Evolution of lemurs - Knowledge (XXG)

280: 1453: 33: 1281: 6027: 5979: 4694: 5989: 6015: 6039: 544:, the conditions for oceanic dispersal to Madagascar seem to have been better during two separate periods in the past. A report published in January 2010 supported this assumption by demonstrating that both Madagascar and Africa were 1,650 km (1,030 mi) south of their present-day positions around 60 mya, placing them in a different 663:, dogs, and cats did not diverge or arrive in Africa until later in the Miocene. However, more recent dating of divergence of the Malagasy mammalian clades falls outside of this land bridge window, and a much greater diversity of mammal groups would be expected on Madagascar had the land bridge been present during that stretch of time. 1185:, during which time climate cooling took place and changes in ocean currents altered weather patterns. Outside of Madagascar, these dates also coincide with the divergence of the lorisoid primates and five major clades of squirrels, all occupying niches similar to those of lemurs. The dates do not suggest that increased 548:

and reversing the strong current that presently flows away from Madagascar. The currents were even shown to be stronger than they are today, shortening the rafting time to approximately 30 days or less, making the crossing much easier for a small mammal. Over time, as the continental plates drifted

125:

normally filled by other types of mammals. They include the smallest primates in the world, and once included some of the largest. Since the arrival of humans approximately 2,000 years ago, lemurs are now restricted to 10% of the island, or approximately 60,000 square kilometers (23,000 square

1560:

remains, they were modern forms and are counted as part of the rich lemur diversity that evolved in isolation. Some of their adaptations were unlike those seen in lemurs today. All 17 extinct lemurs were larger than the extant forms, some weighing as much as 200 kg (440 lb), and are

385:

tells a different story. Although it cannot show the earliest possible date for the appearance of a taxonomic group, other concerns have arisen about these vastly earlier divergence dates predicted independently of the fossil record. First, palaeontologists have expressed concerns that if primates

629:

between Madagascar and Africa has also been proposed, but a land bridge would have facilitated the migration of a much greater sampling of Africa's mammalian fauna than is endemic to the island. Furthermore, deep trenches separate Madagascar from the mainland, and prior to the Oligocene, sea level

353:

gene, which are frequently used to determine phylogenetic relationships among mammals—particularly within families and genera—have been used to show that lemurs share common ancestry with lorisoids. This conclusion is also corroborated by the shared strepsirrhine toothcomb, an unusual trait that is

1189:

drove family-level divergence since the first carnivores arrived on the island between 24 and 18 mya. The precise relationship between the four of the five families of lemurs is disputed since they diverged during this narrow and distant window. Although all studies place Cheirogaleidae and

1468:

Having evolved in Madagascar's challenging environment, replete with poor soils, extreme shifts in poor, seasonal plant productivity, and devastating climatic events such as extended droughts and annual cyclones, lemurs have adopted unique combinations of unusual traits to survive, distinguishing

528:

and become dormant while living off fat reserves. Such a trait in a small, nocturnal lemur ancestor would have facilitated the ocean voyage and could have been passed on to its descendants. However, this trait has not been observed in the closely related lorisoids studied to date, and could have

1378:(from the Comoro Islands) and on Comoro and mainland mongoose lemurs have supported this assumption by showing no genetic differences between the two populations. Because all lemurs, including these two brown lemur species, are only native to the island of Madagascar, they are considered to be 508:

As plate tectonics theory took hold, oceanic dispersal fell out of favor and was even considered by many researchers to be "miraculous" if it occurred. Despite the low likelihood of its occurrence, oceanic dispersal remains the most accepted explanation for numerous vertebrate colonizations of

438:, a deep channel with a minimum width of approximately 560 km (350 mi). These separation dates and the estimated age of the primate lineage preclude any possibility that lemurs could have been on the island before Madagascar pulled away from Africa, an evolutionary process known as 1175:

Lemurs have diversified greatly since first reaching Madagascar. The aye-aye and its extinct relations are thought to have diverged first, shortly after colonization. According to molecular studies, there have since been two major episodes of diversification, from which all other known

1180:

and extinct family lineages emerged. The remaining families diverged in the first diversification episode, during a 10 to 12 million-year window between the Late Eocene (42 mya) and into the Oligocene (30 mya). The dates for this divergence window span the

426:, Madagascar broke away from eastern Africa, the most likely source of the ancestral lemur population, about 160 mya and then from Antarctica between 80 and 130 mya. Initially, the island drifted south from where it split from Africa (around modern 633:

A variant of the land bridge hypothesis has been proposed in an attempt to explain both how a land bridge could have formed, and why other mammalian orders failed to cross it. Geological studies have shown that following the collision of India and Asia, the

386:

have been around for significantly more than 66 million years, then the first one-third of the primate fossil record is missing. Another problem is that some of these molecular dates have overestimated the divergence of other mammalian orders, such as

93:

suggest that lemurs made their way to Madagascar between 40 and 52 mya. Other mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence comparisons offer an alternative date range of 62 to 65 mya. An ancestral lemur population is thought to have inadvertently

666:

The dating of the lemur colonization is controversial for the same reasons as strepsirrhine evolution. Using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences, a single colonization has been estimated at 62 to 65 mya based on the split between the

1413:. Today, their collective range is restricted to 10% of the island, or approximately 60,000 km (23,000 sq mi). Most of the remaining forests and lemurs are found along the periphery of the island. The center of the island, the 299:(55 to 37 mya) based on the fossil record, although molecular tests suggest the Paleocene (66 to 56 mya) or later. Until recently, they were thought to have descended directly from the diverse group of adapiforms due to several shared 1525:) was only known from five museum specimens, most collected in the late 19th century and one in 1965. It was rediscovered in 1989 and has since been identified in five national parks, although it is very rare within its range. Likewise, the 1171:

on the inhabitants of the island between the Cretaceous and the Eocene. As Madagascar edged above the subtropical ridge and India moved closer to Asia, the climate became less dry and the arid spiny bush retreated to the south and southwest.

374:. dated the split between lemurs and lorises at 60 mya, lemur diversification at 50 mya, and the lemur colonization of Madagascar somewhere between these two approximate dates. However, the 2003 discovery of fossil lorisoids at the 394:, dates from the early Eocene of northern Africa and lacks a fully differentiated toothcomb. Based on fossils and other genetic tests, a more conservative estimate dates the divergence between lemurs and lorises to around 50 to 55 mya. 1565:

that no longer exist or are now left unoccupied. Large parts of Madagascar, which are now devoid of forests and lemurs, once hosted diverse primate communities that included more than 20 species covering the full range of lemur sizes.

1234:

have also assisted in understanding their phylogeny and diversification. Although the divergence estimates for these two genera are imprecise, they overlap with a change to a wetter climate in Madagascar, as new weather patterns generated

3909:; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Rylands, A.B.; Williamson, L.; Oates, J.F.; Mbora, D.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Rodríguez-Luna, E.; Palacios, E.; Heymann, E.W.; Kierulff, M.C.M.; Yongcheng, L.; Supriatna, J.; Roos, C.; Walker, S.; Aguiar, J.M., eds. (2007). 671:

and the rest of the lemurs. On the other hand, the sparse fossil record and some estimates based on other nuclear genes support a more recent estimate of 40 to 52 mya. Furthermore, a fossil strepsirrhine primate from Africa,

461:

With Madagascar already geographically isolated by the Paleocene and lemur diversification dating to the same time, an explanation was needed for how lemurs had made it to the island. In the 19th century, prior to the theory of

1217:

when humans arrived on the island roughly 2,000 years ago. Only recently has molecular research shown a more distant split in these genera. Most surprising were the mouse lemurs, a group which is now thought to contain

1300:

Since their arrival on Madagascar, lemurs have diversified both in behavior and morphology. Their diversity rivals that of the monkeys and apes found throughout the rest of the world, especially when the recently extinct

406:, from 66 mya to ~26,000 years ago. What little fossil-bearing rock exists from this vast span of time is dominated by marine strata along the west coast. The oldest lemur fossils on Madagascar are actually 1516:

and hunting, at least 17 species and 8 genera have gone extinct and the populations of all species have decreased. A couple of species once thought to have gone extinct have since been rediscovered. The

642:

along the Davie Fracture Zone suggest that at least parts of the Mozambique Channel were above sea level between 45 and 26 mya, or possibly as early as 55 mya. Following the Indian-Asian collision, the

401:

have been found on Madagascar, and the fossil record from both Africa and Asia around this time is not much better. Fossil sites in Madagascar are restricted to only five windows in time, which omit most of the

354:

unlikely to have evolved twice. If adapiforms were the ancestors of the living strepsirrhines, then the last common ancestor of modern strepsirrhines would have to predate the early Eocene, a view supported by

1190:

Lepilemuridae as a sister clade to Indriidae and Lemuridae, some suggest that Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae diverged first, while others suggest that Indriidae and Lemuridae were the first to branch off.

254:

adapiforms, as a stem group to modern strepsirrhines, including lemurs. In 2009, a highly publicized and scientifically criticized publication proclaimed that a 47-million-year-old adapiform fossil,

158:

traits with early primates. In this regard, lemurs are popularly confused with ancestral primates; however, lemurs did not give rise to monkeys and apes, but evolved independently on Madagascar.

1315:, lemurs evolved diverse forms of locomotion, varying levels of social complexity, and unique adaptations to the local climate. They went on to fill many niches normally occupied by monkeys, 602:

strepsirrhines evolved on the Afro-Arabian landmass, dispersing to Madagascar and more recently from Africa to Asia. More recently, the structure and general presence of the toothcomb in

594:(dwarf lemurs). If these relationships had been correct, the dates of these fossils would have had implications on the colonization of Madagascar, requiring two separate events. The most 5711: 3125:

Gommery, D.; Ramanivosoa, B.; Tombomiadana-Raveloson, S.; Randrianantenaina, H.; Kerloc'h, P. (2009). "A new species of giant subfossil lemur from the North-West of Madagascar (

1512:

The arrival of humans on the island 1,500 to 2,000 years ago has taken a significant toll, not only on the size of lemur populations, but also on their diversity. Due to

1597:). Both subspecies had only slight color variations and were known to be sympatric with each other in at least one forest. Since it was extirpated, the taxonomic status of 362:

and Ziheng Yang in 2004, which showed that lemurs split from lorises approximately 62 to 65 mya. These dates were confirmed by more extensive tests by Julie Horvath

1370:, although it is assumed that both species were introduced to the islands from northwestern Madagascar by humans within the last few hundred years. Molecular studies on 1159:

at 30° S latitude and disruption of the weather patterns by India as it drifted northward. Both would have created a drying effect on Madagascar, and as a result, the

4324:

Tavaré, S.; Marshall, C. R.; Will, O.; Soligo, C.; Martin, R. D. (2002). "Using the fossil record to estimate the age of the last common ancestor of extant primates".

