174:
in the
Spanish transposition (Real Decreto-Ley 11/1995 of 28 December 1995), the definition of a collecting system was changed to mean "all systems of conduits which collect and conduct urban waste water, from the municipal sewer and drainage networks and go to the treatment plants". The added words mean that when the Spanish definition is applied to Article 3 of the Directive the municipal sewer and drainage networks are excluded. If the municipal network did not exist, as in the case of many urbanisations (housing estates) developed in the 1960s and 1970s and within agglomerations of over 2000 p.e. no collecting system needed to be provided at all, under the Real Decreto-Ley 11/1995. Obviously if waste water is not collected it cannot be treated, therefore the changed definition also affected Article 4 of the Directive. Even so, Spain had to and still has to comply fully with the Directive. On 5 March 2009, the Catalan Autonomous Government finally approved a law (La Llei de la millora d’urbanizacions) to deal with deficits of infrastructures, such as sewers in urbanisations in Catalonia, 18 years after the Directive was approved by the European Parliament.
1985:
653:. Since 2007 this web-based service platform provides the public with information about ongoing research projects, policies, data, and reports connected to water in the EU. The target group of this online information system is researchers and professionals dealing with water related issues within the framework of the EU. The platform helps to store and administer data and output handed in by member states and agencies connected to the reporting requirements of the
292:
60:
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national law is poor and in many cases inadequate". Indeed, the report finds that only in three countries the national law (Austria, Malta and
Portugal) is in conformity with the Directive. Furthermore, there have been significant delays in the analysis of the characteristics of each river basin. Since the establishment of this knowledge base is a precondition for Basin Plans, this delay jeopardises progress of the implementation of the entire Directive.
496:
limits were determined by administrative boundaries, such as in the case of
Germany where the states (Laender) manage water resources, are in the process of setting up co-ordinating mechanisms for each river basin. Other elements of the directive, such as the protection of groundwater and cost recovery rules, may be more difficult to implement, especially in Southern member countries that have extensive irrigated agriculture.
757:. Initially the recycled water comprised 90% RO permeate and 10% MF permeate (approx. 6,000,000 m per year). However, it was observed that some herbicides were present in the recycled water at levels below drinking water standards due to detection of herbicides in the MF permeate. As a result, since May 2004, only the RO permeate after UV disinfection is injected into the
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of integration from 1985 onwards. The terms reflect the approach of most (Western) European countries towards WSS at that time. It steadily developed from privately organised co-operations to governmental influenced systems. Together with water management in general, it nowadays comes back to private initiatives manifested in Public-Private co-operations.
674:. Furthermore, they are working on indicators and monitoring systems in those countries to collect data of water utilities to check their performance. Apart from that, the EAP task force is figuring out the potentials of the private sector to participate in the water sector especially in water supply and sanitation in the
703:
consumption which can represent up to 50% of municipalities' electricity bill. Technologies are actually available and with a quick return on investment but the sole focus on water quality has diverted the attention for the increasing need of sustainability from the water sector in the context of climate change.
425:
process to prepare a revision of the
Directive. One key aspect of the revision would be to move away from a pure end-of-pipe standard setting approach. Instead the whole water supply process from the basin to the tap would be assessed to identify risk and the most effective control points, through so-called
720:
States, including France, Germany, and the
Netherlands, are contemplating adding treatments to the usual primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment procedures to reduce micropollutants in treated wastewater. These further water treatments are referred to as the "fourth step or quaternary therapy" combined.
