77:, women have joined the labor force in greater numbers and tended to remain a part of the force. Moreover, many male employees have often been moved to less desirable jobs, if not placed outside of the labor market entirely. Additionally, those characteristics commonly related to female employment such as temporary arrangements, low wages, and job instability have risen. Moreover, these patterns have increased vis-a-vis characteristics identified with male labor, such as unionization and job security. Consequently, the expansion of export-oriented employment is a major contributor to what some have called, "the global feminization of labor" in the post-1980 period.
221:
apparel factories that require stringent oversight, as well as a promise to refrain from producing goods other than those created for the noted educational institution. Protesters also argue that because these industrial workers receive payments that are less than or equal to two percent of an item's selling price, the earnings for industrial workers should allotted based on prices in the area of which they work. While activists note that there is an increased cost for consumers, they set forth that in one example that this price change can be under one U.S. dollar in retail price.
69:
developed countries. Upon greater enhancement, developing countries were able to bolster their industrialized processes by swapping imported goods in favor of goods produced domestically. However, within the last 40 years this process eroded due in part to technological development, changes in regulation, and higher employment costs in more developed countries. Additionally, international trade has expanded in a distinct manner that is linked to manufacturing processes.
20:
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53:. Such gender inequities allow multinational firms to greater exploit profits per worker than they would otherwise due to the decreased labor cost. This decrease in the cost of labor comes as a result of the relegation of women to certain occupations. Studies show that in the quest for lower unit labor costs, export-oriented facilities create poor working conditions.
130:
garment manufacturers to remain competitive, factory owners must keep wages low. Creating higher wages poses risks for factory owners that other countries accepting export orders will usurp their place. However, despite the allure that factory jobs provide for rural workers, rapidly falling wages risk alienating this mass of people.
104:
In a 2003 analysis of a
Chinese electronics producer, Pun Ngai found that surveyed workers sought employment by migrating from a variety of areas across the country and generally were employed for a period that was less than 36 months. The workers surveyed by Ngai were largely in their early 20s and
100:
Dominguez et al. (2010) note that in processing centers located in Mexico, employers favored hiring married females. In this context, Dominguez et al. note that married women were seen as more dependable and as a result of which, better employees. The same authors also note that employers put forth
96:
There is evidence to support the argument that women receive such perceived traits or skills in a non-formal and independent setting. However, as a result of which, women's skills employed in a factory setting are likely to be viewed as less valuable compared to other skill sets. Thus, women can be
92:
Gender roles vary by society, but are often based in social ideas that women have different natural abilities and a more suitable temperament for certain work as compared to men. Typically, women have been the preferred labor force in export-oriented factories because they allow for lower unit labor
296:
In 1999, Cambodia and the United States entered into a trade agreement known as the U.S./Cambodia
Bilateral Textile Trade Agreement. This agreement would initiate a program now known as "Better Factories Cambodia." With initial funding totaling $ 1.4 million, the program aimed to increase oversight
236:, women make up the majority of those employed, and are often the most vitriolic objectors to workplace injustices. In defying conventional norms that portray women as passive, Mill describes incidents where Thai activists shaved their heads and threaten to write protest letters in their own blood.