497:

proposed the idea in his influential article "Climate and Evolution" in 1915. In the article, Matthew could only account for the presence of lemurs in Madagascar by "

1327:. In addition to the incredible diversity between lemur families, there has also been great diversification among closely related lemurs. Yet despite separation by 659:

created tension along the fault, causing it to subside beneath the ocean. The divergence dates of many Malagasy mammalian orders formerly fell within this window.

556:

might be more closely related to the other Afro-Asian strepsirrhines than to the rest of the lemurs. This idea was initially based on similarities in behavior and

3809:

McLain, A. T.; Meyer, T. J.; Faulk, C.; Herke, S. W.; Oldenburg, J. M.; Bourgeois, M. G.; Abshire, C. F.; Roos, C.; Batzer, M. A. (2012). Murphy, W. J (ed.).

4760: 1745: 1213:, the last major change in climate to affect Madagascar. The populations of both the true lemurs and mouse lemurs were thought to have diverged due to 1116:

The ancestral lemur that colonized Madagascar is thought to have been small and nocturnal. More specifically, it is thought to have had adapiform-like

681:

Once safely established on Madagascar, with its limited mammalian population, the lemurs were protected from the increasing competition from evolving

5964: 5419: 1347:, such as the true lemurs of northern Madagascar, which are very adaptable, mostly nondescript, and found throughout most of the island's forests. 4489: 4140:"Asynchronous Colonization of Madagascar by the Four Endemic Clades of Primates, Tenrecs, Carnivores, and Rodents as Inferred from Nuclear Genes" 1222:, meaning they are indistinguishable from each other based solely on appearance. In contrast, true lemurs are easier to distinguish and exhibit 62:

primates, and thus are often confused as being ancestral to modern monkeys, apes, and humans. Instead, they merely resemble ancestral primates.

366:. in 2008. These molecular studies also showed that lemuroids diversified before the modern lorisoids. Using a more limited data set and only 4770: 3582:

Horvath, J. E.; Weisrock, D. W.; Embry, S. L.; Fiorentino, I.; Balhoff, J. P.; Kappeler, P.; Wray, G. A.; Willard, H. F.; Yoder, A. D. (2008).

1497:. Secondarily, extreme resource limitations and seasonal breeding are thought to have resulted in three other relatively common lemur traits: 1242:

This difference in evolutionary divergence between the two genera may be due to differences in their activity patterns. True lemurs are often

625:

between Africa and Madagascar are significantly larger, they are too young, having been formed by volcanic activity only around 8 mya. A

513:

can occasionally raft to remote islands on floating mats of tangled vegetation, which get flushed out to sea from major rivers by floodwaters.

1182: 5727: 5487: 4306: 4187: 3973: 3492: 3449: 3426: 3403: 3380: 3357: 3330: 3281: 3070: 2945: 2727: 5084: 4545: 536:

have made it to the island, each likely to have derived from a single colonization, and since these colonizations date to either the early

5810: 4730: 1561:

thought to have been active during the day. Not only were they unlike the living lemurs in both size and appearance, they also filled

430:) until it reached its current position between 80 and 90 mya. Around that time, it split with India, leaving it isolated in the 5472: 5132: 1246:, allowing potential mates to distinguish each other as well as other related species visually. Mouse lemurs, on the other hand, are 3888: 3564: 3175: 1344: 678:, may suggest that the aye-aye and the rest of the lemurs diverged in Africa, which would require at least two colonization events. 471: 3202:

Flynn, J.J.; Wyss, A.R. (2003). "Mesozoic Terrestrial Vertebrate Faunas: The Early History of Madagascar's Vertebrate Diversity".

378:

in Egypt pushed the date of lorisoid divergence back to the Eocene, matching the divergence dates predicted by Yoder and Horvath.

5544: 5142: 1437:

depleted the soil, the cyclical forest regrowth and burning ended as the forest gradually failed to return. Today, the level of

1390: 1163:

that is currently found in the south and southwest of Madagascar would have dominated the island. This would have placed strong

693:, and their intelligence, aggression, and deceptiveness may have given them the advantage in exploiting the environment over the 1501:, sexual monomorphism (lack of size differences between the sexes), and male–male competition for mates involving low levels of 5789: 5779: 5703: 4978: 1193:

The second major episode of diversification occurred during the Late Miocene, approximately 8 to 12 mya, and included the

5106: 1469:

them significantly from other primates. In response to limited, seasonal resources, lemurs may exhibit seasonal fat storage,

6064: 5917: 5784: 5564: 5308: 5010: 4899: 4657: 1414: 447: 5052: 3006:

Franzen, J. L.; Gingerich, P. D.; Habersetzer, J.; Hurum, J. H.; Von Koenigswald, W.; Smith, B. H. (2009). J., Hawks (ed.).

1306: 5982: 5313: 6005: 4061: 3760:"Implications of recent geological investigations of the Mozambique Channel for the mammalian colonization of Madagascar" 2955:

Dunham, A. E.; Rudolf, V. H. W. (2009). "Evolution of sexual size monomorphism: the influence of passive mate guarding".

5922: 5424: 3910: 212:

The relationship between known fossil primate families remains unclear. A conservative estimate for the divergence of

6043: 5992: 5586: 4672: 3875: 3628:

Janečka, J.E.; Miller, W.; Pringle, T.H.; Wiens, F.; Zitzmann, A.; Helgen, K.M.; Springer, M.S.; Murphy, W.J. (2007).

1402: 486:

emerged as the most popular explanation for how lemurs reached the island. The idea first took shape under the anti-

5688: 4862: 3880: 1394: 315:, a prosimian characteristic, they had smaller brains and longer snouts than lemurs. There are also several other 3584:"Development and application of a phylogenomic toolkit: Resolving the evolutionary history of Madagascar's lemurs" 3213:

Late Cretaceous Vertebrates of Madagascar: A Window into Gondwanan Biogeography at the End of the Age of Dinosaurs

5482: 5279: 5089: 4857: 4750: 1749: 1398: 1311: 1160: 291:, provides insight into both the evolutionary history of strepsirrhines and the lemur colonization of Madagascar. 5905: 5769: 5741: 5716: 5673: 5576: 5569: 5509: 5257: 5225: 5198: 5188: 4538: 1534: 39:, the smallest primates in the world, evolved in isolation along with other lemurs on the island of Madagascar. 1590: 4438:"Divergence dates for Malagasy lemurs estimated from multiple gene loci: geological and evolutionary context" 2993:"New Theory On Why Male, Female Lemurs Same Size: 'Passive' Mate Guarding Influenced Evolution Of Lemur Size" 181:

studies, the last common ancestor of all primates dates to around 79.6 mya, although the earliest known

106:

have also been proposed. The timing and number of hypothesized colonizations has traditionally hinged on the

5910: 5840: 5749: 5477: 5359: 5127: 4723: 1518: 1441:

diversity increases with precipitation, from the dry southern forests to the wetter northern forests to the

1386: 1219: 4437: 549:

northward, the currents gradually changed, and by 20 mya the window for oceanic dispersal had closed.

5949: 5598: 5539: 5467: 5429: 5330: 5301: 5274: 5269: 4867: 1542: 502: 494: 355: 4490:"Has vicariance or dispersal been the predominant biogeographic force in Madagascar? Only time will tell" 4247: 1585:

was once considered one of five subspecies of diademed sifaka. In 1986, Ian Tattersall subsumed it as a

635: 5890: 5764: 5683: 5678: 5663: 5648: 5638: 5554: 5529: 5460: 5364: 5320: 5284: 5252: 5193: 5171: 5152: 4968: 4919: 4914: 4872: 1332: 1328: 1214: 1164: 1121: 533: 59: 5015: 4512: 4205:

Samonds, K. E.; Zalmout, I. S.; Irwin, M. T.; Krause, D. W.; Rogers, R. R.; Raharivony, L. L. (2009). "

3583: 606:

has been questioned, as well as many other dental features, suggesting it is most likely an adapiform.

598:, given the genetic evidence and the absence of toothcombed primates in European fossil sites, is that 276:

lineages. Media sources inaccurately dubbed the fossil as a "missing link" between lemurs and humans.

390:, suggesting primate divergence might also be overestimated. One of the oldest known strepsirrhines, 5864: 5759: 5693: 5494: 5409: 5325: 5237: 5220: 5147: 5137: 4847: 4755: 4739: 4452: 4396: 4333: 4259: 4218: 4098: 4004: 3870: 3826: 3771: 3730: 3644: 3019: 2894: 2801: 2666: 1526: 336: 316: 121:

Having undergone their own independent evolution on Madagascar, lemurs have diversified to fill many

3008:"Complete primate skeleton from the Middle Eocene of Messel in Germany: morphology and paleobiology" 5927: 5885: 5835: 5754: 5602: 5594: 5524: 5504: 5450: 5384: 5047: 4990: 4852: 4835: 4813: 4531: 4209:, New Middle Eocene Seacow (Mammalia, Sirenia) from the Mahajanga Basin, Northwestern Madagascar". 3906: 3866: 3301:

Chapter 1: Late Cretaceous Vertebrates from Madagascar: Implications for Biotic Change in Deep Time

2657:

Ali, J. R.; Huber, M. (2010). "Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents".