499:
In March 2007 the EU commission published its first progress report on the implementation of the EU Framework
Directive. The report notes mixed results. Almost all member countries have transposed the directive into national law, but the report notes that "the legal transposition of the Directive in
479:
By 2010, Member States must ensure that water pricing policies provide adequate incentives for users to use water resources efficiently and that the various economic sectors contribute to the recovery of the costs of water services including those relating to the environment and resources. This cost
249:
According to the
European Commission, the directive represents the most cost intensive European legislation in the environmental sector. The EU estimates that the equivalent of €152 billion were invested in wastewater treatment from 1990 to 2010. The EU provides support for the implementation of the
173:
However, in the case of Spain changes were made at the time of transposing the
Directive. In Article 2 of the Directive, a collecting system means "a system of conduits which collects and conducts urban waste water" and therefore all sewers and drains, both public and private were included. However,
616:
and is steadily growing ever since. The association is dealing with water supply and sanitation issues within Europe and all over the world. Nowadays, it is funded through fees paid by its 127 members from industry, research and education. The aim of the association is to support the development of
561:
The time of industrialisation and development of cities (between 1800 and 1900) in terms of WSS is called the time of simple regime followed by the regimes of lower complexity between 1900 and 1950, medium (1980–1970), high complexity (1970–1985) and the era finally ended up in an so called attempt
495:
Some countries, such as France and Spain, had already established basin agencies before the enactment of the directive. They should thus find it easy to implement that part of the directive. Other countries that have historically managed their water resources through institutions whose geographical
452:
lying within their national territory and assign them to individual river basin districts. By 22 December 2003 at the latest, a competent authority had to be designated for each of the river basin districts. In addition, member states have to analyse the characteristics of each river basin and have
263:
as the wastewater treatment sector consumes 1% of the global total energy consumption. Under a business as usual scenario, this figure is expected to increase by 60% by 2040 compared to 2014. With the introduction of energy efficiency requirements, the energy consumption of the wastewater treatment
730:
According to an EU-funded study, "Europe and the
Mediterranean countries are lagging behind" California, Japan, and Australia "in the extent to which reuse is being taken up." According to the study "the concept (of reuse) is difficult for the regulators and wider public to understand and accept."
711:
and recycling are also solutions in the long-term. Furthermore, expert's advice say that water supply and waste water treatment systems should be decentralised. Another challenge within the water sector in Europe is privatisation and lobbyism in the water sector. In France, recent problems emerged
424:
Until 2006 the
European Commission has not published a summary report on drinking water quality. No EU country achieves full compliance with the directive, mainly because of the geological nature of its soil and agricultural activity. in 2003 the European Commission initiated a broad consultation
210:
published three reports on the implementation of the directive, the latest in 2004. The report noted that the wastewater treatment situation in Europe is still very unsatisfactory and that none of the deadlines has been met by all member countries. Only Austria, Denmark and Germany fully complied
719:
Although the complete eradication of micropollutants in water is not presently a legal requirement in the EU, Switzerland has previously approved a regulation (in effect since March 2014) to minimize micropollutant loads from wastewater treatment plants serving at least 2 000 people. Many Member
232:
thus remains a "severe problem". The report also noted that it is estimated that more than 50 percent of the discharges into sensitive areas was not treated sufficiently. Even for non-sensitive areas, although the picture was less bleak, only 69% of the discharge received treatment and the 2000
215:
levels in European rivers have been reduced by 20–30 percent since the enactment of the directive, but that other pollution parameters such as nitrogen levels remained high. The reason is that much of the nitrogen pollution comes from non-point sources in agriculture, and the still insufficient
715:
The European Union needs to make extra investments of €90 billion in the water and waste sector to meet its 2030 climate and energy goals. However, wastewater resources can be useful. In the European Union, an estimated 60–70% of wastewater's potential value is still untapped (in heat, energy,
376:
are up to 20 times lower than those in the WHO drinking water guidelines, because the EU directive not only aims at protecting human health but also the environment. The WHO contaminant levels themselves are already set so that there would be no potential risk if the contaminant was absorbed
702:
The existing and foreseen problems are the lack of investments in the rural and municipal water supply which led to poor services (e.g. water leakages, interruption of service, insufficient water availability during drought, etc.), the limited availability of water resources and its energy
1973:
411:
The directive requires member states to regularly monitor the quality of water intended for human consumption by using the methods of analysis specified in the directive, or equivalent methods. Member states also have to publish drinking water quality reports every three years, and the
46:. Indeed, the stakes are high as the European Environmental Agency found that one European out of ten already suffers a situation of water scarcity and the IEA measured the energy consumption of the water sector to be equivalent to 3,5% of the electricity consumption of the EU.
429:. Another important challenge will be to integrate the new environmental, climate and energy goals of the EU. The issue is substantial as in average 23% of the treated water in the EU is leaked, with some countries facing leakage rates as high as 60%.
272:. These features have been mainly overlooked due to the over-riding objective for utilities to meet existing and future needs for wastewater treatment. In the European Union, 0.8% of total energy consumption goes to wastewater treatment facilities.
