1062:. In addition, they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies. Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). This ranking, however, was solely a result of their prestige, rather than any real power they had. Since the office could be easily abused (as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen), only former consuls (usually patrician consuls) were elected to the office. This is what gave the office its prestige. Their actions could not be vetoed by any magistrate other than a plebeian tribune, or a fellow censor. No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. Tribunes, by virtue of their sacrosanctity as the representatives of the people, could veto anything or anyone. Censors usually did not have to act in unison, but if a censor wanted to reduce the status of a citizen in a census, he had to act in unison with his colleague.
846:
1015:, and had the ultimate responsibility to enforce policies and laws enacted by both institutions. The consul was the chief diplomat, carried out business with foreign nations, and facilitated interactions between foreign ambassadors and the senate. Upon an order by the senate, the consul was responsible for raising and commanding an army. While the consuls had supreme military authority, they had to be provided with financial resources by the Roman Senate while they were commanding their armies. While abroad, the consul had absolute power over his soldiers, and over any Roman province.
820:, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest-ranking ordinary magistrate). Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. Defined more broadly, however, imperium gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military, diplomatic, civil, or otherwise). A magistrate's imperium was at its apex while the magistrate was abroad. While the magistrate was in the city of Rome itself, however, he had to completely surrender his imperium, so that liberty (
1130:, elected the two plebeian aediles. Aediles had wide-ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome, and over the maintenance of public order. They had the power over public games and shows, and over the markets. They also had the power to repair and preserve temples, sewers and aqueducts, to maintain public records, and to issue edicts. Any expenditure of public funds, by either a curule aedile or a plebeian aedile, had to be authorized by the senate.
1230:), a tribune might use a form of blanket obstruction, which could involve a broad veto over all governmental functions. While a tribune could veto any act of the senate, the assemblies, or the magistrates, he could only veto the act, and not the actual measure. Therefore, he had to physically be present when the act was occurring. As soon as that tribune was no longer present, the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto.
1092:) was performed by a censor, which typically involved prayers for the upcoming five years. This was a religious ceremony that acted as the certification of the census, and was performed before the Centuriate Assembly. Censors had several other duties as well, including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state. Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of
1333:, and often, when they authorized the appointment of a dictator, the senate specified who was to be the Master of the Horse. In many respects, he functioned more as a parallel magistrate (like an inferior co-consul) than he did as a direct subordinate. Whenever a dictator's term ended, the term of his Master of the Horse ended as well. Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the
1292:, that right, as well as the plebeian tribune's independence, theoretically still existed during a dictator's term. A dictator's power was equivalent to that of the power of the two consuls exercised conjointly, without any checks on their power by any other organ of government. Thus, dictatorial appointments were tantamount to a six-month restoration of the monarchy, with the dictator taking the place of the old
41:
1358:" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm") which, in effect, vested the consuls with dictatorial powers. There were several reasons for this change. Up until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to fight plebeian unrest. In 217 BC, a law was passed that gave the popular assemblies the right to nominate dictators. This, in effect, eliminated the monopoly that the
1194:
942:). Any Roman citizen had the absolute right to appeal any ruling by a magistrate to a plebeian tribune. In this case, the citizen would cry "provoco ad populum", which required the magistrate to wait for a tribune to intervene, and make a ruling. Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the
1245:", which would appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. A tribune had to assess the situation, and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action. Sometimes the tribune brought the case before the College of tribunes or the Plebeian Council for a trial. Any action taken in spite of a valid
1218:) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune was tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity, and thus was considered a capital offense. Their lack of magisterial powers made them independent of all other magistrates, which also meant that no magistrate could veto a tribune.
1142:) where they monitored all items going into, and coming out of, the treasury. In addition, they often spoke publicly about the balances available in the treasury. The quaestors could only issue public money for a particular purpose if they were authorized to do so by the senate. The quaestors were assisted by
1190:) has been used as an approximation, it is technically a contradiction. The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune's assistant, and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles (discussed above). In time, however, the differences between the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles disappeared.
1205:. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a
1028:
and commanded provincial armies, and, eventually, began to act as chief judges over the courts. Praetors usually stood for election with the consuls before the assembly of the soldiers, the
Centuriate Assembly. After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. In the absence
1287:
to nominate a dictator, who then took office immediately. Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) retained their offices, but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator.
1053:
were elected for an eighteen-month term. Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices, usually only former consuls were elected to it. Censors were elected by the assembly of Roman
Soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly, usually after the new consuls and praetors for the year began their
1209:
to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. The sacrosanctity of a tribune (and thus all of his legal powers) were only in effect so long as that tribune was within the city of Rome. If the tribune was abroad, the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill
1065:
Censors could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. A censor had the ability to fine a citizen, or to sell his property, which was often a punishment for either evading the census or having filed a fraudulent registration. Other actions that could result in a censorial
1137:
was considered the lowest-ranking of all major political offices. Quaestors were elected by the Tribal
Assembly, and the assignment of their responsibilities was settled by lot. Magistrates often chose which quaestor accompanied them abroad, and these quaestors often functioned as personal
1007:(command) powers. While in the city of Rome, the consul was the head of the Roman government. While components of public administration were delegated to other magistrates, the management of the government was under the ultimate authority of the consul. The consuls presided over the
768:(negation of powers). To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions. If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank, then it was called
1214:), and thus could not rely on such powers to veto. Instead, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' (
957:
Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates (in particular, consuls and praetors), these magistrates occasionally had their imperium "prorogued"
1002:
for the rest of his time in the senate, and had to wait for ten years before standing for re-election to the consulship. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters, which was due, in part, to the fact that they held the highest ordinary grade of
1037:
905:) was generally not adequate. Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens, while studying the flight of birds, or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals. When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a
1146:, who handled the actual accounting for the treasury. The treasury was a repository for documents, as well as for money. The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors.