1513: 1498: 1263: 1223: 682: 479: 5988: 655:

created compression along the Davie Fracture Zone, causing it to rise. By the early Miocene, the

617:

during times of low sea level. However, this is unlikely since the only seamounts found along the

613:, where the lemur ancestors might have made it to Madagascar in small steps by colonizing exposed 552:

Since the 1970s, the rafting hypothesis has been called into question by claims that lemur family

185:

primates are only 54–55 million years old. The closest relatives of primates are the extinct

5900: 5852: 5845: 5442: 5354: 5215: 5176: 5000: 4944: 4934: 4894: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4716: 4667: 4476: 4369: 4357: 4283: 4234: 4073: 3943: 3746: 3705: 3668: 3535: 3150: 3113: 2992: 2980: 2776: 2702: 2690: 1586: 1556:

Until recently, giant species of lemur existed on Madagascar. Now represented only by recent or

1351: 652: 618: 510: 435: 2194: 54:

which branched off from other primates less than 63 million years ago, evolved on the island of

1541:

remains, but today it remains one of the world's 25 most endangered primates. One distinctive

6031: 5942: 5668: 5616: 5210: 5111: 5074: 5069: 5025: 5020: 4973: 4939: 4679: 4468: 4424: 4349: 4312: 4302: 4275: 4193: 4183: 4164: 4126: 4065: 4032: 3979: 3969: 3894: 3884: 3854: 3797: 3697: 3660: 3616: 3570: 3560: 3488: 3460: 3445: 3437: 3422: 3414: 3399: 3376: 3353: 3336: 3326: 3287: 3277: 3181: 3171: 3105: 3076: 3066: 3047: 2972: 2941: 2922: 2869: 2829: 2768: 2733: 2723: 2682: 1506: 1168: 1156: 656: 638:

had been pushed up by tectonic forces, possibly high enough to create a land bridge. Indeed,

498: 483: 463: 265: 232:) and strepsirrhines is 58 to 63 mya. A consensus is emerging that places omomyids as a 103: 95: 17: 4508: 3991:

Orlando, L.; Calvignac, S.; Schnebelen, C.; Douady, C. J.; Godfrey, L. R.; Hänni, C. (2008).

3391: 3060: 1533:) was thought to be extinct as recently as the late 1970s, but a population was located near 5534: 5101: 5079: 4887: 4504: 4460: 4414: 4404: 4341: 4267: 4226: 4154: 4139: 4116: 4106: 4057: 4022: 4012: 3933: 3925: 3844: 3834: 3787: 3779: 3738: 3689: 3652: 3606: 3598: 3548: 3525: 3517: 3368: 3138: 3097: 3037: 3027: 2964: 2912: 2902: 2861: 2819: 2809: 2758: 2674: 2202: 1562: 1550: 1494: 1340: 1152: 660: 595: 411: 375: 186: 122: 4044:

Pastorini, J.; Forstner, M. R. J.; Martin, R. D. (2001). "Phylogenetic history of sifakas (

6059: 6019: 5895: 5346: 5335: 5289: 5232: 5181: 4961: 4765: 4697: 4662: 2935: 2865: 1486: 1452: 1302: 1285: 1275: 1107: 648: 644: 487: 482:

by Sclater—that has since disappeared under the Indian Ocean. By the early 20th century,

335:(living) strepsirrhines but also in tarsiers. Unlike lemurs, adapiforms exhibited a fused 178: 3629: 2790:"New Paleocene skeletons and the relationship of plesiadapiforms to crown-clade primates" 2505: 516:

Any extended ocean voyage without fresh water or food would prove difficult for a large,

4456: 4400: 4337: 4263: 4222: 4102: 4008: 3830: 3775: 3734: 3648: 3023: 2898: 2883:"Estimating the phylogeny and divergence times of primates using a supermatrix approach" 2805: 2670: 1537:

in the late 1980s. Historically, it had a much wider geographic distribution, shown by

5735: 5607: 4909: 4904: 4842: 4820: 4631: 4611: 4419: 4384: 4138:

Poux, C.; Madsen, O.; Marquard, E.; Vieites, D. R.; De Jong, W. W.; Vences, M. (2005).

4027: 3992: 3849: 3810: 3792: 3759: 3742: 3611: 3042: 3007: 2917: 2882: 2824: 2789: 1482: 1426: 1367: 1359: 1296:. It lives in the rainforests of Madagascar and eats a varied diet of leaves and fruit. 1133: 806: 791: 674: 622: 610: 553: 509:

Madagascar, including that of the lemurs. Although unlikely, over long periods of time

491: 467: 451: 312: 170: 4121: 4086: 1553:

from all known localities. Unless trends change, extinctions are likely to continue.

1350:

Most of the 99 living lemur taxa are found only on Madagascar. Two species, the

560:

morphology, although it gained support with the 2001 discovery of 30‑million-year-old

279: 32: 6053: 5937: 5815: 5774: 5620: 5514: 5389: 5374: 5042: 5037: 4590: 4464: 3947: 3709: 3553: 3195:

Some hypotheses on the Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleoenvironmental history of Madagascar

2968: 2842: 2325: 2323: 2134: 2132: 2130: 1155:(ancient weather patterns) may have been affected by Madagascar's location below the 557: 475: 454:

and other mammalian groups that would not have been ancestral to lemurs or the other

382: 359: 251: 139: 51: 4480: 4238: 4077: 3750: 3672: 3539: 3117: 2984: 2780: 2399: 2397: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 588:

was thought to have a toothcomb, but also had even more similar molar morphology to

5932: 5880: 5825: 5658: 5653: 5394: 5005: 4606: 4361: 4287: 2694: 2414: 2412: 2310: 2308: 2090: 2088: 1406: 1247: 1231: 1177: 1148: 1032: 702: 590: 521: 517: 431: 367: 347: 332: 320: 233: 107: 529:

evolved on Madagascar in response to the island's harsh environmental conditions.

4296: 4177: 3963: 3839: 3693: 3504:

Groves, C. P.; Helgen, K. M. (2007). "Craniodental Characters in the Taxonomy of

3320: 3271: 3165: 3032: 2717: 1309:, the world's smallest primate, to the extinct 160–200 kg (350–440 lb) 478:

suggested that Madagascar and India were once part of a southern continent—named

197:. Some of the earliest known true primates are represented by the fossil groups 5959: 5830: 5611: 5559: 5094: 4924: 4830: 4788: 4641: 4636: 3461:"Chapter 14: Ecologically Enigmatic Lemurs: The Sifakas of the Eastern Forests ( 1478: 1461: 1418: 1202: 1016: 971: 639: 626: 599: 520:(homeothermic) mammal, but today many small, nocturnal species of lemur exhibit 328: 237: 206: 99: 90: 36: 6014: 3142: 2441: 2439: 1994: 1992: 5820: 5721: 5643: 5630: 5519: 5379: 5064: 4951: 4929: 4882: 4877: 4825: 4793: 4370:"Scientists Push Back Primate Origins From 65 Million To 85 Million Years Ago" 4159: 4087:"A molecular approach to comparative phylogeography of extant Malagasy lemurs" 3521: 1643: 1641: 1502: 1490: 1442: 1320: 1243: 1194: 1141: 1125: 726: 698: 694: 562: 545: 525: 439: 300: 288: 246: 213: 202: 162: 155: 127: 55: 4316: 3898: 3630:"Molecular and genomic data identify the closest living relative of primates" 3340: 3080: 5954: 5805: 5549: 5369: 5032: 4780: 4626: 4621: 4409: 4197: 4111: 4017: 3983: 3951: 3656: 3574: 3291: 3185: 2907: 2814: 2737: 1557: 1538: 1422: 1255: 1227: 1186: 1137: 1129: 839: 769: 690: 572: 407: 324: 284: 269: 256: 198: 194: 166: 58:, for at least 40 million years. They share some traits with the most 4472: 4428: 4353: 4279: 4168: 4130: 4069: 4036: 3858: 3783: 3664: 3620: 3109: 3088:

Godinot, M. (2006). "Lemuriform origins as viewed from the fossil record".

3051: 2976: 2926: 2873: 2833: 2772: 2763: 2746: 2686: 6038: 3801: 3701: 5857: 5205: 5059: 4572: 4230: 3929: 2881:

Chatterjee, Helen J.; Ho, Simon Y.W.; Barnes, Ian; Groves, Colin (2009).

2206: 2009: 2007: 1470: 1410: 1336: 1324: 1316: 614: 567: 537: 423: 403: 340: 174: 138:

Lemurs are primates belonging to the suborder Strepsirrhini. Like other

82: 4271: 3993:"DNA from extinct giant lemurs links archaeolemurids to extant indriids" 2678: 2568: 1449:

diversity, including the diversity and complexity of lemur communities.

1292:) is one of the largest of the living lemurs, comparable in size to the 5499: 5399: 5247: 5242: 4956: 4708: 4616: 4584: 3602: 3438:"Chapter 9: Evolutionary Divergence in the Brown Lemur Species Complex" 1434: 1379: 1236: 1210: 740: 668: 541: 455: 427: 217: 111: 98:

to the island on a floating mat of vegetation, although hypotheses for

47: 3911:"Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2006–2008" 3530: 3101: 609:

An alternative form of oceanic dispersal that had been considered was

397:

To complicate the ancestry puzzle, no terrestrial Eocene or Paleocene

4578: 4566: 3938: 3924:. Illustrated by S.D. Nash. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group: 1–40. 1546: 1474: 1251: 686: 443: 398: 387: 296: 273: 261: 241: 221: 190: 182: 151: 86: 78: 66: 4345: 3718: 3680:

Kay, R. F.; Ross, C.; Williams, B. A. (1997). "Anthropoid Origins".

3392:"Chapter 3: Ecology and Extinction of Madagascar's Subfossil Lemurs" 2528: 2526: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 250:, an African genus likely to be related to an early Asian branch of 1802: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1280: 621:

would have been too small in such a wide channel. Even though the

5455: 5264: 5163: 4554: 4248:"Fossil evidence for an ancient divergence of lorises and galagos" 1451: 1446: 1445:

along the east coast. Increased foliage corresponds to increased

1438: 1385:

Historically, lemurs ranged across the entire island inhabiting a

1293: 1279: 1259: 1117: 697:

adapiform primates in Africa and Asia, ultimately driving them to

577: 505:

coined the term "sweepstakes dispersal" for such unlikely events.

308: 304: 278: 229: 147: 143: 115: 74: 70: 43: 31: 2788:

Bloch, J. I.; Silcox, M. T.; Boyer, D. M.; Sargis, E. J. (2007).