259:
Among other Asian countries, Bangladesh has extremely poor rights regarding unionization. There is evidence that this problem may be connected to, and exacerbated by, Bangladesh's reliance on exporting apparel goods in the past three decades. Highlighting the lack of collectivity, a mere 2 percent
153:
In discussions with
Cambodia's garment sector workers, many have noted that burdensome overtime was particularly strenuous, but also necessary because of falling wages. Moreover, workers in the industry have called for the option to choose when to engage in overtime hours, versus required overtime
149:
In 2012, evidence that workers in
Cambodia's garment sector were burdened by unreasonable overtime hours was found to be common place in factories monitored by "Better Factories Cambodia," a group originally designated to oversee and improve factory conditions. As product orders often ebb and flow,
246:
In 2014, workers employed in
Cambodia's garment industry, who are predominantly female, protested against the government's current minimum wage level. Some participants in Cambodia's Garment Manufacturing Association responded to protests by noting that products manufactured in Cambodia would move
162:
Pun Ngai has analyzed labor systems in
Chinese dormitories that are intertwined with production sites and labor. In this analysis, evidence is put forth that details how migrant laborers in export-processing areas have been forced into such residences that allow for complete worker control. This
292:
Despite the precariousness found in export-oriented factories, research has indicated that women in developing countries are satisfied by the opportunity to have a formal factory job, compared to the limited informal ways of making money. This contentment on the part of women is created via the
220:
engaged in protests against colleges that purchase goods created in the industrial apparel sector in order to sell with their personal namesakes. In their quest for better outcomes, some of the students in protest have urged universities to create special independent contracts with international
201:
In a report released in 2013, researchers found that industrial
Cambodian facilities overseen by "Better Factories Cambodia" had numerous issues related to workers' health and safety. Of the factories assessed, the majority had a lack of restroom sanitizing products, excessively high temperature
288:
Advocacy on behalf of labour rights can often come via governments and private groups from the global north. In this regard, many entities may support such a theme because of personal economic interest or indignation toward unfair labor practices. Comparatively, lesser developed countries and
268:
In light of deteriorating labor market standards abroad, widespread attention and criticism has been leveled at overseas manufacturers in hopes of creating a minimum standard for labor practices that would afford workers rights related to unionization and freedom from workplace discrimination.
255:
In
Cambodian export factories, workers often face hardship in regards to participating in unionization efforts that differ from that of management philosophy. Workers have noted deliberate efforts by managers to dismantle union activities, that have often included threats or the initiation of
129:
In the latter part of 2011, weekly payments for minimum wage workers in
Cambodia's garment industry totaled 8117 Riel. Despite the fact that workers have others who rely upon their wages, manufacturing entities are well aware that they do not provide sustainable wages. Moreover, for Cambodian
68:
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, developing countries emerged as the sites to relocate labor-intensive manufacturing industries, as they were moved away from developed countries. This expansionism has forced developing countries to create and sell assembled products and other goods to more
297:
by way of ILO employees in conjunction with bolstering the administrative abilities of the
Cambodian government. While the program has yielded positive results in regard to minimum wages and equitable timely payments, there are recurrent problems in regards to safety and excessive overtime.
208:, a former Bangladeshi child garment worker and industry activist, has described conditions where garment factory managers lock exit doors while workers are engaging in tasks. Akter notes that factory managers value the goods that are being produced instead of worker well-being.
166:
Additionally, dormitories of this kind can house hundreds of workers, where as many as twenty workers may share a room. While such conditions can be detrimental to workers, it can also be a shared source of discomfort through which workers may more easily unite for common causes.
183:
that killed approximately 300 people. Facing imminent death, many workers leapt from upper levels of the factory, leading to many injuries as they landed. Furthermore, tools to fight fires at the factory were lacking, and fire exits had been tampered with or were non-existent.
84:. By 2013, about 4 million people, mostly women, worked in Bangladesh's $ 19 billion-a-year industry, export-oriented ready-made garment (RMG) industry. Sixty percent of the export contracts of western brands are with European buyers and about forty percent with American buyers.
224:
Rachel Silvey has noted that efforts by college activists force local college administrators to make changes that have international effects. Such university protests challenge global neoliberal policies that are explicitly intertwined with current university policies.
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described as being relegated to an inferior status because their abilities are not equally valued. Finally, while women in factory settings are often unfairly demoted and forced into submissive roles, they are aware of their perceived lower status and do not accept it.
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costs. Additionally, women are often deemed more physically dexterous and are regarded as more tempered in reference to their personality. As a result of which, some have argued that women are stereotyped as being better able to complete tasks that are mundane.
101:
that such a system allowed the families of those hired to be better supported. However, Dominguez et al. claim such a stance by employers is a decision that relegates women to a specific role based on gender and allows for greater control of the given workers.
616:
From Nimble Fingers to Raised Fists: Women and Labor Activism in Globalizing Thailand. Mary Beth Mills. Signs, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Autumn 2005), pp. 117–144. Published by: The University of Chicago Press. Article DOI: 10.1086/431370. Article Stable URL:
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control comes from the dormitory grounds being secured by security guards that prevent worker exits. This structure is often rationalized as a benefit to the workers, whom the factory owners view as being in need of security and extra discipline.