684:
was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period. During this period, the dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate.
2022:, Vols. I (509–100BC), II (99–31BC), and Supplement (American Philological Association, New York, 1951, 1952, and 1960 respectively). This important work lists the magistrates for each year, and cites the ancient authors by whom they are mentioned.
998:), was elected to complete the original consular term. Throughout the year, one consul was superior in rank to the other consul. This ranking flipped every month, between the two consuls. Once a consul's term ended, he held the honorary title of
1221:
Tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. Tribunes could also use their sacrosanctity as protection when physically manhandling an individual, such as when
871:, imprisonment, fines, mandating pledges and oaths, enslavement, banishment, and sometimes even the destruction of a person's house. While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against Coercion. This protection was called "
729:
had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and thus they outranked all other magistrates; but were originally intended only to be a temporary tool for times of state emergency. Thereafter in descending order came the
1337:), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. The dictator, while not elected by the people, was technically a magistrate since he was nominated by an elected consul. The
875:" (see below), which allowed any citizen to appeal any punishment. However, the power of Coercion outside the city of Rome was absolute. Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods (
1120:, while under the presidency of a higher magistrate (either a consul or praetor), elected the two curule aediles. While they had a curule chair, they did not have lictors, and thus they had no power of coercion. The
764:) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called
1267:
or "Master of the Nation") was appointed for a six-month term. The dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. While the consul
1946:
The
Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes
889:, they rarely consulted with these books, and even then, only after seeing an omen. All senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors, and plebeian tribunes) were required to actively look for
948:(popular assembly). Since no tribune could retain his powers outside of the city of Rome, the power of Coercion here was absolute. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of
970:. The result was that private citizens ended up with consular and praetorian imperium, without actually holding either office. Often, they used this power to act as provincial governors.
2552:
1138:
secretaries responsible for the allocation of money, including army pay. Urban quaestors had several important responsibilities, such as the management of the public treasury, (the
928:), which required that each magisterial office be held concurrently by at least two people. For example, two consuls always served together. The check on the magistrate's power of
2351:
1033:. Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. Since praetors held imperium powers, they could command an army.
591:
2291:
2253:
2121:
2346:
1279:, mention its use for the purposes of maintaining order during times of plebeian unrest. For a dictator to be appointed, the Roman Senate had to pass a decree (a
2439:
982:
was the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate. Two consuls were elected for an annual term (from
January through December) by the assembly of Roman citizens, the
2981:
2323:
2168:
1210:
any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune. Since tribunes were technically not magistrates, they had no magisterial powers ("major powers" or
1341:
was also technically a magistrate, since he was nominated by the dictator. Thus, both of these magistrates were referred to as "Extraordinary
Magistrates".
3023:
3011:
2328:
2268:
3070:
2371:
2126:
915:) interpret the omen. A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war.
4389:
2986:
4358:
2996:
2306:
1304:
or six inside, whereas the dictator (as the Roman King before him) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside.
4303:
2991:
2725:
584:
188:
838:
which symbolized the power of the state to punish and to execute. Only a magistrate with imperium could wear a bordered toga, or be awarded a
4273:
3098:
2625:
2361:
1911:
178:
1070:, cowardice or disobedience in the army, dereliction of civil duties, corruption, or debt. A censor could reassign a citizen to a different
845:
4363:
4238:
3391:
881:), which could be used to obstruct political opponents. By claiming to witness an omen, a magistrate could justify the decision to end a
2944:
349:
2615:
2311:
2296:
1041:
901:
895:
171:
154:
4283:
3043:
2610:
2605:
2581:
2432:
2404:
2258:
2193:
2141:
1994:
1963:
1933:
577:
149:
4298:
2971:
2620:
2547:
2356:
2273:
2161:
166:
1344:
The last ordinary dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the
1102:
were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and often assisted the higher magistrates. The office was not on the
1054:
term. After the censors had been elected, the
Centuriate Assembly granted the new censors censorial power. Censors did not have
2564:
2497:
2376:
2301:
2061:
Orations and
Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index
159:
3318:
3243:
3001:
1362:
had over this power. In addition, a series of laws were passed, which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator.