1305:

are considered. Ranging in size from the 30 g (1.1 oz)

5414: 4062:

10.1002/1098-2345(200101)53:1<1::AID-AJP1>3.0.CO;2-J

2747:"The new framework for understanding placental mammal evolution" 2329: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2103: 1956: 1731: 4712: 4527: 2544: 2457: 2418: 2403: 2094: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1601:

has been questioned, but nothing definitive has been published.

2314: 1983: 1887: 225: 2384: 2382: 2173: 2171: 2138: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1769: 1767: 295:

Lemurs were traditionally thought to have evolved during the

287:, a trait shared by lemurs with their closest relatives, the 3555:

Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros: The IUCN Red Data Book

2340: 2338: 2264: 2262: 1262:

signaling. For these reasons, true lemurs may have evolved

3965:

Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of Our Planet

2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2225: 2223: 584:

is the oldest fossil found that bears a toothcomb, whereas

3229:

Goodman, S.M.; Ganzhorn, J.U.; Rakotondravony, D. (2003).

2063: 2061: 2059: 2057: 1209:). This event coincided with the beginning of the Indian 1094:

There are two competing lemur phylogenies, one by Horvath

4523: 3369:"Chapter 1: Origin of the Malagasy Strepsirhine Primates" 2048: 1998: 1647: 2280: 1746:""Missing link" found: New fossil links humans, lemurs?" 1659: 3764:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2580: 2445: 193:(commonly and inaccurately named "flying lemurs"), and 3815:-based phylogeny of lemurs (Infraorder: Lemuriformes)" 2481: 2357: 2355: 2353: 1632: 339:(a characteristic of simians) and also possessed four 6003: 3390:

Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Schwartz, G.T. (2006).

2847:

phylogeny and the taxonomy of great apes and mammals"

2745:

Asher, R. J.; Bennett, N.; Lehmann, T. (2009-07-06).

2373: 2188: 2186: 319:

differences. Most noticeably, adapiforms lack a key

4497:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

3151:"New Extinct Lemur Species Discovered In Madagascar" 5873: 5798: 5702: 5629: 5585: 5440: 5344: 5161: 5120: 4989: 4779: 4650: 4599: 4085:Pastorini, J.; Thalmann, U.; Martin, R. D. (2003). 2013: 1343:can occur. Lemur diversification has also created 1250:, reducing their ability to use visual signals for 69:or earlier, sharing a closest common ancestor with 3552: 2253: 1464:that became extinct less than a thousand years ago 1266:while mouse lemurs evolved to be cryptic species. 4383:Williams, B. A.; Kay, R. F.; Kirk, E. C. (2010). 3299:Krause, D.W.; Hartman, J.H.; Wells, N.A. (1997). 4246:Seiffert, E.R.; Simons, E.L.; Attia, Y. (2003). 4389:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4091:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4048:: Lemuriformes) derived from mtDNA sequences". 2794:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2703:"Animals populated Madagascar by rafting there" 1707: 1695: 1671: 1620: 1147:Nothing definitive is known about the island's 446:fossils on Madagascar from the Cretaceous (see 2640: 2469: 1858: 1151:at the time of the colonization, however, the 570:and the 2003 discovery of 40‑million-year-old 65:Lemurs are thought to have evolved during the 4724: 4539: 3273:Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar 3270:Goodman, S.M.; Patterson, B.D., eds. (1997). 1493:(activity both day and night), and/or strict 8: 3348:Gould, L.; Sauther, M.L. (2006). "Preface". 3164:Goodman, S.M.; Benstead, J.P., eds. (2003). 2592: 2532: 2493: 1839: 1806: 161:Primates first evolved sometime between the 3879:. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). 2139:Goodman, Ganzhorn & Rakotondravony 2003 490:movement of the early 1900s, when renowned 4731: 4717: 4709: 4546: 4532: 4524: 3723:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2121: 1903: 1891: 1748:. National Geographic News. Archived from 501:". In the 1940s, American paleontologist 311:. Although adapiforms also had lemur-like 27:History of primate evolution on Madagascar 4418: 4408: 4158: 4120: 4110: 4026: 4016: 3937: 3848: 3838: 3791: 3610: 3529: 3041: 3031: 2916: 2906: 2823: 2813: 2762: 2079: 1960: 1549:, has not been so fortunate, having been 283:Fossil evidence for the evolution of the 5965:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 4509:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110239 4385:"New perspectives on anthropoid origins" 2430: 2241: 434:and separated from nearby Africa by the 6010: 3319:Gould, L.; Sauther, M.L., eds. (2006). 3062:Mammals of Madagascar, A Complete Guide 2628: 2556: 2517: 2388: 2299: 2229: 2177: 2162: 2036: 1827: 1787: 1719: 1683: 1613: 1575: 370:, another study in 2005 by Céline Poux 2616: 2344: 2268: 2067: 1927: 1545:(possibly a species or subspecies) of 1239:and likely influenced the plant life. 5728:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 3247:Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2003). 2866:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003825 2604: 2581:Pastorini, Forstner & Martin 2001 2446:Pastorini, Thalmann & Martin 2003 2361: 2150: 1915: 1417:, was converted by early settlers to 630:was significantly higher than today. 458:mammals present on the island today. 114:, the most basal member of the lemur 7: 4298:Primate Ecology and Social Structure 3510:International Journal of Primatology 3415:"Chapter 7: Cathemerality in Lemurs" 2940:(1st ed.). Dover Publications. 2482:Godfrey, Jungers & Schwartz 2006 4488:Yoder, A. D.; Nowak, M. D. (2006). 3222:Madagascar's Prehistoric Ecosystems 995: 950: 943: 923: 903: 883: 875: 784: 762: 755: 733: 722: 649:strike-slip fault to a normal fault 524:, which allows them to lower their 5133:Evolutionary developmental biology 4642:Palaeopropithecidae (sloth lemurs) 4211:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 3743:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1914.tb55346.x 260:, demonstrated both adapiform and 25: 3276:. Smithsonian Institution Press. 3256:Mutschler, T.; Tan, C.L. (2003). 3204:The Natural History of Madagascar 3167:The Natural History of Madagascar 2709:(Press release). 21 January 2010. 2014:Seiffert, Simons & Attia 2003 1183:Eocene–Oligocene extinction event 6037: 6025: 6013: 5987: 5978: 5977: 4693: 4692: 4607:Archaeolemuridae (monkey lemurs) 4465:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2004.02106.x 2969:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01768.x 2722:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. 2254:Krause, Hartman & Wells 1997 2193:Brumfiel, G. (20 January 2010). 422:Once part of the supercontinent 5790:Extended evolutionary synthesis 4979:Gene-centered view of evolution 4632:Lepilemuridae (sportive lemurs) 4436:Yoder, A. D.; Yang, Z. (2004). 4376:(Press release). 18 April 2002. 4050:American Journal of Primatology 3869:; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; 3352:. Springer. pp. vii–xiii. 3170:. University of Chicago Press. 2999:(Press release). 1 August 2009. 2957:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2854:Molecular Biology and Evolution 244:(non-tarsier haplorhines), and 5918:Hologenome theory of evolution 5785:History of molecular evolution 5011:Evolutionarily stable strategy 4900:Last universal common ancestor 3487:. Springer. pp. 305–326. 3485:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3444:. Springer. pp. 187–210. 3442:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3421:. Springer. pp. 133–158. 3419:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3396:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3373:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3350:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3322:Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation 3310:Chapter 6: Lemurs: Old and New 532:Because only five terrestrial 472:Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 448:Mesozoic mammals of Madagascar 89:from Africa and some tests of 18:Evolutionary history of lemurs 1: 5712:Renaissance and Enlightenment 4301:. Pearson Custom Publishing. 4179:Madagascar: A Natural History 3157:(Press release). 27 May 2009. 1708:Williams, Kay & Kirk 2010 1696:Williams, Kay & Kirk 2010 1672:Williams, Kay & Kirk 2010 1621:Kay, Ross & Williams 1997 1599:Propithecus diadema holomelas 1583:Propithecus diadema holomelas 1106:did not attempt to place the 1102:(bottom). Note that Horvath 5923:Missing heritability problem 5550:Gamete differentiation/sexes 4637:Megaladapidae (koala lemurs) 3968:. Harvard University Press. 3840:10.1371/journal.pone.0044035 3694:10.1126/science.275.5301.797 3398:. Springer. pp. 41–64. 3065:. A&C Black Publishers. 3033:10.1371/journal.pone.0005723 1744:Handwerk, B. (19 May 2009). 1595:Propithecus diadema edwardsi 1366:), can also be found on the 716:Competing lemur phylogenies 177:or in Africa. According to 4176:Preston-Mafham, K. (1991). 3375:. Springer. pp. 3–18. 3231:Introduction to the Mammals 2195:"Lemurs' wet and wild past" 1376:E. f. mayottensis 1307:Madame Berthe's mouse lemur 346:Comparative studies of the 343:, instead of three or two. 236:to tarsiers, eosimids as a 6081: 5555:Life cycles/nuclear phases 5107:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 3881:Conservation International 3143:10.1016/j.crpv.2009.02.001 2641:Godfrey & Jungers 2003 1485:), small group sizes, low 1427:slash-and-burn agriculture 1273: 1270:Distribution and diversity 1230:, molecular genetics, and 418:Colonization of Madagascar 50:belonging to the suborder 5973: 5053:Parent–offspring conflict 4858:Earliest known life forms 4746: 4688: 4617:Daubentoniidae (aye-ayes) 4561: 4160:10.1080/10635150500234534 3522:10.1007/s10764-007-9226-5 2716:Ankel-Simons, F. (2007). 1589:for what is now known as 1312:Archaeoindris fontoynonti 1132:, while being similar to 1120:anatomy—particularly the 1098:(top) and one by Orlando 1029: 1013: 1000: 993: 968: 955: 948: 941: 928: 921: 908: 901: 888: 881: 837: 804: 789: 782: 767: 760: 753: 738: 731: 126:miles), with many facing 5906:Cultural group selection 5770:The eclipse of Darwinism 5742:On the Origin of Species 5717:Transmutation of species 3997:BMC Evolutionary Biology 3261:, Bamboo or Gentle Lemur 3127:Palaeopropithecus kelyus 2887:BMC Evolutionary Biology 2593:Groves & Helgen 2007 2533:Mutschler & Tan 2003 2494:Dunham & Rudolf 2009 1807:Gould & Sauther 2006 1535:Ranomafana National Park 1458:Palaeopropithecus ingens 1387:wide variety of habitats 1374:(from the mainland) and 596:parsimonious explanation 303:traits, as well as long 5911:Dual inheritance theory 5750:History of paleontology 4410:10.1073/pnas.0908320107 4207:Eotheroides lambondrano 4112:10.1073/pnas.1031673100 4018:10.1186/1471-2148-8-121 3719:"Climate and Evolution" 3717:Matthew, W. D. (1915). 3657:10.1126/science.1147555 3367:Tattersall, I. (2006). 3240:Phylogeny of the Lemurs 2908:10.1186/1471-2148-9-259 2841:Castresana, J. (2001). 2815:10.1073/pnas.0610579104 2569:Mittermeier et al. 2007 2545:Mittermeier et al. 2006 2458:Mittermeier et al. 2006 2419:Mittermeier et al. 2006 2404:Mittermeier et al. 2006 2095:Mittermeier et al. 2006 1519:hairy-eared dwarf lemur 1489:(relative brain size), 1128:—comparable to that of 466:, scientists including 442:. In support of this, 5599:Punctuated equilibrium 4920:Non-adaptive radiation 4868:Evolutionary arms race 4295:Sussman, R.W. (2003). 3873:; et al. (2006). 3784:10.1098/rspb.1997.0094 3758:McCall, R. A. (1997). 3436:Johnson, S.E. (2006). 3131:Comptes Rendus Palevol 2934:de Camp, L.S. (1954). 2764:10.1002/bies.200900053 2281:Chatterjee et al. 2009 2122:Yoder & Nowak 2006 1465: 1456:A life restoration of 1297: 1232:biogeographic patterns 503:George Gaylord Simpson 495:William Diller Matthew 356:molecular phylogenetic 292: 169:periods on either the 40: 6065:Evolution of primates 5891:Evolutionary medicine 5765:Mendelian inheritance 5473:Biological complexity 5461:Programmed cell death 5153:Phenotypic plasticity 4873:Evolutionary pressure 4863:Evidence of evolution 4761:Timeline of evolution 3547:Harcourt, C. (1990). 3413:Curtis, D.J. (2006). 3308:Simons, E.L. (1997). 3263:. pp. 1324–1329. 3251:. pp. 1247–1252. 3242:. pp. 1242–1247. 3233:. pp. 1159–1186. 3220:Burney, D.A. (2003). 3211:Krause, D.W. (2003). 2643:, pp. 1247–1252. 2595:, pp. 1363–1383. 2535:, pp. 1324–1329. 2496:, pp. 1376–1386. 2448:, pp. 5879–5884. 2141:, pp. 1159–1186. 2080:Flynn & Wyss 2003 2051:, pp. 1233–1243. 1961:Yoder & Yang 2004 1918:, pp. 1242–1247. 1674:, pp. 4797–4804. 1635:, pp. 1159–1164. 