1391:, which enter the synapse between two neurons known as the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons; if the signal from the presynaptic neuron is excitatory, it will cause the release of an excitatory neurotransmitter, causing a similar response in the postsynaptic neuron. These neurons may communicate with thousands of other receptors and target cells through extensive, complex dendritic networks. Communication between receptors in this fashion enables discrimination and the more explicit interpretation of external stimuli. Effectively, these localized graded potentials trigger action potentials that communicate, in their frequency, along nerve axons eventually arriving in specific cortexes of the brain. In these also highly specialized parts of the brain, these signals are coordinated with others to possibly trigger a new response.
1241:
the head or when the body undergoes linear acceleration, these crystals move disturbing the cilia of the hair cells and, consequently, affecting the release of neurotransmitter to be taken up by surrounding sensory nerves. In other areas of the semi circular canal, specifically the ampulla, a structure known as the cupula—analogous to the gelatinous material in the maculae—distorts hair cells in a similar fashion when the fluid medium that surrounds it causes the cupula itself to move. The ampulla communicates to the brain information about the head's horizontal rotation. Neurons of the adjacent vestibular ganglia monitor the hair cells in these ducts. These sensory fibers form the vestibular branch of the
1281:
extracellular matrix, for example, is a conductor of mechanical forces but its structure and composition is also influenced by the cellular responses to those same applied or endogenously generated forces. Mechanosensitive ion channels are found in many cell types and it has been shown that the permeability of these channels to cations is affected by stretch receptors and mechanical stimuli. This permeability of ion channels is the basis for the conversion of the mechanical stimulus into an electrical signal.
33:
1521:. The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response.
772:
1165:, and are generally turned over every ten days. From each cell, protrudes microvilli, sometimes called taste hairs, through also the taste pore and into the oral cavity. Dissolved chemicals interact with these receptor cells; different tastes bind to specific receptors. Salt and sour receptors are chemically gated ion channels, which depolarize the cell. Sweet, bitter, and umami receptors are called
759:
1105:, the superior portion of the perpendicular plate, the superior nasal concha. Only roughly two percent of airborne compounds inhaled are carried to olfactory organs as a small sample of the air being inhaled. Olfactory receptors extend past the epithelial surface providing a base for many cilia that lie in the surrounding mucus. Odorant-binding proteins interact with these
954:. These impulses inhibit the constriction of blood vessels and lower the heart rate. If these nerves do not detect stretching, the body determines perceives low blood pressure as a dangerous stimulus and signals are not sent, preventing the inhibition CNS action; blood vessels constrict and the heart rate increases, causing an increase in blood pressure in the body.
57:
1496:. Epinephrine causes physiological changes in the body, such as constriction of blood vessels, dilation of pupils, increased heart and respiratory rate, and the metabolism of glucose. All of these responses to a single stimuli aid in protecting the individual, whether the decision is made to stay and fight, or run away and avoid danger.