3814:
1029:
of both senior and junior consuls from the city, the Urban praetor governed Rome, and presided over the Roman Senate and
3654:
3258:
2710:
2425:
2318:
564:
4353:
4278:
4037:
3093:
2976:
2522:
2263:
2154:
774:, where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower-ranking magistrate. By definition,
660:) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. By definition,
885:
or senate meeting, or the decision to veto a colleague. While the magistrates had access to oracular documents, the
4313:
3977:
3869:
3639:
3411:
3233:
3141:
3006:
2949:
2366:
1276:
362:
4333:
3426:
3381:
3308:
3228:
3176:
3166:
3118:
2465:
1346:
427:
129:
2131:
3934:
3844:
3353:
3333:
3328:
3313:
3266:
3206:
3161:
2963:
1288:
If they disobeyed the dictator, they could be forced out of office. While a dictator could ignore the right of
1182:
1025:
715:
31:
4343:
4323:
4263:
4253:
4243:
3649:
3338:
3238:
3218:
3133:
3123:
2828:
2768:
2460:
736:(who, while the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the
465:
17:
4348:
4338:
4288:
4268:
4082:
4057:
4022:
3904:
3629:
3276:
3038:
2569:
2394:
2089:
4318:
4248:
4072:
3824:
3624:
3619:
3416:
3323:
3248:
3211:
3196:
3171:
3151:
3053:
1350:("ultimate decree of the senate") which suspended civil government, and declared something analogous to
1242:
4328:
4293:
3982:
3972:
3849:
3749:
3674:
3539:
3502:
2878:
2542:
107:
4258:
4107:
3909:
3779:
3729:
3048:
2645:
2218:
1309:
984:
242:
4384:
4308:
4032:
3839:
3694:
3634:
3554:
3497:
3361:
2597:
2576:
2386:
2198:
2177:
1897:
1233:
Tribunes, the only true representatives of the people, had the authority to enforce the right of
770:
500:
139:
3947:
3942:
3794:
3549:
3509:
3487:
2695:
2235:
2000:
1990:
1969:
1959:
1929:
1907:
1227:
877:
801:
419:
412:
215:
2142:
Considerations on the Causes of the
Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
1275:
do mention the military uses of the dictatorship, others, such as the contemporary historian
1241:. If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen, that citizen could yell "
924:
4007:
3967:
3899:
3834:
3759:
3754:
3526:
3449:
3396:
3191:
3186:
3075:
2934:
2883:
2843:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2793:
2715:
2662:
2655:
2640:
2635:
2559:
2487:
2228:
2213:
2208:
1376:
1173:
1122:
1030:
1012:
994:
944:
541:
535:
528:
514:
343:
322:
267:
252:
247:
232:
116:
719:(aristocrats). Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or
4102:
3914:
3894:
3854:
3789:
3739:
3734:
3609:
3559:
3467:
3301:
3281:
3201:
2650:
2475:
2223:
1206:
1197:
Cornelia, mother of the future
Gracchi tribunes, pointing to her children as her treasures
1117:
1071:
886:
257:
2136:
2098:
2050:
4157:
3799:
3534:
3482:
3454:
3401:
3386:
3366:
3181:
3156:
3113:
3103:
2929:
2903:
2833:
2818:
2783:
2743:
2504:
2283:
1259:
1104:
725:
680:
626:) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded:
609:
546:
493:
337:
312:
221:
69:
4378:
3689:
3659:
3574:
3108:
3085:
2898:
2753:
2738:
2685:
2492:
2245:
1983:
1186:
class), they were technically not magistrates. While the term "plebeian magistrate" (
1079:
966:
938:
839:
750:
646:
442:
292:
60:
2045:
Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
1201:
Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were
1193:
992:
powers by the assembly. If a consul died before his term ended, another consul (the
4167:
4027:
3472:
3421:
3376:
3371:
3223:
3033:
2919:
2863:
2858:
2748:
2630:
2514:
2448:
2338:
2203:
2185:
2137:
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
1371:
1334:
1293:
1284:
1049:
1008:
979:
864:
825:
738:
732:
634:
628:
355:
307:
277:
203:
78:
1108:, and therefore did not mark the beginning of a political career. Every year, two
1036:
1944:
1923:
1901:
3962:
3584:
3406:
3296:
2690:
1359:
1351:
1067:
882:
867:. A magistrate had many ways with which to enforce this power. Examples include
699:
622:
398:
40:
1237:, which was a theoretical guarantee of due process, and a precursor to our own
4187:
4127:
4092:
3884:
3819:
3809:
3704:
3589:
3477:
3060:
3028:
2773:
2700:
2532:
2527:
1985:
Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar
1322:
1202:
960:
872:
694:
617:
479:
209:
89:
1973:
4217:
4212:
4172:
4097:
4067:
4047:
3924:
3864:
3774:
3724:
3719:
3644:
3604:
3492:
3462:
3271:
3146:
2939:
2823:
2798:
2677:
2399:
2028:, Second Series (1970–2005), Volumes 8–13, (The Cambridge University Press).
2004:
950:
788:
709:
674:
551:
521:
387:
369:
332:
1949:. Vol. 1. translated by Francis Barham. Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue.
4177:
4162:
4152:
4137:
4052:
4042:
4012:
4002:
3997:
3987:
3889:
3804:
3684:
3669:
3599:
3579:
3569:
3564:
3544:
3343:
2924:
2888:
2778:
2705:
2537:
2081:
1391:
1381:
1326:
1301:
1168:
1134:
1093:
1020:
989:
868:
855:
816:
810:
756:
652:
486:
376:
287:
198:
96:
1226:
someone. On a couple of rare occasions (such as during the tribunate of
4197:
4192:
4182:
4147:
4142:
4132:
4077:
4062:
3879:
3874:
3859:
3829:
3784:
3764:
3744:
3699:
3431:
3286:
3065:
2873:
2868:
2758:
1330:
1297:
1156:
1127:
1088:
829:
776:
744:
662:
640:
472:
451:
302:
282:
2417:
849:
The curule chair was a symbol of the power of high-ranking magistrates
4207:
4087:
4017:
3957:
3952:
3919:
3679:
3664:
3614:
3594:
3016:
2893:
2788:
2146:
1268:
1223:
1162:
1143:
1099:
1059:
906:
834:
786:
were technically not magistrates since they were elected only by the
782:
668:
507:
297:
792:. As such, no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions.