127:
EU member states have enacted national legislation in accordance with these directives. The institutional organisation of public water supply and sanitation does not fall under the purview of the EU, but remains a prerogative of each member state.
146:
concerns the collection, treatment and discharge of urban waste water and the treatment and discharge of waste water from certain industrial sectors. Its aim is to protect the environment from any adverse effects due to discharge of such waters.
706:
Water supply limitation counts as major concern. The first and most rational answer should be to tackle the water leakage problem Europe is facing as almost 1/4 of treated water is leaked in average in the EU. Moreover, research shows that
453:
to carry out an economic analysis of water use. Nine years after the entry into force of the directive, a management plan must be produced for each river basin district. The measures provided for in the river basin management plan seek to:
161:
by 31 December 2000: agglomerations of more than 15 000 p.e. outside sensitive areas had to have a collection and treatment system which enables them to satisfy less stringent requirements, usually referred to as secondary treatment (Art.
240:
throughout the EU. A controversial aspect of the directive is the requirement for all agglomerations with more than 2,000 inhabitants to have a wastewater collection system, which has been widely interpreted as requiring connection to a
698:
is said to be very effective concerning water management and policies. However, especially the new member states located in Eastern Europe are in need of enormous investments to ensure the sustainability of the water infrastructure.
264:
sector can be reduced by 50% only by using current technologies. On top of that, there are also opportunities to produce enough energy from wastewater to turn the whole water sector energy neutral. It uses the energy embedded in the
537:
to insufficient or poor services especially in Eastern European states. The history of WSS within the member states and different states in development can partly explain the heterogeneous state of the supply and treatment systems.
245:
system even if existing on-site sanitation systems perform adequately. The cost of connecting houses to sewers in small rural towns with dispersed housing patterns is often very high and imposes a high financial burden on users.
665:
The Environmental Action Programme (EAP) is a policy adopted by Environment Ministers in 1993 in a conference in Switzerland. An international Task Force was established later on to support mainly states of countries in the
42:) is the responsibility of each member state, but in the 21st century union-wide policies have come into effect. Water resources are limited and supply and sanitation systems are under pressure from urbanisation and
258:
The European Commission is currently undergoing a consultation on the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive. As the directive was adopted in 1991, its challenge will be to integrate the commitments taken with the
177:
The directive also allows the establishment of less sensitive coastal areas, for which primary treatment would be sufficient, if it can be shown that there is no adverse impact on the environment (Art. 6).
1937:
158:
which discharge water into sensitive areas had to have a proper collection and treatment system requiring meeting the most stringent quality standards, usually referred to as tertiary treatment (Art. 5);
638:
521:
at least. Europe in general is improving: Over the last decade more households accessed public treatment plants or even upgraded their treatment system (e.g. from secondary to tertiary treatment).
169:. which discharge water into sensitive areas, and all agglomerations of between 2 000 and 15 000 p.e. which do not discharge into such areas had to have a collection and treatment system (Art. 3).
546:
The supply of water and its disposal has been managed in Europe for many centuries. Centralised water supply and sanitation started with the Romans who were responsible for the construction of
416:
is to publish a summary report. Within five years Member States had to comply with the Directive. Exemptions can be granted on a temporary basis, provided that they do not affect human health.
870:
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continuously over a person's lifetime. EU drinking water standards and cases where these standards are temporarily exceeded by a small margin should be interpreted in this context.
1349:
457:
prevent deterioration, enhance and restore bodies of surface water, achieve good chemical and ecological status of such water and reduce pollution from discharges and emissions of
517:
systems between 80%–90% are reported for Northern, Southern and Central Europe. Eastern Europe still copes with much lower rates of 40%–65% of the population connected to primary
2633:
2425:
2298:
529:
As access is dependent on each member state so is service quality. It ranges from very good service quality in Northern and Southern States of the European Union for example in
1930:
1886:
Mandri-Perrott:Developing Sustainable Legal Mechanisms for Private Sector Participation in the International Water and Wastewater Sector. International Water Association 2008,
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and the construction of modern industrialised conurbations in Europe was dependent upon managed water supplies. The United Kingdom pioneered urban planning at that time.