1383:, which means that it cannot be stopped. This phenomenon is known as an all-or-nothing response. Groups of sodium channels opened by the change in membrane potential strengthen the signal as it travels away from the axon hillock, allowing it to move the length of the axon. As the depolarization reaches the end of the axon, or the
967:
Sensory feelings, especially pain, are stimuli that can elicit a large response and cause neurological changes in the body. Pain also causes a behavioral change in the body, which is proportional to the intensity of the pain. The feeling is recorded by sensory receptors on the skin and travels to the
1945:
Botstein, David; Ball, J. Michael; Blake, Michael; Botstein, Catherine A.; Butler, Judith A.; Cherry, Heather; Davis, Allan P.; Dolinski, Kara; Dwight, Selina S.; Eppig, Janan T.; Harris, Midori A.; Hill, David P.; Issel-Tarver, Laurie; Kasarskis, Andrew; Lewis, Suzanna; Matese, John C.; Richardson,
1569:
Intracellular measurements of electrical potential across the membrane can be obtained by microelectrode recording. Patch clamp techniques allow for the manipulation of the intracellular or extracellular ionic or lipid concentration while still recording potential. In this way, the effect of various
1545:
alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to
1439:
on the surface of the muscle cell and opens ion channels, allowing sodium ions to flow into the cell and potassium ions to flow out; this ion movement causes a depolarization, which allows for the release of calcium ions within the cell. Calcium ions bind to proteins within the muscle cell to allow
1007:
for touch is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from touch receptors. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be the force exerted by dropping the wing of a bee onto a person's cheek from a distance of one centimeter. This value will change
1240:
in these parts of the ear protrude kinocilia and stereocilia into a gelatinous material that lines the ducts of this canal. In parts of these semi circular canals, specifically the maculae, calcium carbonate crystals known as statoconia rest on the surface of this gelatinous material. When tilting
1402:
in the postsynaptic neuron. This response will cause the postsynaptic neuron to become permeable to chloride ions, making the membrane potential of the cell negative; a negative membrane potential makes it more difficult for the cell to fire an action potential and prevents any signal from being
1280:
In response to a mechanical stimulus, cellular sensors of force are proposed to be extracellular matrix molecules, cytoskeleton, transmembrane proteins, proteins at the membrane-phospholipid interface, elements of the nuclear matrix, chromatin, and the lipid bilayer. Response can be twofold: the
1259:
In general, cellular response to stimuli is defined as a change in state or activity of a cell in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, or gene expression. Receptors on cell surfaces are sensing components that monitor stimuli and respond to changes in the environment by relaying the
1129:
for smell is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the nose. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a single drop of perfume in a six-room house. This value will change depending on what substance is being smelled.
1588:
Positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) permit the noninvasive visualization of activated regions of the brain while the test subject is exposed to different stimuli. Activity is monitored in relation to blood flow to a particular region of the brain.
1200:, which articulates with the auditory ossicles, or the bones of the middle ear. These tiny bones multiply these pressure fluctuations as they pass the disturbance into the cochlea, a spiral-shaped bony structure within the inner ear. Hair cells in the cochlear duct, specifically the
1597:
Hindlimb withdrawal time is another method. Sorin Barac et al. in a recent paper published in the
Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery monitored the response of test rats to pain stimuli by inducing an acute, external heat stimulus and measuring hindlimb withdrawal times (HLWT).
1473:, a hormone which causes the retention of water in the kidneys. This process also increases an individual's thirst. By fluid retention or by consuming fluids, if an individual's blood pressure returns to normal, vasopressin release slows and less fluid is retained by the kidneys.
1204:, are deflected as waves of fluid and membrane motion travel through the chambers of the cochlea. Bipolar sensory neurons located in the center of the cochlea monitor the information from these receptor cells and pass it on to the brainstem via the cochlear branch of
1272:. Sensory receptors have a well-defined range of stimuli to which they respond, and each is tuned to the particular needs of the organism. Stimuli are relayed throughout the body by mechanotransduction or chemotransduction, depending on the nature of the stimulus.
972:, where it is integrated and a decision on how to respond is made; if it is decided that a response must be made, a signal is sent back down to a muscle, which behaves appropriately according to the stimulus. The postcentral gyrus is the location of the
1048:, and the body does not react. However, if the stimulus is strong enough to create an action potential in neurons away from the photoreceptor, the body will integrate the information and react appropriately. Visual information is processed in the
1223:
for sound is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the ears. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a watch ticking in an otherwise soundless environment 20 feet away.
999:
receptors are myelinated and conduct currents rapidly. They are mainly used to conduct fast and sharp types of pain. Conversely, C-fiber receptors are unmyelinated and slowly transmit. These receptors conduct slow, burning, diffuse pain.
2466:
Ionac, Mihai; Jiga, A.; Barac, Teodora; Hoinoiu, Beatrice; Dellon, Sorin; Ionac, Lucian (2012). "Hindpaw
Withdrawal from a Painful Thermal Stimulus after Sciatic Nerve Compression and Decompression in the Diabetic Rat".