3992:
3714:
3441:
2733:
1386:
1296:. This is why, for example, each consul was accompanied by twelve
1192:
911:
844:
672:
were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the
1078:) besides a man's name on the register. Later, a law (one of the
4202:
3769:
3709:
3291:
2667:
1325:. The Master of the Horse had constitutional command authority (
1272:
1177:
890:
761:
704:
657:
613:
2421:
2150:
2763:
964:), which allowed them to retain the powers of the office as a
678:, but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions.
458:
405:
814:) on any individual magistrate. The most important power was
1928:. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
1086:. Once a census was complete, a purification ceremony (the
1082:
or "Clodian Laws") allowed a citizen to appeal a censorial
2086:
The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek
1903:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
1126:(principal popular assembly), under the presidency of a
808:
patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (
2132:
What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us
1356:
videant consules ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat
1074:(a civil unit of division), or place a punitive mark (
2052:
Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution
824:) was maximized. Magistrates with imperium sat in a
4226:
4120:
3933:
3525:
3518:
3440:
3352:
3257:
3132:
3084:
2962:
2912:
2851:
2842:
2724:
2676:
2596:
2513:
2474:
2385:
2337:
2282:
2244:
2184:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1982:
2109:The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity
1257:In times of emergency (military or otherwise), a
954:, which required a division of responsibilities.
1836:
1834:
1744:
1742:
1648:
1646:
1566:
1564:
638:(who functioned as the regular head of state),
1880:
1878:
2433:
2162:
1422:
1420:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1058:powers, and they were not accompanied by any
1040:Chart Showing the Checks and Balances in the
988:. After they were elected, they were granted
863:), which was used by magistrates to maintain
585:
8:
2127:The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
2111:. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1824:
1822:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1669:
1667:
1618:
1616:
1614:
606:executive magistrates of the Roman Republic
18:Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic
3522:
2848:
2480:
2440:
2426:
2418:
2169:
2155:
2147:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1463:
1461:
1459:
936:, which was an early form of due process (
592:
578:
26:
2100:The Development of the Roman Constitution
899:); simply having omens thrust upon them (
1035:
918:One check over a magistrate's power was
1402:
434:
386:
321:
266:
231:
187:
138:
51:
29:
1956:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
2020:The Magistrates of the Roman Republic
1096:required the approval of the senate.
832:(bodyguards) who carried axes called
7:
1989:. The University of Michigan Press.
612:(c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the
2063:. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891
1906:(1901 ed.). Elibron Classics.
1042:Constitution of the Roman Republic
25:
853:All magistrates had the power of
760:. Any magistrate could obstruct (
656:. Any magistrate could obstruct (
4390:Government of the Roman Republic
2122:Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
2092:(5 ed.). Oxford: W. Baxter.
1925:The Senate of the Roman Republic
1180:(plebeians and the aristocratic
39:
1943:Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841).
1321:), to serve as his most senior
1271:and the contemporary historian
2068:The Emperor in the Roman World
608:were officials of the ancient
1:
2088:. Vol. 2. translated by
2026:The Cambridge Ancient History
3012:Frontiers and fortifications
2059:Johnston, Harold Whetstone.
1176:, rather than by all of the
980:consul of the Roman Republic
3071:Decorations and punishments
1958:. Oxford University Press.
4406:
3978:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2553:historiography of the fall
2070:, (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
1981:Taylor, Lily Ross (1966).
1307:Each dictator appointed a
1277:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1249:was on its face illegal.
4359:External wars and battles
2483:
2456:
2018:Broughton, T. Robert S.,
1347:senatus consultum ultimum
1253:Extraordinary Magistrates
1066:punishment were the poor
428:Senatus consultum ultimum
323:Extraordinary magistrates
2075:Roman Constitutional Law
2042:, (Fontana Press, 1978).
2035:, (Fontana Press, 1993).
1954:Lintott, Andrew (1999).
32:Politics of ancient Rome
4354:Roman–Iranian relations
2829:Optimates and populares
2097:Tighe, Ambrose (1886).
828:, and were attended by
4364:Civil wars and revolts
3630:Sextus Pompeius Festus
3277:Conflict of the Orders
2636:Legislative assemblies
2395:Conflict of the Orders
2049:Ihne, Wilhelm (1853).
2033:The Later Roman Empire
1198:
1047:Every five years, two
1044:
850:
703:) were elected by the
189:Political institutions
4073:Simplicius of Cilicia
3825:Quintus Curtius Rufus
3054:Siege in Ancient Rome
2663:Executive magistrates
1922:Byrd, Robert (1995).
1319:Master of the Knights
1196:
1039:
848:
707:, which consisted of
4083:Stephanus Byzantinus
3988:Eusebius of Caesaria
3850:Sidonius Apollinaris
3540:Ammianus Marcellinus
2879:Tribune of the plebs
2103:. D. Apple & Co.
2055:. William Pickering.
1727:Lintott, pp. 129-131
1682:Lintott, pp. 118-120
1631:Lintott, pp. 107-109
1549:Lintott, pp. 101-102
1522:Lintott, pp. 102-104
1166:were elected by the
1150:Plebeian magistrates
974:Ordinary magistrates
896:auspicia impetrativa
268:Ordinary magistrates
4259:Distinguished women
3910:Velleius Paterculus
3750:Nicolaus Damascenus
3730:Marcellus Empiricus
3119:Republican currency
2312:reforms of Augustus
1898:Abbott, Frank Frost
1339:Master of the Horse
1310:Master of the Horse
1188:magistratus plebeii
1172:(commoners) in the
1068:cultivation of land
985:Centuriate Assembly
4033:Phlegon of Tralles
3840:Seneca the Younger
3314:Naming conventions
3044:Personal equipment
2577:Later Roman Empire
2178:Roman Constitution
2073:Mommsen, Theodor.