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1968:
817:
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1923:
609:
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The Directive is intended to protect human health by laying down healthiness and purity requirements which must be met by drinking water within the Community (see
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827:
775:
797:
534:
1733:"Reuse of water in the EU and the Mediterranean", by Bill McCann, Water 21, Journal of the International Water Association, April 2008, p. 42-44, quoting the
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2020:
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One international nonprofit association (under Belgian law) supporting the European Union in dealing with the challenges of water related issues is the
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Compared to the previous European drinking water directive of 1980 the number of parameters has been reduced, allowing member to add parameters such as
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2100:
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countries and they consult local partners in financial planning and investment. They are also collaborating with the EU Water Initiative since 2005.
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Finger, Matthias, Jeremy Allouche, Patricia Luis-Manso: Water and Liberalisation. European Water Scenarios. International Water Association 2007,
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1168:"Europe paves the way for revision of the Drinking Water Directive", Water 21, Journal of the International Water Association, August 2006, p. 18
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2005:
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1821:
Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).
1580:"Making Europe's sewage treatment plants more efficient and circular can help meet zero-pollution targets — European Environment Agency"
182:
2440:
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1127:
593:
The assessments of (a) river basin management plans (by Member States) and (b) vulnerability of water resources due to climate change.
2389:
1656:
331:). It applies to all water intended for human consumption apart from natural mineral waters and waters which are medicinal products.
203:
93/481/EEC defines the information that Member States should provide the commission on the state of implementation of the Directive.
2505:
1891:
1880:
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recovery rule is expected to impact particularly irrigated agriculture, where users have not paid the full costs of water supply.
1604:
770:
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2323:
2060:
2379:
2268:
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942:
468:, prevent the pollution and deterioration of groundwater, and ensure a balance between abstraction and recharge of groundwater;
233:
deadline was not met by most member countries. 25 out of 556 cities in the EU still had no wastewater treatment system at all.
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2328:
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2010:
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The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) of 21 May 1991 concerning discharges of municipal and some industrial
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1177:"The pivotal role of water safety plans", Water 21, Journal of the International Water Association, August 2006, p. 21-22
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The Blueprint to Safeguard Europe's Waters is the EU's policy response to the challenges of the implementation of the EU
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618:
1772:
1485:
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They will take any other action needed to guarantee the healthiness and purity of water intended for human consumption.
2775:
1467:
650:
143:
621:, and provide Research and Development roadmaps and recommendations on water related issues especially involving the
590:
So called Fitness-Checks identifying overlapping or redundant policy structures and recommend improvement strategies,
1631:
181:
Member states had to establish lists of sensitive areas. It has been estimated that in 2004 about 34 percent of the
1555:
123:
of 16 December 2020 concerning the quality of water intended for human consumption (codifying 98/83/EC amendments).
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576:
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212:
1909:
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95:
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water was distributed through private carriers or/and organised through local communities or cities. The
200:
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555:
166:
155:
1399:
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the water related sector within Europe, assist both the EU and developing countries in achieving the
1710:"IFAT 2018: Call on EU to develop standards for micropollutants in waste water | Dutch Water Sector"
1984:
946:
654:
634:
622:
613:
484:
458:
413:
269:
207:
1747:
694:, urbanization, economic progress, social changes influence the water sector in many ways. The
1887:
1876:
1854:
1379:
900:
735:
670:. In WSS they are supporting the financial strategies of a number of countries to achieve the
426:
1074:
686:
Major challenges of the EU concerning WSS are connected with modern pressures to the system.
1844:
1834:
1531:
1128:
Guidelines for drinking-water quality, third edition, incorporating first and second addenda
518:
303:. The reason given is: EU Directive 2020/2184 has since replaced Council Directive 98/83/EC.
237:
1695:
1154:
742:, where 12% of the nation's waste is treated. By 2023, a new EU agriculture law may raise
260:
113:
1915:
1146:
1142:
305:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
73:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
1904:
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1822:
1468:"European Court of Auditors | Special Report No 12/2017: Drinking Water Directive"
695:
687:
584:
547:
472:
343:
335:
242:
217:
91:
43:
102:
The Bathing Waters Directive (76/160/EEC) of 1976 replaced by the Directive 2006/7/EC;
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358:
328:
229:
483:
At the latest twelve years after the date of entry into force of the Directive, the
1208:
1507:
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by six times, from 1.7 billion m3 to 6.6 billion m3, and cut water stress by 5%.
120:
1075:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions"
743:
708:
551:
465:
449:
189:
that falls under the scope of the directive is discharged into sensitive areas.