1591:Milne-Edwards' sifaka 1455: 1391:dry deciduous forests 1372:Eulemur fulvus fulvus 1333:niche differentiation 1329:geographical barriers 1283: 1254:. Instead, they use 1215:habitat fragmentation 701:and leaving only the 282: 35: 6044:Evolutionary biology 5865:Teleology in biology 5760:Blending inheritance 5138:Genetic assimilation 5001:Artificial selection 4740:Evolutionary biology 4674:Lemurs of Madagascar 4658:Evolutionary history 4231:10.1671/039.029.0417 3930:10.1896/052.022.0101 3918:Primate Conservation 3876:Lemurs of Madagascar 3463:Propithecus candidus 3459:Irwin, M.T. (2006). 3238:Yoder, A.D. (2003). 3193:Wells, N.A. (2003). 3059:Garbutt, N. (2007). 2242:Ali & Huber 2010 2207:10.1038/news.2010.23 1809:, pp. vii–xiii. 1527:greater bamboo lemur 1505:(conflict), such as 1323:, and large grazing 647:type changed from a 337:mandibular symphysis 331:, found not only in 264:traits, making it a 134:Evolutionary history 5928:Molecular evolution 5886:Ecological genetics 5755:Transitional fossil 5545:Sexual reproduction 5385:endomembrane system 5314:pollinator-mediated 5270:dolphins and whales 5048:Parental investment 4457:2004MolEc..13..757Y 4401:2010PNAS..107.4797W 4338:2002Natur.416..726T 4272:10.1038/nature01489 4264:2003Natur.422..421S 4223:2009JVPal..29.1233S 4103:2003PNAS..100.5879P 4009:2008BMCEE...8..121O 3831:2012PLoSO...744035M 3776:1997RSPSB.264..663M 3735:1914NYASA..24..171M 3649:2007Sci...318..792J 3312:. pp. 142–166. 3090:Folia Primatologica 3024:2009PLoSO...4.5723F 2899:2009BMCEE...9..259C 2806:2007PNAS..104.1159B 2679:10.1038/nature08706 2671:2010Natur.463..653A 2631:, pp. 257–269. 2607:, pp. 305–326. 2559:, pp. 137–175. 2547:, pp. 209–323. 2508:, pp. 471–480. 2506:Gommery et al. 2009 2470:Preston-Mafham 1991 2391:, pp. 187–210. 2347:, pp. 133–158. 2330:Orlando et al. 2008 2315:Horvath et al. 2008 2271:, pp. 663–665. 2244:, pp. 653–656. 2180:, pp. 171–318. 2124:, pp. 405–431. 2049:Samonds et al. 2009 2039:, pp. 107–148. 2016:, pp. 421–424. 2001:, pp. 719–730. 1986:, pp. 488–499. 1984:Horvath et al. 2008 1963:, pp. 757–773. 1930:, pp. 142–166. 1906:, pp. 465–471. 1861:, pp. 141–188. 1859:Preston-Mafham 1991 1842:, pp. 392–514. 1830:, pp. 149–229. 1790:, pp. 446–464. 1732:Franzen et al. 2009 1722:, pp. 452–453. 1662:, pp. 726–729. 1650:, pp. 792–794. 1648:Janečka et al. 2007 1623:, pp. 797–804. 1523:Allocebus trichotis 1514:habitat destruction 1429:, known locally as 1290:Propithecus diadema 1264:sexual dichromatism 1224:sexual dichromatism 1142:postcranial anatomy 1017:Palaeopropithecidae 689:had evolved by the 636:Davie Fracture Zone 511:terrestrial animals 327:, and possibly the 5901:Cultural evolution 5016:Fisher's principle 4945:Handicap principle 4935:Parallel evolution 4799:Adaptive radiation 4147:Systematic Biology 3962:Neild, T. (2007). 3603:10.1101/gr.7265208 2520:, pp. 86–114. 2406:, pp. 89–182. 2374:McLain et al. 2012 1660:Tavaré et al. 2002 1466: 1352:common brown lemur 1345:generalist species 1298: 1165:selection pressure 685:mammalian groups. 653:seafloor spreading 436:Mozambique Channel 293: 257:Darwinius masillae 142:primates, such as 110:affinities of the 41: 6001: 6000: 5617:Uniformitarianism 5570:Sex-determination 5075:Sexual dimorphism 5070:Natural selection 4974:Unit of selection 4940:Signalling theory 4706: 4705: 4445:Molecular Ecology 4395:(11): 4797–4804. 4332:(6882): 726–729. 4308:978-0-536-74363-3 4258:(6930): 421–424. 4189:978-0-8160-2403-2 4182:. Facts on File. 4097:(10): 5879–5884. 3975:978-0-674-02659-9 3907:Mittermeier, R.A. 3867:Mittermeier, R.A. 3770:(1382): 663–665. 3688:(5301): 797–804. 3643:(5851): 792–794. 3494:978-0-387-34586-4 3451:978-0-387-34586-4 3428:978-0-387-34586-4 3405:978-0-387-34586-4 3382:978-0-387-34586-4 3359:978-0-387-34586-4 3332:978-0-387-34585-7 3283:978-1-56098-682-9 3224:. pp. 47–51. 3215:. pp. 40–47. 3206:. pp. 34–40. 3197:. pp. 16–34. 3102:10.1159/000095391 3072:978-0-300-12550-4 2947:978-0-486-22668-2 2729:978-0-12-372576-9 2665:(7281): 653–656. 2619:, pp. 47–51. 2484:, pp. 41–64. 2472:, pp. 10–21. 2460:, pp. 15–17. 2421:, pp. 37–51. 2302:, pp. 85–86. 2232:, pp. 14–15. 2153:, pp. 38–39. 2097:, pp. 23–26. 2082:, pp. 34–40. 2070:, pp. 40–47. 1840:Ankel-Simons 2007 1633:Bloch et al. 2007 1563:ecological niches 1507:sperm competition 1169:drought tolerance 1157:subtropical ridge 1114: 1113: 1088: 1087: 1079: 1078: 1070: 1069: 1061: 1060: 1052: 1051: 1043: 1042: 982: 981: 879:Lemuroidea 868: 867: 859: 858: 850: 849: 826: 825: 817: 816: 661:Old World monkeys 657:East African Rift 534:orders of mammals 484:oceanic dispersal 464:continental drift 266:transitional form 163:Middle Cretaceous 16:(Redirected from 6072: 6042: 6041: 6030: 6029: 6028: 6018: 6017: 6009: 5991: 5981: 5980: 5780:Modern synthesis 5540:Multicellularity 5535:Mosaic evolution 5420:auditory ossicle 5102:Social selection 5085:Flowering plants 5080:Sexual selection 4733: 4726: 4719: 4710: 4696: 4695: 4548: 4541: 4534: 4525: 4519: 4517: 4511:. Archived from 4494: 4484: 4442: 4432: 4422: 4412: 4377: 4365: 4320: 4291: 4242: 4217:(4): 1233–1243. 4201: 4172: 4162: 4144: 4134: 4124: 4114: 4081: 4040: 4030: 4020: 3987: 3958: 3956: 3950:. Archived from 3941: 3915: 3902: 3862: 3852: 3842: 3805: 3795: 3754: 3713: 3676: 3634: 3624: 3614: 3588: 3578: 3558: 3543: 3533: 3516:(6): 1363–1383. 3498: 3455: 3432: 3409: 3386: 3363: 3344: 3313: 3304: 3303:. pp. 3–43. 3295: 3264: 3252: 3249:Subfossil Lemurs 3243: 3234: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3198: 3189: 3158: 3146: 3121: 3084: 3055: 3045: 3035: 3000: 2988: 2963:(7): 1376–1386. 2951: 2930: 2920: 2910: 2877: 2851: 2837: 2827: 2817: 2800:(4): 1159–1164. 2784: 2766: 2741: 2710: 2698: 2650:Literature cited 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2584: 2583:, pp. 1–17. 2578: 2572: 2571:, pp. 1–40. 2566: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2434: 2433:, pp. 7–13. 2428: 2422: 2416: 2407: 2401: 2392: 2386: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2359: 2348: 2342: 2333: 2327: 2318: 2312: 2303: 2297: 2284: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2257: 2256:, pp. 3–43. 2251: 2245: 2239: 2233: 2227: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2190: 2181: 2175: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2125: 2119: 2098: 2092: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2017: 2011: 2002: 1999:Poux et al. 2005 1996: 1987: 1981: 1964: 1958: 1931: 1925: 1919: 1913: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1894:, pp. 3–18. 1889: 1862: 1856: 1843: 1837: 1831: 1825: 1810: 1804: 1791: 1785: 1762: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1741: 1735: 1729: 1723: 1717: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1651: 1645: 1636: 1630: 1624: 1618: 1602: 1580: 1499:female dominance 1495:breeding seasons 1403:subhumid forests 1303:subfossil lemurs 1122:cranial foramina 1108:subfossil lemurs 1033:Archaeolemuridae 996: 951: 944: 924: 904: 884: 876: 785: 763: 756: 734: 723: 713: 712: 412:Late Pleistocene 376:Fayum Depression 21: 6080: 6079: 6075: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6069: 6050: 6049: 6048: 6036: 6026: 6024: 6012: 6004: 6002: 5997: 5969: 5896:Group selection 5869: 5794: 5698: 5625: 5587:Tempo and modes 5581: 5436: 5340: 5157: 5116: 4992: 4985: 4962:Species complex 4775: 4766:History of life 4742: 4737: 4707: 4702: 4684: 4680:List of species 4663:Subfossil lemur 4646: 4595: 4557: 4552: 4522: 4515: 4492: 4487: 4440: 4435: 4382: 4368: 4346:10.1038/416726a 4323: 4309: 4294: 4245: 4204: 4190: 4175: 4142: 4137: 4084: 4043: 3990: 3976: 3961: 3954: 3913: 3905: 3891: 3865: 3808: 3757: 3716: 3679: 3632: 3627: 3591:Genome Research 3586: 3581: 3567: 3546: 3503: 3495: 3458: 3452: 3435: 3429: 3412: 3406: 3389: 3383: 3366: 3360: 3347: 3333: 3318: 3307: 3298: 3284: 3269: 3255: 3246: 3237: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3201: 3192: 3178: 3163: 3149: 3124: 3087: 3073: 3058: 3005: 2991: 2954: 2948: 2937:Lost Continents 2933: 2880: 2849: 2840: 2787: 2744: 2730: 2719:Primate Anatomy 2715: 2701: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2639: 2635: 2627: 2623: 2615: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2488: 2480: 2476: 2468: 2464: 2456: 2452: 2444: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2410: 2402: 2395: 2387: 2380: 2372: 2368: 2360: 2351: 2343: 2336: 2328: 2321: 2313: 2306: 2298: 2287: 2279: 2275: 2267: 2260: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2236: 2228: 2221: 2211: 2209: 2201:. Nature News. 2192: 2191: 2184: 2176: 2169: 2161: 2157: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2128: 2120: 2101: 2093: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2066: 2055: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2020: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1990: 1982: 1967: 1959: 1934: 1926: 1922: 1914: 1910: 1904:Castresana 2001 1902: 1898: 1892:Tattersall 2006 1890: 1865: 1857: 1846: 1838: 1834: 1826: 1813: 1805: 1794: 1786: 1765: 1755: 1753: 1752:on May 21, 2009 1743: 1742: 1738: 1730: 1726: 1718: 1714: 1710:, p. 4799. 1706: 1702: 1698:, p. 4797. 1694: 1690: 1682: 1678: 1670: 1666: 1658: 1654: 1646: 1639: 1631: 1627: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1605: 1593:(known then as 1581: 1577: 1572: 1487:encephalization 1395:lowland forests 1339:, occasionally 1286:diademed sifaka 1278: 1276:Subfossil lemur 1272: 1220:cryptic species 1161:arid spiny bush 1089: 1080: 1071: 1062: 1053: 1044: 983: 930:Cheirogaleidae 890:Daubentoniidae 869: 860: 851: 827: 818: 711: 709:Diversification 488:plate tectonics 420: 313:auditory bullae 187:plesiadapiforms 179:molecular clock 136: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6078: 6076: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6052: 6051: 6047: 6046: 6034: 6022: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5985: 5974: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5946: 5945: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5877: 5875: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5849: 5848: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5736:Charles Darwin 5733: 5732: 5731: 5719: 5714: 5708: 5706: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5674:Non-ecological 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5635: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5624: 5623: 5614: 5605: 5591: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5447: 5445: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5425:nervous system 5422: 5417: 5412: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5351: 5349: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5245: 5235: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5202: 5201: 5191: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5174: 5168: 5166: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5056: 5055: 5050: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4997: 4995: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4971: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4925:Origin of life 4922: 4917: 4912: 4910:Microevolution 4907: 4905:Macroevolution 4902: 4897: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4843:Common descent 4840: 4839: 4838: 4828: 4823: 4821:Baldwin effect 4818: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4785: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4747: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4736: 4735: 4728: 4721: 4713: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4700: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4614: 4612:Cheirogaleidae 4609: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4569: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4551: 4550: 4543: 4536: 4528: 4521: 4520: 4518:on 2011-07-19. 