150:
managers require extended hours from their employees. Additionally, managers can eliminate additional costs by imposing excessive overtime on fewer workers, versus giving a greater share of benefits to a larger population with less overtime.
385:
DomĂnguez, E., Icaza, R., Quintero, C., LĂłpez, S., & Stenman, Ă…. (2010). Women Workers in the Maquiladoras and the Debate on Global Labor Standards. Feminist Economics, 16(4), 185–209. doi:10.1080/13545701.2010.530603
72:
From the 1970s forward, the global marketplace and the makeup of the labor force has had transformations by way of technological innovation, work structure, and new forms of controlling labor. Because of changes in the wider
45:. Such factories produce goods and services for sale in other countries. While these multinational producers have globally expanded women's access to employment, evidence suggests they do so by reinforcing traditional
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Trade, Monitoring, and the ILO: Working to Improve Conditions in Cambodia's Garment Factories, Yale Human Rights and Development Law Journal Vol. 7, 2004, pp. 79–107 (7 Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L. J. 79)
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Elson, D. & Pearson, R. (1981). "The Subordination of Women and Internationalization of Factory Production" in K. Young et al. Of Marriage and the Market, CSE 214–216; 219–221
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private groups in those countries are often skeptical of such trade agreements as they view the implementation of labor rights policies as being designed to further enrich the global north.
191:, killing at least 1000 people and injuring approximately 2500 others. A worker noted a blatant structural flaw before the collapse, however, factory management allowed work to continue.
243:, a Bangladeshi labor supporter, was found murdered. Highlighting the intensity of the struggle between laborers and owners, reports indicate that Islam was tortured prior to his death.
431:
Kabeer, N. (2004). "Globalization, Labor Standards, and Women’s Rights: Dilemmas of Collective (In)action in an Interdependent World." Feminist Economics. 10(1): 3–35.
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International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic, Stanford Law School & Workers Rights Consortium. (2013, February) "Monitoring in the dark." Retrieved from
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Pun, N. (2007) "Gendering the Dormitory Labor System: Production, Reproduction and Migrant Labor in south China." Feminist Economics. 13 (3–4): 239–258.
65:. This opportunity, which has increased since the latter part of the 1960s, represents the production of goods to be sold explicitly to more developed countries.
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Silvey, R. (2004). A Wrench in the Global Works: Anti-Sweatshop Activism on Campus. Antipode, 36(2), 191–197. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2004.00398.x
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Labour Activist sheds light on working conditions in Bangladeshi sweatshops . Public Service Alliance of Canada. (2013, December 16). Retrieved from
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Intertwined in this attention, critics have looked to connect such minimum standards to broader global trading treaties. This pairing, known as a "
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Berik, G., & Van Der Meulen Rodgers, Y. (2008). Options for Enforcing Labour Standards: Lessons from Bangladesh and Cambodia.
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Standing, G. (1999). "Global Feminization through Flexible Labor: A Theme Revisited." World Development 27 (3): 583–586.
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adjusted wages decrease by nearly 17%. These wages are expected to continue to fall almost twofold through the year of 2014.
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343:; Grown, Caren (November 2006). "Gender equity and globalization: macroeconomic policy for developing countries".
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http://humanrightsclinic.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Monitoring-in-the-Dark-Stanford-WRC.pdf
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ability to garner greater independence as well as having increasing oversight within their homes.
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564:"World News: Latest International Headlines, Video, and Breaking Stories From Around The Globe"
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Narin, S., & Wong, C. H. (2014 January 2). Cambodian Garment Workers return to streets.
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Appelbaum, R., & Dreier, P. (2005). Students Confront Sweatshops. Nation, 281(18), 28.
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In an examination of Chinese factories producing electronic goods for the west, including
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http://psacunion.ca/labour-activist-sheds-light-working-conditions-bangladeshi-sweatshops
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Currently one of the most significant examples of export-oriented employment is the
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conventions into trade agreements and attach penalties to those that do not.
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126:, reporting indicates that workers are often paid less than US$ 2 per hour.