2040:The Roman Republic
1329:) equivalent to a
1243:provoco ad populum
1199:
1116:were elected. The
1045:
851:
501:Triumvir monetalis
435:Titles and honours
4372:
4371:
4334:Pontifices maximi
4116:
4115:
3973:Diogenes Laërtius
3795:Pliny the Younger
3550:Asconius Pedianus
3510:Romance languages
3382:Civil engineering
3124:Imperial currency
2997:Political control
2958:
2957:
2592:
2591:
2415:
2414:
2362:(post Diocletian)
2352:(post Diocletian)
2307:reforms of Caesar
2107:Von Fritz, Kurt.
1913:978-0-543-92749-1
1283:), authorizing a
1281:senatus consultum
1228:Tiberius Gracchus
1157:plebeian tribunes
902:auspicia oblativa
777:plebeian tribunes
663:plebeian tribunes
602:
601:
420:Quaestio perpetua
413:Senatus consultum
216:Roman citizenship
16:(Redirected from
4397:
4324:Magistri equitum
4239:Cities and towns
4232:
4158:Constantinopolis
3968:Diodorus Siculus
3900:Valerius Maximus
3835:Seneca the Elder
3755:Nonius Marcellus
3523:
3076:Hippika gymnasia
3039:Infantry tactics
2945:Consular tribune
2935:Magister equitum
2884:Military tribune
2849:
2809:Pontifex maximus
2804:Princeps senatus
2794:Magister militum
2560:Byzantine Empire
2481:
2442:
2435:
2428:
2419:
2302:reforms of Sulla
2171:
2164:
2157:
2148:
2104:
2093:
2056:
2008:
1988:
1977:
1950:
1939:
1917:
1885:
1882:
1873:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1850:
1847:
1841:
1838:
1829:
1826:
1817:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1790:
1787:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1758:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1737:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1692:
1689:
1683:
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1662:
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1653:
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1641:
1638:
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1629:
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1597:
1580:
1577:
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1568:
1559:
1556:
1550:
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1538:
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1523:
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1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1468:
1465:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1415:
1412:
1377:Byzantine Senate
1315:magister equitum
1174:Plebeian Council
1163:plebeian aediles
1140:aerarium Saturni
1128:plebeian tribune
1123:Plebeian Council
1114:plebeian aediles
1031:Roman assemblies
1013:Roman assemblies
995:consul suffectus
945:Plebeian Council
804:(both plebeians
783:plebeian aediles
713:(commoners) and
669:plebeian aediles
594:
587:
580:
536:Pontifex maximus
529:Princeps senatus
515:Magister militum
350:Consular tribune
344:Magister equitum
172:Augustan reforms
43:
27:
21:
4405:
4404:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4395:
4394:
4375:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4230:
4228:
4222:
4112:
3948:Aëtius of Amida
3929:
3915:Verrius Flaccus
3895:Valerius Antias
3855:Silius Italicus
3790:Pliny the Elder
3735:Marcus Aurelius
3610:Cornelius Nepos
3560:Aurelius Victor
3514:
3436:
3348:
3282:Secessio plebis
3253:
3128:
3080:
2954:
2908:
2838:
2720:
2672:
2588:
2509:
2470:
2452:
2446:
2416:
2411:
2381:
2333:
2278:
2240:
2180:
2175:
2118:
2096:
2080:
2048:
2015:
2013:Further reading
1997:
1980:
1966:
1953:
1942:
1936:
1921:
1914:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1876:
1872:Lintott, p. 112
1871:
1867:
1862:
1853:
1849:Lintott, p. 111
1848:
1844:
1840:Lintott, p. 110
1839:
1832:
1827:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:Lintott, p. 125
1788:
1784:
1780:Lintott, p. 123
1779:
1775:
1770:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:Lintott, p. 133
1747:
1740:
1736:Lintott, p. 136
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:Lintott, p. 130
1717:
1713:
1708:
1695:
1691:Lintott, p. 119
1690:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1665:
1661:Lintott, p. 120
1660:
1656:
1652:Lintott, p. 116
1651:
1644:
1640:Lintott, p. 109
1639:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1570:Lintott, p. 100
1569:
1562:
1558:Lintott, p. 113
1557:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:Lintott, p. 101
1530:
1526:
1521:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1471:
1466:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1418:
1413:
1404:
1400:
1368:
1354:. It declared "
1265:magister populi
1255:
1207:capital offense
1152:
1118:Tribal Assembly
976:
887:Sibylline books
798:
691:
598:
569:
565:Other countries
556:
425:
382:
317:
262:
227:
183:
160:Sullan republic
125:
121:
112:
103:
99:
92:
82:
73:
64:
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4403:
4401:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4377:
4376:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4235:
4233:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
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4195:
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4160:
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4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4124:
4122:
4118:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3939:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3800:Pomponius Mela
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3535:Aelius Donatus
3531:
3529:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3503:Ecclesiastical
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3457:
3452:
3446:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3356:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3304:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3244:Toys and games
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3090:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2855:
2853:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2784:Vigintisexviri
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2744:Cursus honorum
2741:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2602:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2543:Western Empire
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2422:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2294:
2288:
2286:
2284:Roman Republic
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2117:
2116:External links
2114:
2113:
2112:
2105:
2094:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2046:
2043:
2038:Crawford, M.