106:
1675:"Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern"
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221:
186:
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17:
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The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of 23 October 2000 concerning
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The Water Information System for Europe (WISE) is a partnership of the
401:
389:
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or any other substance which constitutes a potential human health risk;
1798:"The IWVA Torreele water re-use plant: operational experiences (IWVA)"
1100:"Urban waste water treatment in Europe — European Environment Agency"
848:"Water use and environmental pressures – European Environment Agency"
265:
165:
by 31 December 2005: all agglomerations of between 2 000 and 10 000
1657:"Implementation of the Protocol on Water and Health in Switzerland"
612:. This platform was built up in 2004 with financial support of the
675:
667:
299:
Parts of this article (those related to documentation) need to be
1827:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
192:
This Directive was amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.
1823:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative"
487:
has to publish a report on the implementation of the Directive.
393:
1919:
1421:
1280:"Data on waste water treatment by European Statistical Office"
285:
53:
639:
Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission)
448:
Under this Directive, member states have to identify all the
353:
meets the minimum requirements (microbiological and chemical
1147:
Les normes de qualité de l'eau potable sont très rigoureuses
154:
by 31 December 1998: all agglomerations of more than 10 000
943:"Summaries of EU Legislation: Urban waste water treatment"
1734:
550:
and systems to collect and distribute water. During the
368:
In setting contaminant levels the directive applies the
1910:
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law
1632:"Switzerland's progress on micropollutants in sewage"
712:
regarding the privatising of water supply companies.
216:
nutrient removal by wastewater treatment plants. The
1185:
1183:
761:
with addition of sodium hydroxide to adjust the pH.
749:
The indirect potable reuse (IDP) project in Wulpen,
2687:
2606:
2398:
2367:
2174:
1993:
1974:
Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean
1951:
250:directive in the order of 5 billion Euro per year.
1164:
1162:
753:, discharges recycled water to an unconfined dune
236:The directive triggered substantial investment in
1486:"About Problems in WSS in Eastern Europe and CIS"
1231:"Water Framework Directive Implementation Report"
818:Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom
144:Council Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment
1773:"New EU guidelines for agriculture water reuse"
604:Water Supply and Sanitation Technology Platform
598:Water Supply and Sanitation Technology Platform
1673:Bank, European Investment (27 February 2023).
828:Water supply and sanitation in the Netherlands
776:List of water supply and sanitation by country
420:Implementation challenges and planned revision
1931:
798:Public water supply and sanitation in Germany
372:. For example, the EU contaminant levels for
132:Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive of 1991
8:
792:Water supply and sanitation by Member States
579:. It is basically structured in four parts:
464:protect, enhance and restore all bodies of
1938:
1924:
1916:
1059:European Commission 2004, op. cit., p. 108
571:The Blueprint to Safeguard Europe's Waters
211:with the directive. The report noted that
1848:
1838:
865:
863:
861:
716:nutrients, minerals, metals, chemicals).
668:Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia
1508:"About financing WSS in EECCA countries"
823:Water privatisation in England and Wales
583:The review of actions taken to mitigate
150:According to the directive's timetable:
1556:"About Lobbyism in the EU water sector"
1069:
1067:
1065:
839:
808:Water supply and sanitation in Portugal
94:is primarily codified in the following
2791:Water supply and sanitation by country
1946:Water supply and sanitation by country
1691:
1680:
1384:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1377:
1191:"EUR-Lex – 52017SC0449 – EN – EUR-Lex"
905:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
898:
342:does not contain any concentration of
1905:Urban Waste Water Treatment in France
803:Water supply and sanitation in France
786:Water, energy and food security nexus
334:Member States shall ensure that such
138:Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
7:
1532:"Article about the major challenges"
1326:"About the history of WSS in Europe"
813:Water supply and sanitation in Spain
121:Drinking Water Directive (2020/2184)
1605:"Waste, water and circular economy"
1302:"About the history of European WSS"
629:Water Information System for Europe
1037:"European commission 2004, p. 106"
969:"European Commission 2004, p. 107"
25:
433:Water Framework Directive of 2000
2036:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1983:
1746:Melanie lidman (6 August 2010).
771:Drinking water quality standards
290:
276:Drinking water directive of 1998
58:
2786:Policies of the European Union
1143:Centre d'Information sur l'Eau
781:Sustainable Development Goal 6
228:and considerable parts of the
1:
2781:Health and the European Union
361:) laid down by the directive.