4485: 4451:(4): 757–773. 4433: 4380: 4379: 4378: 4321: 4307: 4292: 4243: 4202: 4188: 4173: 4153:(5): 719–730. 4135: 4082: 4041: 3988: 3974: 3959: 3957:on 2011-07-23. 3903: 3889: 3863: 3806: 3755: 3729:(1): 171–318. 3714: 3677: 3625: 3597:(3): 489–499. 3579: 3565: 3549:"Introduction" 3544: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3493: 3479:P. tattersalli 3456: 3450: 3433: 3427: 3410: 3404: 3387: 3381: 3364: 3358: 3331: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3305: 3282: 3267: 3266: 3265: 3253: 3244: 3235: 3226: 3217: 3208: 3199: 3176: 3161: 3160: 3159: 3137:(5): 471–480. 3129:, Primates)". 3122: 3096:(6): 446–464. 3085: 3071: 3056: 3003: 3002: 3001: 2952: 2946: 2931: 2878: 2860:(4): 465–471. 2838: 2785: 2757:(8): 853–864. 2742: 2728: 2713: 2712: 2711: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2645: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2573: 2561: 2549: 2537: 2522: 2510: 2498: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2435: 2423: 2408: 2393: 2378: 2366: 2349: 2334: 2319: 2304: 2285: 2273: 2258: 2246: 2234: 2219: 2182: 2167: 2155: 2143: 2126: 2099: 2084: 2072: 2053: 2041: 2018: 2003: 1988: 1965: 1932: 1920: 1908: 1896: 1863: 1844: 1832: 1811: 1792: 1763: 1736: 1724: 1712: 1700: 1688: 1686:, p. 459. 1676: 1664: 1652: 1637: 1625: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1574: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1531:Prolemur simus 1471:hypometabolism 1415:Hauts-Plateaux 1407:montane forest 1399:spiny thickets 1368:Comoro Islands 1364:Eulemur mongoz 1360:mongoose lemur 1356:Eulemur fulvus 1271: 1268: 1252:mate selection 1226:. Studies in 1112: 1111: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1059: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1004: 999: 994: 992: 989: 988: 985: 984: 980: 979: 976: 975: 967: 964: 963: 960: 959: 954: 949: 947: 942: 940: 937: 936: 933: 932: 927: 922: 920: 917: 916: 913: 912: 910:Lepilemuridae 907: 902: 900: 897: 896: 893: 892: 887: 882: 880: 874: 871: 870: 866: 865: 862: 861: 857: 856: 853: 852: 848: 847: 844: 843: 836: 833: 832: 829: 828: 824: 823: 820: 819: 815: 814: 811: 810: 807:Cheirogaleidae 803: 800: 799: 796: 795: 788: 783: 781: 778: 777: 774: 773: 766: 761: 759: 754: 752: 749: 748: 745: 744: 741:Daubentoniidae 737: 732: 730: 721: 718: 717: 710: 707: 675:Plesiopithecus 623:Comoro Islands 611:island hopping 554:Cheirogaleidae 492:paleontologist 468:Philip Sclater 452:gondwanatheres 419: 416: 410:dating to the 171:supercontinent 165:and the early 135: 132: 104:island hopping 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6077: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6033: 6023: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6007: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5984: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5944: 5941: 5940: 5939: 5938:Phylogenetics 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5841:Structuralism 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5816:Catastrophism 5814: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5797: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5775:Neo-Darwinism 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5730: 5729: 5725: 5724: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5689:Reinforcement 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5622: 5621:Catastrophism 5618: 5615: 5613: 5612:Macromutation 5609: 5608:Micromutation 5606: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5578: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5515:Immune system 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5485: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5452: 5449: 5448: 5446: 5444: 5439: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5375:symbiogenesis 5373: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5307: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5160: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5043:Kin selection 5041: 5039: 5038:Genetic drift 5036: 5034: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4988: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4722: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4699: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4675: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4591:Strepsirrhini 4588: 4586: 4582: 4580: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4544: 4542: 4537: 4535: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4366: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4185: 4181: 4180: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3960: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3890:1-881173-88-7 3886: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3825:(8): e44035. 3824: 3820: 3816: 3814: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3566:2-88032-957-4 3562: 3557: 3556: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3457: 3453: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3434: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3317: 3311: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3275: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3190: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3177:0-226-30306-3 3173: 3169: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3147: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3064: 3063: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3004: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2848: 2846: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2721: 2720: 2714: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2654: 2649: 2642: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2475: 2471: 2466: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2451: 2447: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2431:Harcourt 1990 2427: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2367: 2364:, p. 30. 2363: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2165:, p. 52. 2164: 2159: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1900: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1751: 1747: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1629: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1614: 1608: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1576: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1491:cathemerality 1488: 1484: 1483:cheirogaleids 1480: 1476: 1472: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1341:hybridization 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1173: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1134:cheirogaleids 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1092: 1084: 1083: 1075: 1074: 1066: 1065: 1057: 1056: 1048: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1011: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1003: 998: 997: 991: 990: 987: 986: 978: 977: 974: 973: 972:Megaladapidae 966: 965: 962: 961: 958: 953: 952: 946: 945: 939: 938: 935: 934: 931: 926: 925: 919: 918: 915: 914: 911: 906: 905: 899: 898: 895: 894: 891: 886: 885: 878: 877: 873: 872: 864: 863: 855: 854: 846: 845: 842: 841: 835: 834: 831: 830: 822: 821: 813: 812: 809: 808: 802: 801: 798: 797: 794: 793: 792:Lepilemuridae 787: 786: 780: 779: 776: 775: 772: 771: 765: 764: 758: 757: 751: 750: 747: 746: 743: 742: 736: 735: 728: 725: 724: 720: 719: 715: 714: 708: 706: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 677: 676: 670: 664: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 641: 637: 631: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 607: 605: 601: 597: 593: 592: 587: 583: 579: 575: 574: 569: 565: 564: 559: 555: 550: 547: 543: 540:or the early 539: 535: 530: 527: 523: 519: 514: 512: 506: 504: 500: 496: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 476:Ernst Haeckel 473: 469: 465: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 417: 415: 413: 409: 405: 400: 395: 393: 389: 384: 383:fossil record 379: 377: 373: 369: 368:nuclear genes 365: 361: 360:Anne D. Yoder 357: 352: 351: 344: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 317:morphological 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 290: 286: 281: 277: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 258: 253: 249: 248: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 210: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 189:, the modern 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 159: 157: 154:, they share 153: 149: 145: 141: 140:strepsirrhine 133: 131: 129: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 63: 61: 57: 53: 52:Strepsirrhini 49: 45: 38: 34: 30: 19: 5950:Polymorphism 5933:Astrobiology 5881:Biogeography 5836:Saltationism 5826:Orthogenesis 5811:Alternatives 5740: 5726: 5659:Cospeciation 5654:Cladogenesis 5603:Saltationism 5560:Mating types 5483:Color vision 5468:Avian flight 5390:mitochondria 5294: 5128:Canalisation 5006:Biodiversity 4751:Introduction 4673: 4513:the original 4500: 4496: 4448: 4444: 4392: 4388: 4374:ScienceDaily 4373: 4329: 4325: 4297: 4255: 4251: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4178: 4150: 4146: 4094: 4090: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4003:(121): 121. 4000: 3996: 3964: 3952:the original 3921: 3917: 3874: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3767: 3763: 3726: 3722: 3685: 3681: 3640: 3636: 3594: 3590: 3554: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3484: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3441: 3418: 3395: 3372: 3349: 3325:. Springer. 3321: 3309: 3300: 3272: 3260: 3257: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3221: 3212: 3203: 3194: 3166: 3155:ScienceDaily 3154: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3093: 3089: 3061: 3018:(5): e5723. 3015: 3011: 2997:ScienceDaily 2996: 2960: 2956: 2936: 2893:(259): 259. 