2036:
2029:
2023:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2009:
1995:
1978:
1964:
1951:
1940:
1934:
1919:
1912:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1884:Abbott, p. 240
1874:
1865:
1851:
1842:
1830:
1818:
1816:Cicero, p. 236
1809:
1807:Cicero, p. 235
1800:
1798:Abbott, p. 198
1791:
1782:
1773:
1759:
1757:Abbott, p. 152
1750:
1738:
1729:
1720:
1711:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1663:
1654:
1642:
1633:
1624:
1610:
1608:Lintott, p. 21
1601:
1581:
1572:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1540:Lintott, p. 94
1533:
1524:
1510:
1508:Lintott, p. 99
1501:
1499:Lintott, p. 97
1492:
1490:Lintott, p. 96
1483:
1469:
1455:
1453:Lintott, p. 95
1446:
1444:Abbott, p. 196
1437:
1435:Abbott, p. 155
1428:
1426:Abbott, p. 154
1416:
1414:Abbott, p. 151
1401:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1367:
1364:
1260:Roman dictator
1254:
1251:
1212:maior potestas
1178:People of Rome
1151:
1148:
1133:The office of
1110:curule aediles
1105:cursus honorum
975:
972:
802:Roman citizens
797:
794:
721:maior potestas
705:People of Rome
690:
687:
650:, and finally
647:curule aediles
614:People of Rome
610:Roman Republic
600:
599:
597:
596:
589:
582:
574:
571:
570:
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561:
558:
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555:
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494:Vigintisexviri
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114:
104:
102:
101:
94:
93:27 BC – AD 284
86:
85:
84:
83:27 BC – AD 395
75:
70:Roman Republic
66:
54:
53:
49:
48:
45:
44:
36:
35:
30:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4225:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3690:Julius Paulus
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3625:Fabius Pictor
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3362:Amphitheatres
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3099:Deforestation
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3049:Siege engines
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2982:Establishment
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:Extraordinary
2911:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2899:Promagistrate
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2686:Twelve Tables
2684:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2595:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2443:
2438:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2424:
2423:
2420:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2387:Miscellaneous
2384:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2246:Roman Kingdom
2243:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2091:
2090:James Hampton
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1996:0-472-08125-X
1992:
1987:
1986:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1965:0-19-926108-3
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1941:
1937:
1935:0-16-058996-7
1931:
1927:
1926:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1715:
1712:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:habeas corpus
1236:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1158:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1080:Leges Clodiae
1077:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1051:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1032:
1027:
1024:administered
1023:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
997:
996:
991:
987:
986:
981:
973:
971:
969:
968:
967:Promagistrate
963:
962:
955:
953:
952:
947:
946:
941:
940:
939:habeas corpus
935:
931:
927:
926:
921:
916:
914:
913:
908:
904:
903:
898:
897:
892:
888:
884:
880:
879:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
857:
847:
843:
841:
837:
836:
831:
827:
823:
819:
818:
813:
812:
807:
803:
795:
793:
791:
790:
785:
784:
779:
778:
773:
772:
767:
763:
759:
758:
753:
752:
751:curule aedile
747:
746:
741:
740:
735:
734:
728:
727:
722:
718:
717:
712:
711:
706:
702:
701:
696:
688:
686:
683:
682:
677:
676:
671:
670:
665:
664:
659:
655:
654:
649:
648:
643:
642:
637:
636:
631:
630:
625:
624:
619:
615:
611:
607:
595:
590:
588:
583:
581:
576:
575:
573:
572:
566:
563:
562:
560:
559:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
537:
533:
531:
530:
526:
524:
523:
519:
517:
516:
512:
510:
509:
505:
503:
502:
498:
496:
495:
491:
489:
488:
484:
482:
481:
477:
475:
474:
470:
468:
467:
463:
461:
460:
456:
454:
453:
449:
448:
444:
441:
440:
439:
438:
433:
430:
429:
422:
421:
417:
415:
414:
410:
408:
407:
403:
401:
400:
396:
395:
393:
392:
389:
385:
379:
378:
374:
372:
371:
367:
365:
364:
360:
358:
357:
353:
351:
348:
346:
345:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
328:
327:
324:
320:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
293:Promagistrate
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
275:
273:
272:
269:
265:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
240:
238:
237:
234:
230:
224:
223:
219:
217:
214:
212:
211:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
196:
194:
193:
190:
186:
180:
177:
173:
170:
169:
168:
165:
161:
158:
157:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
145:
144:
141:
137:
132:
131:
127:
126:
120:
119:
115:
111:
110:
106:
105:
98:
95:
91:
88:
87:
81:
80:
76:
72:
71:
67:
63:
62:
61:Roman Kingdom
58:
57:
56:
55:
50:
47:
46:
42:
38:
37:
33:
28:
19:
4304:Institutions
4168:Leptis Magna
4121:Major cities
4028:Philostratus
3815:Quadrigarius
3635:Rufus Festus
3498:Contemporary
3219:Romanization
3142:Architecture
2749:Collegiality
2598:Constitution
2449:Ancient Rome
2357:Constitution
2339:Roman Empire
2297:Constitution
2259:Constitution
2199:Constitution
2186:Ancient Rome
2108:
2099:
2085:
2074:
2067:
2066:Millar, F.