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Employment in multinational corporations' international industrial factories
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632:"Killing of Bangladeshi Labor Organizer Signals an Escalation in Violence"
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Beginning at the start of the millennium and ending in 2010, workers in
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Work in international factories has become an option for women in
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718:
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452:"Bangladesh urges no harsh EU measures over factory deaths"
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collapsed killing several people and injuring many others.
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International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic
41:' international industrial factories, usually located in
273:", aims to force international trade bodies such as the
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216:
In 2005, students at a variety of universities in the
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540:"At Least 200 Die in Bangladesh Building Collapse"
202:levels, and no access to safe water for drinking.
630:Manik, Julfikar Ali; Bajaj, Vikas (2012-04-10).
175:In 2012, a fire erupted in a garment factory in
514:"Bangladesh factory collapse toll passes 1,000"
489:"Deadly Karachi blaze was 'waiting to happen'"
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450:Paul, Ruma; Quadir, Serajul (4 May 2013).
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189:a garment factory in Bangladesh collapsed
538:Banjo, Syed Zain Al-Mahmood and Shelly.
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260:of employees were active in unions.
105:nearly three-quarters were female.
137:'s garment sector have seen their
88:Women as the preferred labor force
14:
714:International Labour Organization
372:Pdf version - via the World Bank.
312:Export-oriented industrialization
279:International Labour Organization
2307:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
2194:Labor spies in the United States
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2128:Enterprise bargaining agreement
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681:, (22), 56–85. doi: 10.1002/jid
2377:Occupational safety and health
277:(WTO) to integrate seven core
1:
1736:Duty of fair representation
1676:National trade union center
822:Environmental globalization
797:Anti-globalization movement
82:Bangladesh textile industry
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2133:Global Framework Agreement
970:Offshore financial centres
251:Unions and workers' rights
194:In 2013 a shoe factory in
39:multinational corporations
31:Export-oriented employment
2428:International development
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1550:
756:
2312:Equal pay for equal work
2148:Union security agreement
2118:Collaborative bargaining
1767:Social movement unionism
812:Democratic globalization
709:World Trade Organization
275:World Trade Organization
154:work delegated to them.
1958:Occupation of factories
1681:Global union federation
1094:Investor-state disputes
1047:Illicit financial flows
891:Political globalization
839:Global financial system
664:The Wall Street Journal
2433:Economic globalization
2317:Exploitation of labour
1998:Organizational dissent
1435:Christopher Chase-Dunn
1203:Primitive accumulation
886:Military globalization
817:Economic globalization
802:Cultural globalization
317:Gender and development
27:
2174:Workers' compensation
2123:Collective bargaining
1777:Members-only unionism
250:
22:
1787:Open-source unionism
1701:Father of the chapel
1691:Union representative
1500:Immanuel Wallerstein
1161:Capital accumulation
1027:Endangered languages
63:developing countries
43:developing countries
2382:Occupational stress
2236:Demarcation dispute
2219:Anti-union violence
1843:Industrial unionism
1802:Solidarity unionism
1716:Vigilance committee
1696:Clerk of the chapel
1572:Business portal
1131:Transnational crime
1037:Forced displacement
1022:Economic inequality
896:Trade globalization
792:Alter-globalization
51:gender inequalities
2367:Professional abuse
2169:Union wage premium
2143:Pattern bargaining
2078:Solidarity actions
1938:Diversity training
1772:Community unionism
1345:Andre Gunder Frank
1119:Race to the bottom
1109:North–South divide
827:Global citizenship
636:The New York Times
341:Seguino, Stephanie
109:Working conditions
28:
2410:
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2292:Conflict theories
2287:Four-day workweek
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2003:Industrial action
1912:Union co-op model
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1828:Independent union
1792:Business unionism
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1405:K. Anthony Appiah
1400:Daniele Archibugi
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938:COVID-19 pandemic
844:Global governance
454:. Dhaka: Reuters.
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2423:Global workforce
2297:Critique of work
2272:35-hour workweek
2063:Pen-down strikes
2019:
1870:Shops and hiring
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1757:Organizing model
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1260:Jagdish Bhagwati
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1124:pollution havens
1089:Invasive species
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859:Global workforce
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351:(8): 1081–1104.