1109:
stimulating the receptors. Odorants are generally small organic molecules. Greater water and lipid solubility is related directly to stronger smelling odorants. Odorant binding to G protein coupled receptors activates
925:
which detect sound stimuli. Homeostatic imbalances that can serve as internal stimuli include nutrient and ion levels in the blood, oxygen levels, and water levels. Deviations from the homeostatic ideal may generate a
880:(CNS), where it is integrated and a decision on how to react is made. Although stimuli commonly cause the body to respond, it is the CNS that finally determines whether a signal causes a reaction or not.
1268:, takes a specific pathway through the nervous system to initiate a systematic response. Each type of receptor is specialized to respond preferentially to only one kind of stimulus energy, called the
36:
The light from the lamp (1.) functions as a detectable change in the plant's environment. As a result, the plant exhibits a reaction of phototropism—directional growth (2.) toward the light stimulus.
1184:
for taste is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from receptors in the mouth. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a single drop of
1304:
initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one. Sensitivity to stimuli is obtained by chemical amplification through
1067:
in the eye. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be the amount of light present from someone holding up a single candle 30 miles away, if one's eyes were
901:
outbalances are the main driving force for changes of the body. These stimuli are monitored closely by receptors and sensors in different parts of the body. These sensors are
1371:. If a graded potential is strong enough, or if several graded potentials occur in a fast enough frequency, the depolarization is able to spread across the cell body to the
1348:
which cause the cell to become permeable to a specific type of ion; the type of neurotransmitter determines to which ion the neurotransmitter will become permeable. In
1513:
can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the
1387:, the end of the neuron becomes permeable to calcium ions, which enters the cell via calcium ion channels. Calcium causes the release of neurotransmitters stored in
1289:
Chemical stimuli, such as odorants, are received by cellular receptors that are often coupled to ion channels responsible for chemotransduction. Such is the case in
1379:, causing sodium ion channels in the axon to open as the impulse travels. Once the signal begins to travel down the axon, the membrane potential has already passed
1427:. When muscles receive information from internal or external stimuli, muscle fibers are stimulated by their respective motor neuron. Impulses are passed from the
1016:
Vision provides opportunity for the brain to perceive and respond to changes occurring around the body. Information, or stimuli, in the form of light enters the
1044:
must be created for the signal to have enough strength to reach the CNS. If the stimulus does not warrant a strong enough response, it is said to not reach
1488:, also known as adrenaline, is also used commonly to respond to both internal and external changes. One common cause of the release of this hormone is the
803:
93:
1359:
This change in membrane permeability in the dendrites is known as a local graded potential and causes the membrane voltage to change from a negative
1367:. The opening of sodium channels allows nearby sodium channels to open, allowing the change in permeability to spread from the dendrites to the
1929:
1803:
1293:. Depolarization in these cells result from opening of non-selective cation channels upon binding of the odorant to the specific receptor.
930:, such as pain, thirst or fatigue, that motivates behavior that will restore the body to stasis (such as withdrawal, drinking or resting).
709:
490:
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Giduck, SA; Threatte, RM; Kare, MR (1987). "Cephalic reflexes: Their role in digestion and possible roles in absorption and metabolism".
704:
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that, respectively, respond to pressure or stretching, chemical changes, or temperature changes. Examples of mechanoreceptors include
1332:, internal and external stimuli can elicit two different categories of responses: an excitatory response, normally in the form of an
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in which enzymatic cascades produce large numbers of intermediate products, increasing the effect of one receptor molecule.
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signal to a control center for further processing and response. Stimuli are always converted into electrical signals via
1995:
Janmey, Paul A.; McCulloch, Christopher A. (2007). "Cell
Mechanics: Integrating Cell Responses to Mechanical Stimuli".
1236:, can interpret and convey to the brain information about equilibrium by a similar method as the one used for hearing.
1612:
1294:
1170:
973:
2073:
Nakamura, Tadashi; Gold, Geoffrey H. (1987). "A cyclic nucleotide-gated conductance in olfactory receptor cilia".