2060:
2051:
2039:
2032:
2031:Cameron, A.
2025:
2019:
1984:
1955:
1945:
1924:
1902:
1868:
1845:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1753:
1732:
1723:
1714:
1687:
1678:
1657:
1636:
1627:
1604:
1599:Byrd, p. 179
1579:Byrd, p. 110
1575:
1554:
1545:
1536:
1527:
1504:
1495:
1486:
1449:
1440:
1431:
1372:Acta Senatus
1355:
1345:
1343:
1338:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1300:outside the
1289:
1285:Roman consul
1280:
1264:
1258:
1256:
1246:
1238:
1234:
1232:
1220:
1215:
1211:
1200:
1187:
1181:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1139:
1132:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1098:
1094:public money
1087:
1083:
1075:
1064:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1019:
1017:
1009:Roman Senate
1004:
999:
993:
983:
977:
965:
959:
956:
949:
943:
937:
933:
929:
923:
920:collegiality
919:
917:
910:
900:
894:
876:
865:public order
860:
854:
852:
833:
826:curule chair
821:
815:
809:
805:
799:
787:
781:
775:
769:
766:par potestas
765:
755:
749:
743:
737:
731:
724:
720:
714:
708:
698:
692:
679:
673:
667:
661:
651:
645:
639:
633:
627:
621:
605:
603:
534:
527:
520:
513:
506:
499:
492:
485:
478:
471:
464:
457:
450:
426:
418:
411:
404:
397:
375:
368:
361:
354:
342:
220:
208:
204:Collegiality
140:Constitution
128:
117:
108:
79:Roman Empire
77:
68:
59:
4299:Geographers
3983:Dioscorides
3963:Cassius Dio
3585:Cassiodorus
3488:Renaissance
3094:Agriculture
3066:Auxiliaries
3007:Engineering
2844:Magistrates
2696:Citizenship
2691:Mos maiorum
2626:Late Empire
2377:Magistrates
2329:Magistrates
2274:Magistrates
2236:Magistrates
2077:. 1871–1888
1863:Byrd, p. 42
1828:Byrd, p. 24
1771:Byrd, p. 23
1709:Byrd, p. 31
1673:Byrd, p. 26
1622:Byrd, p. 32
1481:Byrd, p. 21
1467:Byrd, p. 20
1360:aristocracy
1352:martial law
1216:intercessio
883:legislative
771:intercessio
700:magistratus
695:magistrates
623:magistratus
618:magistrates
616:. Ordinary
399:Mos maiorum
179:Late Empire
122:AD 395–1453
4379:Categories
4188:Mediolanum
4128:Alexandria
4093:Themistius
4058:Porphyrius
3885:Tertullian
3820:Quintilian
3810:Propertius
3705:Lactantius
3655:Fulgentius
3590:Censorinus
3412:Sanitation
3397:Metallurgy
3354:Technology
3319:Demography
3267:Patricians
3234:Spectacles
3192:Literature
3187:Hairstyles
3024:Technology
2774:Praefectus
2726:Government
2716:Litigation
2701:Auctoritas
2646:Centuriate
2533:Principate
2528:Pax Romana
2488:Foundation
2405:Obligation
2372:Assemblies
2324:Assemblies
2269:Assemblies
2219:Centuriate
2209:Assemblies
1891:References
1323:lieutenant
1294:Roman king
1290:Provocatio
1247:provocatio
1235:Provocatio
1203:sacrosanct
1154:Since the
934:Provocatio
873:Provocatio
754:, and the
716:patricians
480:Praefectus
388:Public law
243:Centuriate
233:Assemblies
210:Auctoritas
113:AD 395–476
100:AD 284–641
90:Principate
65:753–509 BC
4385:Roman law
4344:Quaestors
4274:Empresses
4264:Dynasties
4254:Dictators
4229:and other
4218:Volubilis
4213:Vindobona
4173:Londinium
4098:Theodoret
4068:Procopius
4048:Polyaenus
4023:Pausanias
3925:Vitruvius
3870:Symmachus
3865:Suetonius
3775:Petronius
3760:Obsequens
3725:Macrobius
3720:Lucretius
3645:Frontinus
3620:Eutropius
3605:Columella
3555:Augustine
3545:Appuleius
3493:Neo-Latin
3468:Classical
3459:Versions
3367:Aqueducts
3309:Patronage
3229:Sexuality
3202:Mythology
3177:Education
3167:Cosmetics
2992:Campaigns
2987:Structure
2940:Decemviri
2799:Imperator
2498:overthrow
2400:Roman law
2084:(1823) .
1974:179708792
1900:(2011) .
