3561: 3560: 3559: 3549: 3543: 3541: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3492: 3490: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3473: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3372: 3370: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3358: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3334: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3300:Origin of life 3297: 3292: 3287: 3285:Microevolution 3282: 3280:Macroevolution 3277: 3272: 3267: 3266: 3265: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3218:Common descent 3215: 3214: 3213: 3203: 3198: 3196:Baldwin effect 3193: 3192: 3191: 3186: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3160: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3149: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3122: 3119: 3118: 3113: 3111: 3110: 3103: 3096: 3088: 3082: 3081: 3075: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3048: 3027:(3): 257–264. 3011: 2967: 2923: 2912:(1): 251–259. 2889: 2854:(5): 313–322. 2838:Singer, Fred; 2830: 2781: 2738: 2719:(5): 865–874. 2703: 2684:(4): 787–793. 2668: 2626: 2617: 2603: 2591: 2539: 2524: 2470: 2414: 2395:(2): 297–302. 2379: 2350:(3): 557–567. 2330: 2271: 2212: 2177: 2158:(6): 537–548. 2142: 2122: 2106: 2079:(1): 161–175. 2063: 2041:10.1.1.333.989 2013: 1979: 1959: 1946: 1935:on 14 May 2011 1905: 1856: 1807: 1758: 1729:(1706): 1706. 1706: 1677:(3): 204–216. 1646: 1592: 1533: 1500:(4): 117–129. 1477: 1415: 1396: 1375:(12): 1161–8. 1355: 1291: 1219: 1159: 1139: 1073: 1044:(2): 137–147. 1028: 977: 956:10.1086/650727 950:(4): 436–446. 927: 900:(2): 351–375. 894:Biology Review 884: 865: 850: 828: 804: 746: 725:10.1086/409721 691: 639: 613: 612: 610: 607: 606: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 578: 575: 574: 573: 568: 563: 558: 551: 548: 546: 543: 465:Black vultures 449: 446: 422: 419: 365: 362: 356: 355: 348: 344: 333: 273: 270: 254: 251: 233: 230: 219: 216: 210: 207: 189: 186: 180: 177: 167: 164: 135: 132: 115: 112: 107: 104: 94: 91: 76: 73: 57: 54: 42:mating systems 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5254: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5219: 5217: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5140: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5122:Spotted hyena 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4893: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4837: 4829: 4828:penis fencing 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4798:apophallation 4796: 4795: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4755: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4707:Invertebrates 4704: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4668: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4635: 4634: 4631: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4606:opportunistic 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4572: 4569: 4565: 4564:penile spines 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4539:Fertilisation 4537: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4527:Pelvic thrust 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4495:mate guarding 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4481: 4478: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4385: 4384: 4381: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4359: 4351: 4350: 4347: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4313:Phylogenetics 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4273: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4218: 4217: 4216:Structuralism 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4191:Catastrophism 4189: 4188: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4150:Neo-Darwinism 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4064:Reinforcement 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3996:Catastrophism 3993: 3990: 3988: 3987:Macromutation 3984: 3983:Micromutation 3981: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3953: 3950: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3890:Immune system 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3828: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3814: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3750:symbiogenesis 3748: 3747: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3682: 3678: 3675: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3662: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3625: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3615: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3535: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3420: 3419: 3418:Kin selection 3416: 3414: 3413:Genetic drift 3411: 3409: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3398: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3363: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3328: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3261: 3260: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3181: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3153: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3123: 3120: 3116: 3109: 3104: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3090: 3089: 3086: 3078: 3072: 3068: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3012: 3007: 2994: 2980: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2950: 2936: 2933: 2927: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2893: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2707: 2704: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2637: 2630: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2613: 2607: 2604: 2600: 2595: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2540: 2536: 2535: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2275: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2216: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2181: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2120: 2119:2-7381-1901-8 2116: 2110: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2064: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2037: 2034:(1–2): 5–61. 2033: 2029: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1950: 1947: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1909: 1906: 1901: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1860: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1811: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1762: 1759: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1601: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1537: 1534: 1523:on 2018-03-05 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1488: 1481: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1426: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1359: 1356: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1304: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1228: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1135: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1086: 1084: 1082: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1032: 1029: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 981: 978: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 938: 931: 928: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 888: 885: 880: 876: 869: 866: 861: 854: 851: 846: 842: 835: 833: 829: 818: 814: 808: 805: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 757: 750: 747: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 707: 700: 698: 696: 692: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 643: 640: 637: 631: 629: 627: 625: 623: 621: 619: 615: 608: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 580: 576: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 549: 544: 542: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 514: 512: 510: 504: 501: 497: 494: 490: 485: 482: 478: 475: 471: 466: 462: 460: 455: 447: 445: 443: 439: 435: 434: 427: 420: 418: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 395: 392: 385: 380: 374: 370: 363: 361: 353: 349: 345: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 325: 323: 320: 317: 316: 311: 306: 304: 303: 297: 295: 291: 290:mate guarding 286: 281: 278: 271: 269: 265: 262: 260: 252: 250: 246: 244: 239: 232:Sperm quality 231: 229: 226: 217: 215: 208: 206: 204: 198: 194: 187: 185: 178: 176: 172: 165: 163: 161: 156: 152: 150: 146: 142: 133: 131: 127: 125: 120: 113: 111: 105: 103: 99: 92: 90: 87: 83: 74: 72: 70: 69: 63: 55: 53: 51: 47: 43: 39: 33: 19: 5169:olive baboon 5117:Hippopotamus 5105:domestic cat 5053:domestic dog 4981:golden eagle 4948:Crocodilians 4596:polygynandry 4575: 4517:cloacal kiss 4325:Polymorphism 4308:Astrobiology 4256:Biogeography 4211:Saltationism 4201:Orthogenesis 4186:Alternatives 4115: 4101: 4034:Cospeciation 4029:Cladogenesis 3978:Saltationism 3935:Mating types 3899: 3858:Color vision 3843:Avian flight 3765:mitochondria 3503:Canalisation 3381:Biodiversity 3126:Introduction 3065: 3054:Bibliography 3024: 3020: 3014: 3002:|title= 2982:. 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