1403:
passed on through the neuron. Depending on the type of stimulus, a neuron can be either excitatory or inhibitory.
1356:
binding to a neuron's dendrites, causing an influx of sodium ions through channels located near the binding site.
1412:
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in the plasma membrane of these cells can initiate second messenger pathways that cause cation channels to open.
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1492:. When the body encounters an external stimulus that is potentially dangerous, epinephrine is released from the
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to which it is connected. The spot at which the motor neuron attaches to the muscle fiber is known as the
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1529:, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.
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1101:. The olfactory epithelium, which contains olfactory receptor cells, covers the inferior surface of the
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embed themselves within these receptors and when they detect stretching, they are stimulated and fire
872:. In order for a stimulus to be detected with high probability, its level of strength must exceed the
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1352:, an excitatory response is generated. This is caused by an excitatory neurotransmitter, normally
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1948:"Gene ontology: Tool for the unification of biology. The Gene Ontology Consortium TEGAN LOURENS"
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Goligorsky, Michael S. (2001). "The concept of cellular 'fight-or-flight' reaction to stress".
1375:. From the axon hillock, an action potential can be generated and propagated down the neuron's
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If a signal from the presynaptic neuron is inhibitory, inhibitory neurotransmitters, normally
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Blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output are measured by stretch receptors found in the
918:
868:. External stimuli are capable of producing systemic responses throughout the body, as in the
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355:
188:
126:
2030:
Ingber, D. E. (1997). "Tensegrity: The
Architectural Basis of Cellular Mechanotransduction".
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is affected largely by many internal and external stimuli. One internal stimulus that causes
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Baylis, PH (1987). "Osmoregulation and control of vasopressin secretion in healthy humans".
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Eccles, J. C. (1966). "The Ionic
Mechanisms of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Action".
2008:
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1173:. Both divisions of receptor cells release neurotransmitters to afferent fibers causing
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found in the skin or light receptors in the eye, as well as from inside the body, as in
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1972:
1947:
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1122:, in turn, promotes the opening of sodium channels resulting in a localized potential.
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1477:, or low fluid levels in the body, can also act as a stimulus to cause this response.
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2384:"Anticipatory physiological regulation in feeding biology: Cephalic phase responses"
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English, Arthur W; Wolf, Steven L (1982). "The motor unit. Anatomy and physiology".
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down neurons until they reach the motor neuron, which releases the neurotransmitter
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Joel E.; Ringwald, Martin; Rubin, Gerald M.; Sherlock, Gavin; Sherlock, G (2000).
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Though receptors and stimuli are varied, most extrinsic stimuli first generate
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allows the body to recognize chemical molecules in the air through inhalation.
1063:
for vision is the minimum amount of sensation needed to elicit a response from
758:
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Changes in pressure caused by sound reaching the external ear resonate in the
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in the neurons associated with the specific sensory organ or tissue. In the
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enough for the impulse to be passed along through a track of neurons to the
922:
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876:; if a signal does reach threshold, the information is transmitted to the
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and through the mouth. Gustatory cells are located on the surface of the
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Nicholls, John; Martin, A. Robert; Wallace, Bruce; Fuchs, Paul (2001).
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is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or
1469:, or low blood pressure, is a large driving force for the release of
1337:
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856:. When a stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor, it can elicit a
330:
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will be released into the synapse. This neurotransmitter causes an
1141:
records flavoring of food and other materials that pass across the
1963:
1701:
Craig, A D (2003). "A new view of pain as a homeostatic emotion".
1138:
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for muscle contraction; the ultimate consequence of a stimulus.
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136:
1040:. As the signal travels from photoreceptors to larger neurons,
27:
Detectable change in the internal or external surroundings
1570:
conditions on threshold and propagation can be assessed.
1232:
Semi circular ducts, which are connected directly to the
864:. An internal stimulus is often the first component of a
1924:(2nd ed.). San Frascisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings.