1224:arresting
1183:patrician
1169:plebeians
1026:civil law
1000:consulare
961:prorogare
951:Provincia
861:coercitio
789:plebeians
726:Dictators
710:plebeians
675:plebeians
522:Imperator
370:Decemviri
363:Triumviri
333:Corrector
74:509–27 BC
4349:Tribunes
4339:Praetors
4289:Generals
4269:Emperors
4178:Lugdunum
4163:Eboracum
4153:Carthage
4138:Aquileia
4053:Polybius
4043:Plutarch
4013:Libanius
4003:Josephus
3998:Herodian
3890:Tibullus
3805:Priscian
3780:Phaedrus
3740:Manilius
3685:Jordanes
3670:Hydatius
3600:Claudian
3580:Catullus
3570:Boëthius
3565:Ausonius
3483:Medieval
3455:Alphabet
3427:Theatres
3402:Numerals
3387:Concrete
3377:Circuses
3344:Bagaudae
3334:Adoption
3329:Marriage
3302:Assembly
3207:Religion
3182:Folklore
3162:Clothing
3157:Calendar
3114:Currency
3104:Commerce
3002:Strategy
2964:Military
2950:Triumvir
2930:Dictator
2925:Interrex
2904:Governor
2889:Quaestor
2852:Ordinary
2834:Province
2824:Tetrarch
2814:Augustus
2779:Vicarius
2769:Officium
2706:Imperium
2656:Plebeian
2616:Republic
2538:Dominate
2505:Republic
2466:Timeline
2229:Plebeian
2082:Polybius
2005:23708165
1392:Interrex
1382:Centuria
1366:See also
1327:imperium
1302:pomerium
1135:quaestor
1112:and two
1056:imperium
1021:praetors
1011:and the
1005:imperium
990:imperium
930:Coercion
878:auspicia
869:flogging
856:coercion
822:libertas
817:imperium
811:potestas
757:quaestor
681:Dictator
653:quaestor
641:praetors
552:Tetrarch
542:Augustus
487:Vicarius
466:Officium
377:Interrex
338:Dictator
313:Governor
288:Quaestor
253:Plebeian
199:Imperium
155:Republic
130:Timeline
97:Dominate
4319:Legions
4279:Fiction
4249:Consuls
4244:Climate
4198:Ravenna
4193:Pompeii
4183:Lutetia
4148:Bononia
4143:Berytus
4133:Antioch
4108:Zosimus
4103:Zonaras
4078:Sozomen
4063:Priscus
4038:Photius
3880:Terence
3875:Tacitus
3860:Statius
3845:Servius
3830:Sallust
3785:Plautus
3765:Orosius
3745:Martial
3700:Juvenal
3675:Hyginus
3660:Gellius
3519:Writers
3450:History
3432:Thermae
3422:Temples
3372:Bridges
3339:Slavery
3287:Equites
3259:Society
3239:Theatre
3212:Deities
3172:Cuisine
3152:Bathing
3134:Culture
3109:Finance
3086:Economy
2977:Borders
2972:History
2874:Tribune
2869:Praetor
2759:Legatus
2754:Emperor
2641:Curiate
2611:Kingdom
2606:History
2582:History
2565:decline
2523:History
2493:Kingdom
2476:History
2461:Outline
2347:History
2292:History
2254:History
2214:Curiate
2194:History
1335:legions
1331:praetor
1298:lictors
1144:scribes
1100:Aediles
1089:lustrum
1060:lictors
1050:censors
925:collega
840:triumph
830:lictors
745:praetor
635:consuls
629:censors
473:Praeses
452:Legatus
443:Emperor
303:Tribune
283:Praetor
248:Curiate
150:Kingdom
118:Eastern
109:Western
52:Periods
4329:Nomina
4314:Legacy
4294:Gentes
4231:topics
4227:Lists
4208:Smyrna
4088:Strabo
4018:Lucian
4008:Julian
3958:Arrian
3953:Appian
3943:Aelian
3920:Vergil
3695:Justin
3680:Jerome
3665:Horace
3650:Fronto
3640:Florus
3615:Ennius
3595:Cicero
3575:Caesar
3473:Vulgar
3297:Tribes
3224:Romans
3034:Legion
3017:castra
2894:Aedile
2864:Censor
2859:Consul
2819:Caesar
2789:Lictor
2711:Status
2651:Tribal
2631:Senate
2621:Empire
2515:Empire
2451:topics
2367:Senate
2319:Senate
2264:Senate
2224:Tribal
2204:Senate
2003:
1993:
1972:
1962:
1932:
1910:
1269:Cicero
907:priest
835:fasces
796:Powers
748:, the
742:, the
739:consul
733:censor
547:Caesar
508:Lictor
308:Censor
298:Aedile
278:Consul
258:Tribal
167:Empire
3993:Galen
3935:Greek
3905:Varro
3715:Lucan
3527:Latin
3442:Latin
3417:Ships
3407:Roads
3392:Domes
3324:Women
3272:Plebs
3197:Music
2739:Forum
2734:Curia
1398:Notes
1387:Curia
1072:tribe
912:augur
891:omens
800:Only
689:Ranks
4309:Laws
4284:Film
4203:Roma
3770:Ovid
3710:Livy
3478:Late
3292:Gens
3249:Wine
3061:Navy
3029:Army
2668:SPQR
2570:fall
2548:fall
2001:OCLC
1991:ISBN
1970:OCLC
1960:ISBN
1930:ISBN
1908:ISBN
1273:Livy
1160:and
1084:nota
1076:nota
1018:The
978:The
932:was
780:and
762:veto
693:The
666:and
658:veto
604:The
3463:Old
3147:Art
2920:Rex
2764:Dux
2678:Law
1317:or
806:and
459:Dux
406:Ius
356:Rex
4381::
1999:.
1968:.
1877:^
1854:^
1833:^
1821:^
1762:^
1741:^
1696:^
1666:^
1645:^
1613:^
1584:^
1563:^
1513:^
1472:^
1458:^
1419:^
1405:^
842:.
723:.
644:,
632:,
2441:e
2434:t
2427:v
2170:e
2163:t
2156:v
2007:.
1976:.
1938:.
1918:.
1916:.
1313:(
1263:(
958:(
922:(
909:(
893:(
859:(
697:(
620:(
593:e
586:t
579:v
20:)
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