2890: 2886: 2857: 2853: 2844: 2843:"Cytochrome 2797: 2793: 2754: 2750: 2718: 2707:ScienceDaily 2706: 2662: 2658: 2636: 2629:Sussman 2003 2624: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2576: 2564: 2557:Garbutt 2007 2552: 2540: 2518:Garbutt 2007 2513: 2501: 2489: 2477: 2465: 2453: 2426: 2389:Johnson 2006 2369: 2300:Garbutt 2007 2276: 2249: 2237: 2230:Garbutt 2007 2210:. Retrieved 2198: 2178:Matthew 1915 2163:de Camp 1954 2158: 2146: 2075: 2044: 2037:Sussman 2003 1923: 1911: 1899: 1835: 1828:Sussman 2003 1788:Godinot 2006 1756:12 September 1754:. Retrieved 1750:the original 1739: 1727: 1720:Godinot 2006 1715: 1703: 1691: 1684:Godinot 2006 1679: 1667: 1655: 1628: 1616: 1598: 1594: 1582: 1578: 1555: 1530: 1522: 1511: 1467: 1457: 1430: 1419:rice paddies 1389:, including 1384: 1375: 1371: 1363: 1355: 1349: 1310: 1299: 1289: 1241: 1206: 1203:mouse lemurs 1198: 1192: 1174: 1153:paleoclimate 1149:biogeography 1146: 1115: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1030: 1014: 1001: 969: 956: 929: 909: 889: 838: 805: 790: 768: 739: 680: 673: 665: 640:core samples 632: 608: 603: 591:Cheirogaleus 589: 585: 581: 571: 561: 551: 531: 522:heterothermy 518:warm-blooded 515: 507: 460: 432:Indian Ocean 421: 396: 391: 380: 371: 363: 349: 345: 294: 268:between the 255: 252:cercamoniine 245: 234:sister group 211: 160: 137: 120: 108:phylogenetic 100:land bridges 64: 42: 37:Mouse lemurs 29: 5960:Systematics 5831:Mutationism 5649:Catagenesis 5577:Snake venom 5510:Eusociality 5488:in primates 5478:Cooperation 5406:In animals 5226:butterflies 5199:Cephalopods 5189:Brachiopods 5121:Development 5095:Mate choice 4848:Convergence 4831:Coevolution 4789:Abiogenesis 4503:: 405–431. 4056:(1): 1–17. 4046:Propithecus 3871:Louis, E.E. 3506:Propithecus 3475:P. perrieri 3471:P. edwardsi 2617:Burney 2003 2345:Curtis 2006 2269:McCall 1997 2068:Krause 2003 1928:Simons 1997 1479:hibernation 1473:(including 1462:sloth lemur 1443:rainforests 1321:woodpeckers 1195:true lemurs 1104:et al. 1100:et al. 1096:et al. 705:lorisoids. 627:land bridge 619:Davie Ridge 358:studies by 348:cytochrome 329:toilet-claw 323:trait, the 301:postcranial 214:haplorhines 207:Adapiformes 91:nuclear DNA 6054:Categories 6032:Madagascar 5821:Lamarckism 5799:Philosophy 5722:David Hume 5684:Peripatric 5679:Parapatric 5664:Ecological 5644:Anagenesis 5639:Allopatric 5631:Speciation 5595:Gradualism 5520:Metabolism 5380:chromosome 5370:Eukaryotes 5148:Modularity 5065:Population 4991:Population 4952:Speciation 4930:Panspermia 4883:Extinction 4878:Exaptation 4853:Divergence 4826:Cladistics 4814:Reciprocal 4794:Adaptation 4589:Suborder: 3531:1885/35492 3467:P. diadema 2605:Irwin 2006 2362:Wells 2003 2212:29 January 2151:Neild 2007 1916:Yoder 2003 1609:References 1551:extirpated 1460:, a giant 1358:) and the 1274:See also: 1207:Microcebus 1201:) and the 1126:middle ear 1002:Indriidae 957:Lemuridae 727:Lemuroidea 699:extinction 604:Bugtilemur 586:Bugtilemur 563:Bugtilemur 546:ocean gyre 526:metabolism 450:) include 440:vicariance 408:subfossils 392:Djebelemur 372:et al 364:et al 307:and small 247:Djebelemur 238:stem group 203:Eosimiidae 195:treeshrews 128:extinction 56:Madagascar 5955:Protocell 5806:Darwinism 5694:Sympatric 5443:processes 5331:Tetrapods 5280:Kangaroos 5206:Dinosaurs 5143:Inversion 5112:Variation 5033:Gene flow 5026:Inclusive 4836:Mutualism 4781:Evolution 4627:Lemuridae 4622:Indriidae 4565:Kingdom: 4317:199284796 3948:198157959 3939:1893/1360 3899:883321520 3710:220087294 3341:209925660 3259:Hapalemur 3081:154689042 2751:BioEssays 2376:, fig. 1. 2332:, fig. 1. 2317:, fig. 1. 1558:subfossil 1539:subfossil 1423:grassland 1325:ungulates 1317:squirrels 1256:olfactory 1248:nocturnal 1228:karyology 1187:predation 1138:dentition 840:Lemuridae 770:Indriidae 703:nocturnal 691:Oligocene 615:seamounts 582:Karanisia 573:Karanisia 444:mammalian 341:premolars 325:toothcomb 289:lorisoids 285:toothcomb 270:prosimian 199:Omomyidae 167:Paleocene 156:ancestral 83:lorisoids 6020:Primates 5983:Category 5858:Vitalism 5853:Theistic 5846:Spandrel 5530:Morality 5525:Monogamy 5400:plastids 5365:Flagella 5321:Reptiles 5302:sea cows 5285:primates 5194:Molluscs 5172:Bacteria 5060:Mutation 4993:genetics 4969:Taxonomy 4915:Mismatch 4895:Homology 4809:Cheating 4804:Altruism 4698:Category 4668:Taxonomy 4600:Families 4585:Primates 4579:Mammalia 4573:Chordata 4571:Phylum: 4567:Animalia 4481:14963272 4473:15012754 4429:20212104 4354:11961552 4280:12660781 4239:59466434 4198:23650974 4169:16243759 4131:12719521 4078:25352177 4070:11195201 4037:18442367 3984:85485183 3859:22937148 3819:PLOS ONE 3751:86111580 3673:12251814 3665:17975064 3621:18245770 3575:28425691 3559:. IUCN. 3540:22899861 3292:35620388 3186:51447871 3118:24163044 3110:17053330 3052:19492084 3012:PLOS ONE 2985:13617914 2977:19486235 2927:19860891 2874:11264397 2834:17229835 2781:46339675 2773:19582725 2738:42622248 2687:20090678 1481:in some 1425:through 1411:mangrove 1337:sympatry 1260:auditory 1237:monsoons 1211:monsoons 1130:lemurids 1124:and the 683:arboreal 568:Pakistan 538:Cenozoic 424:Gondwana 404:Cenozoic 388:Rodentia 218:tarsiers 175:Laurasia 48:primates 6006:Portals 5874:Related 5704:History 5565:Meiosis 5500:Empathy 5495:Emotion 5395:nucleus 5336:Viruses 5326:Spiders 5238:Mammals 5221:Insects 5021:Fitness 4957:Species 4756:Outline 4583:Order: 4577:Class: 4453:Bibcode 4420:2841917 4397:Bibcode 4362:4368374 4334:Bibcode 4288:4408626 4260:Bibcode 4219:Bibcode 4099:Bibcode 4028:2386821 4005:Bibcode 3850:3429421 3827:Bibcode 3802:9178538 3793:1688410 3772:Bibcode 3731:Bibcode 3702:9012340 3682:Science 3645:Bibcode 3637:Science 3612:2259113 3043:2683573 3020:Bibcode 2918:2774700 2895:Bibcode 2825:1783133 2802:Bibcode 2695:4333977 2667:Bibcode 1587:synonym 1503:agonism 1435:erosion 1380:endemic 1244:diurnal 1199:Eulemur 1118:cranial 729: 695:diurnal 687:Monkeys 669:aye-aye 542:Miocene 499:rafting 480:Lemuria 456:endemic 428:Somalia 399:fossils 321:derived 242:simians 222:monkeys 191:colugos 152:galagos 144:lorises 112:aye-aye 87:Fossils 79:galagos 71:lorises 6060:Lemurs 5993:Portal 5669:Hybrid 5505:Ethics 5347:organs 5309:Plants 5295:lemurs 5290:humans 5275:horses 5265:hyenas 5253:wolves 5248:canids 5182:origin 4651:Topics 4555:Lemurs 4479: 4471: 4427: 4417: 4360: 4352: 4326:Nature 4315: 4305: 4286: 4278: 4252:Nature 4237: 4196: 4186: 4167: 4129: 4122:156295 4119: 4076: 4068: 4035: 4025: 3982: 3972: 3946: 3897: 3887: 3857: 3847: 3800: 3790: 3749: 3708: 3700: 3671: 3663: 3619: 3609: 3573: 3563: 3538: 3491: 3477:, and 3448: 3425: 3402: 3379: 3356: 3339: 3329: 3290: 3280: 3184: 3174: 3116: 3108: 3079: 3069: 3050: 3040: 2983: 2975: 2944: 2925: 2915: 2872: 2832: 2822: 2779: 2771: 2736: 2726: 2693: 2685: 2659:Nature 2199:Nature 1547:sifaka 1475:torpor 1447:faunal 1439:floral 1433:. As 1409:, and 1331:or by 1178:extant 651:, and 474:, and 333:extant 309:brains 305:snouts 297:Eocene 274:simian 262:simian 230:humans 228:, and 205:, and 183:fossil 150:, and 148:pottos 123:niches 96:rafted 77:, and 75:pottos 67:Eocene 44:Lemurs 5456:Death 5451:Aging 5430:brain 5216:Fungi 5177:Birds 5090:Fungi 4888:Event 4771:Index 4516:(PDF) 4493:(PDF) 4477:S2CID 4441:(PDF) 4358:S2CID 4284:S2CID 4235:S2CID 4143:(PDF) 4074:S2CID 3955:(PDF) 3944:S2CID 3914:(PDF) 3747:S2CID 3706:S2CID 3669:S2CID 3633:(PDF) 3587:(PDF) 3536:S2CID 3114:S2CID 2981:S2CID 2850:(PDF) 2777:S2CID 2691:S2CID 1570:Notes 1543:morph 1294:indri 645:fault 578:Egypt 558:molar 116:clade 60:basal 5943:Tree 5415:hair 5355:Cell 5258:dogs 5243:cats 5233:Life 5211:Fish 5164:taxa 4469:PMID 4425:PMID 4350:PMID 4313:OCLC 4303:ISBN 4276:PMID 4194:OCLC 4184:ISBN 4165:PMID 4127:PMID 4066:PMID 4033:PMID 3980:OCLC 3970:ISBN 3895:OCLC 3885:ISBN 3855:PMID 3811:"An 3798:PMID 3698:PMID 3661:PMID 3617:PMID 3571:OCLC 3561:ISBN 3489:ISBN 3446:ISBN 3423:ISBN 3400:ISBN 3377:ISBN 3354:ISBN 3337:OCLC 3327:ISBN 3288:OCLC 3278:ISBN 3182:OCLC 3172:ISBN 3106:PMID 3077:OCLC 3067:ISBN 3048:PMID 2973:PMID 2942:ISBN 2923:PMID 2870:PMID 2830:PMID 2769:PMID 2734:OCLC 2724:ISBN 2683:PMID 2214:2010 1758:2009 1477:and 1431:tavy 1421:and 1284:The 1258:and 1167:for 1140:and 600:stem 381:The 272:and 226:apes 102:and 85:). 5441:Of 5410:eye 5360:DNA 5345:Of 5162:Of 4505:doi 4461:doi 4415:PMC 4405:doi 4393:107 4342:doi 4330:416 4268:doi 4256:422 4227:doi 4155:doi 4117:PMC 4107:doi 4095:100 4058:doi 4023:PMC 4013:doi 3934:hdl 3926:doi 3845:PMC 3835:doi 3813:Alu 3788:PMC 3780:doi 3768:264 3739:doi 3690:doi 3686:275 3653:doi 3641:318 3607:PMC 3599:doi 3526:hdl 3518:doi 3508:". 3139:doi 3098:doi 3038:PMC 3028:doi 2965:doi 2913:PMC 2903:doi 2862:doi 2820:PMC 2810:doi 2798:104 2759:doi 2675:doi 2663:463 2203:doi 1335:in 1136:in 580:. 576:in 566:in 240:to 173:of 6056:: 4501:37 4499:. 4495:. 4475:. 4467:. 4459:. 4449:13 4447:. 4443:. 4423:. 4413:. 4403:. 4391:. 4387:. 4372:. 4356:. 4348:. 4340:. 4328:. 4311:. 4282:. 4274:. 4266:. 4254:. 4250:. 4233:. 4225:. 4215:29 4213:. 4192:. 4163:. 4151:54 4149:. 4145:. 4125:. 4115:. 4105:. 4093:. 4089:. 4072:. 4064:. 4054:53 4052:. 4031:. 4021:. 4011:. 3999:. 3995:. 3978:. 3942:. 3932:. 3922:22 3920:. 3916:. 3893:. 3883:. 3853:. 3843:. 3833:. 3821:. 3817:. 3796:. 3786:. 3778:. 3766:. 3762:. 3745:. 3737:. 3727:24 3725:. 3721:. 3704:. 3696:. 3684:. 3667:. 3659:. 3651:. 3639:. 3635:. 3615:. 3605:. 3595:18 3593:. 3589:. 3569:. 3551:. 3534:. 3524:. 3514:28 3512:. 3483:. 3481:)" 3473:, 3469:, 3465:, 3440:. 3417:. 3394:. 3371:. 3335:. 3286:. 3180:. 3153:. 3133:. 3112:. 3104:. 3094:77 3092:. 3075:. 3046:. 3036:. 3026:. 3014:. 3010:. 2995:. 2979:. 2971:. 2961:22 2959:. 2921:. 2911:. 2901:. 2889:. 2885:. 2868:. 2858:18 2856:. 2852:. 2828:. 2818:. 2808:. 2796:. 2792:. 2775:. 2767:. 2755:31 2753:. 2749:. 2732:. 2705:. 2689:. 2681:. 2673:. 2661:. 2525:^ 2438:^ 2411:^ 2396:^ 2381:^ 2352:^ 2337:^ 2322:^ 2307:^ 2288:^ 2261:^ 2222:^ 2197:. 2185:^ 2170:^ 2129:^ 2102:^ 2087:^ 2056:^ 2021:^ 2006:^ 1991:^ 1968:^ 1935:^ 1866:^ 1847:^ 1814:^ 1795:^ 1766:^ 1640:^ 1509:. 1405:, 1401:, 1397:, 1393:, 1382:. 1319:, 1144:. 1110:. 470:, 414:. 224:, 220:, 209:. 201:, 146:, 130:. 118:. 73:, 46:, 6008:: 5619:/ 5610:/ 5601:/ 5597:/ 4732:e 4725:t 4718:v 4547:e 4540:t 4533:v 4507:: 4483:. 4463:: 4455:: 4431:. 4407:: 4399:: 4364:. 4344:: 4336:: 4319:. 4290:. 4270:: 4262:: 4241:. 4229:: 4221:: 4200:. 4171:. 4157:: 4133:. 4109:: 4101:: 4080:. 4060:: 4039:. 4015:: 4007:: 4001:8 3986:. 3936:: 3928:: 3901:. 3861:. 3837:: 3829:: 3823:7 3804:. 3782:: 3774:: 3753:. 3741:: 3733:: 3712:. 3692:: 3675:. 3655:: 3647:: 3623:. 3601:: 3577:. 3542:. 3528:: 3520:: 3497:. 3454:. 3431:. 3408:. 3385:. 3362:. 3343:. 3294:. 3188:. 3145:. 3141:: 3135:8 3120:. 3100:: 3083:. 3054:. 3030:: 3022:: 3016:4 2987:. 2967:: 2950:. 2929:. 2905:: 2897:: 2891:9 2876:. 2864:: 2845:b 2836:. 2812:: 2804:: 2783:. 2761:: 2740:. 2697:. 2677:: 2669:: 2283:. 2216:. 2205:: 1760:. 1734:. 1529:( 1521:( 1362:( 1354:( 1288:( 1205:( 1197:( 1031:† 1015:† 970:† 350:b 216:( 81:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.