1435:(ACh) into the neuromuscular junction. ACh binds to
1415:spread out to various parts of the body, including
921:which can detect sustained touch and pressure, and
1766:
1669:"Excitability – Latest research and news | Nature"
1032:begins in the photoreceptor, where it excites the
1340:is stimulated by an excitatory impulse, neuronal
844:can receive stimuli from outside the body, as in
2300:American Journal of Physiology. Renal Physiology
1825:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1363:to a more positive voltage, a process known as
1819:Stucky, C. L.; Gold, M. S.; Zhang, X. (2001).
797:
8:
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2126:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1758:
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976:, the main sensory receptive area for the
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790:
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2407:
2382:Power, Michael L.; Schulkin, Jay (2008).
2358:
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1971:
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1911:
1909:
1907:
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1798:(5th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
1773:(4th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
1546:aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.
1641:Prescriptivist's Corner: Foreign Plurals
1208:. Sound information is processed in the
917:which detect changes in blood pressure,
1997:Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering
1696:
1694:
1633:
840:and leads to a physiological reaction.
47:
2469:Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery
2009:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.9.060906.151927
1920:Martini, Frederic; Nath, Judi (2010).
1890:from the original on 28 September 2016
1874:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1821:"From the Academy: Mechanisms of pain"
1008:based on the body part being touched.
1336:, and an inhibitory response. When a
1020:, where it excites a special type of
7:
2209:from the original on 25 October 2023
1679:from the original on 5 November 2021
2181:The Journal of Experimental Biology
2265:The American Journal of Physiology
2146:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1966.tb50176.x
1350:excitatory postsynaptic potentials
25:
1437:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
1400:inhibitory postsynaptic potential
2312:10.1152/ajprenal.2001.280.4.f551
2044:10.1146/annurev.physiol.59.1.575
1212:of the CNS, specifically in the
1052:of the CNS, specifically in the
771:
770:
757:
55:
2277:10.1152/ajpregu.1987.253.5.R671
1884:Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology
1550:Research methods and techniques
991:exist, A-fiber nociceptors and
1089:located on either side of the
836:by an organism or organ using
1:
1715:10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00123-1
1574:Noninvasive neuronal scanning
1264:. This electrical signal, or
1149:and adjacent portions of the
1300:In response to stimuli, the
983:Pain receptors are known as
2400:10.1016/j.appet.2007.10.006
2032:Annual Review of Physiology
1613:Sensory stimulation therapy
1295:G protein-coupled receptors
1171:G protein coupled receptors
2529:
1577:
1558:
1252:
1157:. Gustatory cells form on
974:primary somatosensory area
866:homeostatic control system
2175:Pitman, Robert M (1984).
1500:Digestive-system response
1444:Endocrine-system response
1419:. A muscle fiber and the
1413:peripheral nervous system
1306:second messenger pathways
1188:in 250 gallons of water.
710:List of unsolved problems
2433:The Journal of Nutrition
1922:Anatomy & Physiology
1490:Fight-or-flight response
1407:Muscular-system response
870:fight-or-flight response
705:List of research methods
2177:"The versatile synapse"
1703:Trends in Neurosciences
1317:Nervous-system response
1214:primary auditory cortex
176:Response to environment
2481:10.1055/s-0032-1328917
2242:10.1093/ptj/62.12.1763
1838:10.1073/pnas.211373398
1543:enteric nervous system
1533:Enteric nervous system
1429:central nervous system
1425:neuromuscular junction
1038:central nervous system
970:central nervous system
952:central nervous system
894:Homeostatic imbalances
878:central nervous system
695:List of biology awards
301:Biological engineering
37:
2445:10.1093/jn/117.7.1191
2194:10.1242/jeb.112.1.199
1794:Purves, Dale (2012).