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1933:Contingent work
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1430:Manuel Castells
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1250:Richard Baldwin
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1181:Fiscal localism
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1099:McDonaldization
1017:Development aid
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955:Multilingualism
950:Labor arbitrage
926:Climate justice
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854:Global politics
807:Deglobalization
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26:garden worker
25:
21:
2397:Wage slavery
2357:Maximum wage
2352:Minimum wage
2282:Six-hour day
2265:Other topics
2157:Compensation
2013:Work-to-rule
1953:Labor revolt
1907:Scope clause
1848:Police union
1686:Unionization
1628:Labor rights
1533:John R. Saul
1518:Noam Chomsky
1510:Non–academic
1450:Susan George
1445:Nancy Fraser
1415:Walden Bello
1360:David Harvey
1350:Stephen Gill
1270:Jayati Ghosh
1176:Earth system
1042:Human rights
982:Water crisis
879:early modern
686:
678:
663:
658:
647:. Retrieved
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571:. Retrieved
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522:. Retrieved
520:. 2013-05-10
517:
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497:. Retrieved
495:. 2012-09-12
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241:Aminul Islam
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232:industry in
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75:labor market
71:
67:
60:
47:gender roles
30:
29:
2302:Decent work
2256:Union raids
2246:Goon squads
2214:Paper local
2068:Recognition
2008:Unfair list
1928:Bossnapping
1897:Hiring hall
1887:Agency shop
1877:Closed shop
1807:Syndicalism
1731:Trades hall
1721:Union label
1706:Local union
1638:Trade union
1528:Naomi Klein
1410:Ulrich Beck
1385:Politics /
1375:Robert Wade
1365:Ronen Palan
1355:Peter Gowan
1305:Amartya Sen
1295:Dani Rodrik
1245:David Autor
1171:Development
1052:Imperialism
1000:Brain drain
247:elsewhere.
114:Wage levels
2443:Employment
2417:Categories
2372:Protection
2342:Labor code
2337:Job strain
2164:Strike pay
2106:Bargaining
2053:Green bans
2046:newspapers
1892:Union shop
1861:Industrial
1711:Union dues
1470:Paul Hirst
1465:David Held
1330:Samir Amin
1320:Political
1255:Ravi Batra
1196:history of
1191:ecological
1166:Dependency
1114:Offshoring
1077:scientific
1067:linguistic
1032:Fair trade
1012:Care drain
965:Tax havens
960:Population
869:History of
649:2023-03-02
573:2023-03-02
549:2023-03-02
524:2023-03-02
499:2023-03-02
328:References
256:violence.
35:employment
33:refers to
2347:Labor law
2204:Givebacks
2187:Reactions
1988:Stay-away
1973:Picketing
1968:Precarity
1948:Grievance
1882:Open shop
1863:relations
1659:Structure
1652:Formation
1495:John Urry
1387:sociology
1237:Economics
1141:World war
864:Globality
832:education
644:0362-4331
353:CiteSeerX
139:inflation
124:Microsoft
2402:Workload
2387:Overwork
1983:Slowdown
1560:Category
1229:scholars
1154:Theories
1062:cultural
1057:academic
761:Journals
568:NBC News
518:BBC News
493:BBC News
301:See also
264:Policies
239:In 2012
234:Thailand
212:Activism
196:Cambodia
181:Pakistan
135:Cambodia
2088:Whipsaw
2083:Walkout
1978:Salting
1921:Actions
1322:economy
1227:Notable
1005:reverse
933:Disease
874:archaic
785:Aspects
776:Studies
771:Outline
691:(2004).
228:In the
177:Karachi
158:Control
57:History
2438:Export
2031:Hartal
1943:Gherao
1750:Models
1082:social
913:Global
905:Issues
642:
355:
281:(ILO)
2041:Bandh
1816:Types
1072:media
992:Other
145:Hours
120:Apple
1902:Bump
1726:Salt
640:ISSN
122:and
544:WSJ
363:doi
37:in
2419::
670:^
638:.
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369:.
365::
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