1623:Stimulus (psychology)
1054:primary visual cortex
862:stimulus transduction
832:. This change can be
828:internal or external
386:Developmental biology
361:Computational biology
341:Cellular microbiology
35:
2351:10.1136/hrt.34.9.869
1880:"Absolute Threshold"
1769:From Neuron to Brain
1095:olfactory epithelium
1069:adjusted to the dark
987:. Two main types of
728:Agricultural science
606:Reproductive biology
491:Mathematical biology
416:Evolutionary biology
366:Conservation biology
2333:Fluck, D C (1972).
2138:1966NYASA.137..473E
2087:1987Natur.325..442N
1658:is in general use."
1646:17 May 2019 at the
1555:Clamping techniques
1312:Systematic response
928:homeostatic emotion
733:Biomedical sciences
391:Ecological genetics
43:Part of a series on
2271:(5 Pt 2): R671–8.
1650:: "Biologists use
1266:receptor potential
1243:cranial nerve VIII
1221:absolute threshold
1206:cranial nerve VIII
1182:absolute threshold
1127:absolute threshold
1061:absolute threshold
1046:absolute threshold
1026:photoreceptor cell
1005:absolute threshold
874:absolute threshold
764:Biology portal
616:Structural biology
601:Relational biology
426:Generative biology
421:Freshwater biology
38:
1931:978-0-321-59713-7
1805:978-0-87893-695-3
1389:synaptic vesicles
1361:resting potential
1346:neurotransmitters
1326:graded potentials
1270:adequate stimulus
1249:Cellular response
1198:tympanic membrane
1114:, which converts
1112:adenylate cyclase
1042:action potentials
948:action potentials
842:Sensory receptors
824:is a change in a
814:
813:
738:Health technology
621:Synthetic biology
501:Molecular biology
356:Cognitive biology
151:Energy processing
18:External stimulus
16:(Redirected from
2520:
2493:
2492:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2394:(2–3): 194–206.
2379:
2373:
2372:
2362:
2335:"Catecholamines"
2330:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2230:Physical Therapy
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2196:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2095:10.1038/325442a0
2070:
2064:
2063:
2027:
2021:
2020:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1975:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1917:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1876:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1840:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1772:
1762:
1735:
1734:
1698:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1665:
1659:
1638:
1539:digestive system
1511:digestive system
1455:endocrine system
1334:action potential
1302:sensory receptor
1175:action potential
1163:epithelial cells
1030:graded potential
940:carotid arteries
903:mechanoreceptors
854:mechanoreceptors
806:
799:
792:
779:
774:
773:
766:
762:
761:
700:List of journals
346:Chemical biology
59:
40:
21:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2513:Plant cognition
2508:Neurophysiology
2498:
2497:
2496:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2381:
2380:
2376:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2236:(12): 1763–72.
2227:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2081:(6103): 442–4.
2072:
2071:
2067:
2029:
2028:
2024:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1952:Nature Genetics
1944:
1943:
1939:
1932:
1919:
1918:
1903:
1893:
1891:
1878:
1877:
1864:
1831:(21): 11845–6.
1818:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1764:
1763:
1738:
1700:
1699:
1692:
1682:
1680:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1648:Wayback Machine
1639:
1635:
1631:
1604:
1595:
1586:
1578:Main articles:
1576:
1567:
1559:Main articles:
1557:
1552:
1535:
1527:mechanorceptors
1507:
1502:
1483:
1451:
1446:
1409:
1319:
1314:
1291:olfactory cells
1287:
1278:
1257:
1251:
1230:
1194:
1186:quinine sulfate
1136:
1103:cribiform plate
1077:
1014:
965:
960:
936:
911:thermoreceptors
896:
891:
886:
846:touch receptors
810:
769:
756:
755:
748:
747:
723:
715:
714:
681:
673:
672:
671:
670:
631:Systems biology
596:Quantum biology
239:
231:
230:
195:
180:
142:
131:
107:
99:
64:
62:Science of life
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2526:
2524:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2494:
2458:
2423:
2374:
2325:
2306:(4): F551–61.
2290:
2255:
2220:
2167:
2116:
2065:
2022:
1987:
1937:
1930:
1901:
1862:
1811:
1804:
1786:
1779:
1736:
1690:
1673:www.nature.com
1660:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1575:
1572:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1534:
1531:
1523:Chemoreceptors
1515:cephalic phase
1506:
1505:Cephalic phase
1503:
1501:
1498:
1494:adrenal glands
1482:
1479:
1463:blood pressure
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1411:Nerves in the
1408:
1405:
1365:depolarization
1330:nervous system
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1286:
1283:
1277:
1274:
1255:Cell signaling
1253:Main article:
1250:
1247:
1229:
1226:
1202:organ of Corti
1193:
1190:
1169:, specialized
1161:, specialized
1135:
1132:
1099:lamina propria
1076:
1073:
1065:photoreceptors
1050:occipital lobe
1013:
1010:
978:sense of touch
964:
963:Touch and pain
961:
959:
956:
935:
934:Blood pressure
932:
919:Merkel's discs
907:chemoreceptors
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
850:chemoreceptors
826:living thing's
812:
811:
809:
808:
801:
794:
786:
783:
782:
781:
780:
767:
750:
749:
746:
745:
740:
735:
730:
724:
721:
720:
717:
716:
713:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
682:
679:
678:
675:
674:
669:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
486:Marine biology
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
296:Bioinformatics
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
242:
241:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
206:
201:
194:
193:
179:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
141:
140:
135:Properties of
130:
129:
124:
119:
114:
108:
106:Key components
105:
104:
101:
100:
98:
97:
86:
85:
80:
75:
69:
66:
65:
60:
52:
51:
45:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2525:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2462:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2439:(7): 1191–6.
2438:
2434:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:(9): 869–73.
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2221:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2132:(2): 473–94.
2131:
2127:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2066:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1964:10.1038/75556
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1780:0-87893-439-1
1776:
1771:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1599:
1593:Other methods
1592:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1566:
1565:Current clamp
1562:
1561:Voltage clamp
1554:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1433:acetylcholine
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:muscle fibers
1414:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1385:axon terminal
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1344:are bound by
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1324:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1282:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1210:temporal lobe
1207:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1001:
998:
995:nociceptors.
994:
990:
986:
981:
979:
975:
971:
962:
957:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
933:
931:
929:
924:
920:
916:
915:baroreceptors
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
888:
883:
881:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
807:
802:
800:
795:
793:
788:
787:
785:
784:
778:
768:
765:
760:
754:
753:
752:
751:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
725:
719:
718:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
687:
684:
683:
677:
676:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
566:Phylogenetics
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
461:Human biology
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
351:Chronobiology
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
326:Biotechnology
324:
322:
321:Biostatistics
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
243:
235:
234:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
196:
192:
190:
186:
182:
181:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
143:
139:
138:
133:
132:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
103:
102:
95:
91:
88:
87:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
70:
68:
67:
63:
58:
54:
53:
50:
46:
42:
41:
34:
30:
19:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2391:
2387:
2377:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2213:14 September
2211:. Retrieved
2184:
2180:
2170:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1955:
1951:
1940:
1921:
1892:. Retrieved
1883:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1796:Neuroscience
1795:
1789:
1768:
1709:(6): 303–7.
1706:
1702:
1681:. Retrieved
1672:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1636:
1596:
1587:
1568:
1536:
1508:
1484:
1452:
1421:motor neuron
1410:
1393:
1373:axon hillock
1358:
1320:
1299:
1288:
1279:
1262:transduction
1258:
1231:
1218:
1195:
1179:
1137:
1124:
1091:nasal septum
1078:
1058:
1015:
1002:
982:
966:
937:
897:
838:sensitivity,
837:
821:
815:
722:Applications
611:Sociobiology
591:Protistology
556:Photobiology
551:Pharmacology
541:Parasitology
536:Paleontology
516:Neuroscience
496:Microbiology
406:Epidemiology
376:Cytogenetics
336:Cell biology
316:Biosemiotics
306:Biomechanics
286:Biogeography
281:Biochemistry
276:Bacteriology
271:Astrobiology
183:
175:
171:Reproduction
134:
61:
29:
2475:(1): 63–6.
2187:: 199–224.
1958:(1): 25–9.
1618:Stimulation
1486:Epinephrine
1481:Epinephrine
1475:Hypovolemia
1471:vasopressin
1467:Hypotension
1461:release is
1449:Vasopressin
1228:Equilibrium
1093:consist of
989:nociceptors
985:nociceptors
899:Homeostatic
830:environment
661:Xenobiology
656:Virophysics
626:Systematics
581:Primatology
526:Ornithology
466:Ichthyology
451:Herpetology
446:Gerontology
411:Epigenetics
371:Cryobiology
261:Agrostology
251:Aerobiology
246:Abiogenesis
112:Cell theory
2502:Categories
2038:: 575–99.
1656:stimuluses
1629:References
1276:Mechanical
1238:Hair cells
1167:gustducins
1159:taste buds
1028:. A local
923:hair cells
818:physiology
646:Toxicology
641:Teratology
586:Proteomics
571:Physiology
511:Neontology
476:Lipidology
471:Immunology
441:Geobiology
401:Embryology
381:Dendrology
311:Biophysics
291:Biogeology
166:Regulation
146:Adaptation
1519:digestion
1381:threshold
1369:cell body
1354:glutamate
1342:dendrites
1323:localized
1118:to camp.
1084:Olfactory
1024:called a
686:Biologist
561:Phycology
546:Pathology
531:Osteology
521:Nutrition
481:Mammalogy
456:Histology
127:Phylogeny
122:Evolution
117:Ecosystem
2489:23161393
2418:18045735
2388:Appetite
2320:11249846
2207:Archived
2162:31383756
2060:16979268
2017:17461730
2003:: 1–34.
1982:10802651
1888:Archived
1886:. 2001.
1857:11562504
1731:19794544
1723:12798599
1683:8 August
1677:Archived
1644:Archived
1602:See also
1584:MRI scan
1580:PET scan
1285:Chemical
1177:firing.
958:External
889:Internal
834:detected
822:stimulus
777:Category
743:Pharming
680:Research
651:Virology
636:Taxonomy
576:Pomology
506:Mycology
436:Genomics
431:Genetics
256:Agronomy
238:Branches
225:Protists
204:Bacteria
189:Kingdoms
94:timeline
83:Glossary
2453:3302135
2409:2297467
2369:4561627
2285:3318505
2250:6216490
2203:6150966
2154:5338549
2134:Bibcode
2111:4278737
2103:3027574
2083:Bibcode
2052:9074778
1973:3037419
1894:14 July
1652:stimuli
1459:hormone
1234:cochlea
1151:pharynx
997:A-fiber
993:C-fiber
950:to the
666:Zoology
396:Ecology
266:Anatomy
213:Animals
209:Eukarya
199:Archaea
191:of life
185:Domains
90:History
78:Outline
49:Biology
2487:
2451:
2416:
2406:
2367:
2360:487013
2357:
2318:
2283:
2248:
2201:
2160:
2152:
2109:
2101:
2075:Nature
2058:
2050:
2015:
1980:
1970:
1928:
1855:
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1654:, but
1608:Reflex
1338:neuron
1155:larynx
1147:tongue
1143:tongue
1087:organs
1022:neuron
1018:retina
1012:Vision
944:Nerves
858:reflex
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156:Growth
2339:Heart
2158:S2CID
2107:S2CID
2056:S2CID
1848:59728
1727:S2CID
1192:Sound
1139:Taste
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1107:cilia
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2485:PMID
2449:PMID
2414:PMID
2365:PMID
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2281:PMID
2246:PMID
2215:2013
2199:PMID
2150:PMID
2099:PMID
2048:PMID
2013:PMID
1978:PMID
1926:ISBN
1896:2010
1853:PMID
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1685:2021
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1509:The
1453:The
1396:GABA
1377:axon
1219:The
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1125:The
1120:cAMP
1097:and
1059:The
1034:cell
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