1255:"Central and Eastern Europe"
672:Millennium Development Goals
619:Millennium Development Goals
513:Average connection rates to
268:by producing biogas through
1209:"Water Framework Directive"
1015:"EUR-Lex – 31993D0481 – EN"
993:"EUR-Lex – 31998L0015 – EN"
921:"EUR-Lex – 31991L0271 – EN"
738:program in the world is in
651:European Environment Agency
566:Other tools and instruments
504:Water Supply and Sanitation
156:population equivalents (PE)
28:Water supply and sanitation
2807:
1444:"About the EAP Task Force"
1402:. Wsstp.eu. 5 October 2007
441:
279:
135:
2771:Drinking water regulation
1980:
1609:Climate Partnerships 2030
1149:, accessed on 6 May 2010
1124:World Health Organization
577:Water Framework Directive
491:Implementation challenges
444:Water Framework Directive
196:Implementation challenges
67:This article needs to be
1714:www.dutchwatersector.com
1630:KHaqua (February 2016).
1130:, accessed on 6 May 2010
1079:European Investment Bank
692:demographic developments
282:Drinking water directive
90:The water policy of the
1488:. Europeandcis.undp.org
370:precautionary principle
2426:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1690:Cite journal requires
1472:publications.europa.eu
570:
357:and those relating to
1840:10.3390/ijerph6031174
1777:www.aquatechtrade.com
1153:13 April 2010 at the
647:Joint Research Centre
556:Industrial Revolution
542:History of WSS sector
36:in the European Union
2349:United Arab Emirates
1912:Peace Palace Library
1748:"Wastewater wonders"
519:wastewater treatment
459:hazardous substances
2740:Trinidad and Tobago
2531:Republic of Ireland
1017:. Eur-lex.europa.eu
995:. Eur-lex.europa.eu
947:European Commission
923:. Eur-lex.europa.eu
734:The second largest
655:European Commission
635:European Commission
623:European Commission
614:European Commission
485:European Commission
414:European Commission
270:anaerobic digestion
208:European Commission
201:Commission Decision
2776:European Union law
2634:Dominican Republic
1969:Sub-Saharan Africa
1611:. 7 September 2021
1400:"The WssTP online"
949:. 7 September 2007
427:Water safety plans
2758:
2757:
2586:England and Wales
1584:www.eea.europa.eu
1424:. Water.europa.eu
1422:"The WISE online"
1195:eur-lex.europa.eu
1104:www.eea.europa.eu
736:waste reclamation
320:
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88:
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16:(Redirected from
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2390:Papua New Guinea
1988:
1987:
1940:
1933:
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1863:
1862:
1852:
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1833:(3): 1174–1203.
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1366:on 25 March 2012
1365:
1359:. Archived from
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939:
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917:
911:
910:
904:
896:
894:
892:
886:
880:. Archived from
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867:
856:
855:
844:
726:Wastewater reuse
682:Major challenges
315:
312:
306:
294:
293:
286:
254:Planned revision
238:sewage treatment
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62:
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1901:
1872:
1870:Further reading
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2314:Saudi Arabia
2131:South Africa
2126:Sierra Leone
2021:Burkina Faso
1958:
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1804:. Retrieved
1792:
1780:. Retrieved
1776:
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1755:. Retrieved
1751:
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1717:. Retrieved
1713:
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1683:cite journal
1668:
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1639:. Retrieved
1635:
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1613:. Retrieved
1608:
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1587:. Retrieved
1583:
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2182:Afghanistan
2136:South Sudan
2061:Ivory Coast
1211:. Europa.eu
1140:(in French)
878:www.iea.org
744:water reuse
709:water reuse
552:Middle Ages
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2380:East Timor
2269:Kyrgyzstan
2259:Kazakhstan
2192:Bangladesh
2187:Azerbaijan
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1564:5 December
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834:References
602:Main text:
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374:pesticides
355:parameters
222:Baltic Sea
187:wastewater
96:directives
79:April 2022
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2750:Venezuela
2695:Argentina
2669:Nicaragua
2644:Guatemala
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2375:Australia
2329:Sri Lanka
2319:Singapore
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2229:Indonesia
2207:Hong Kong
1952:By region
1782:29 August
1615:29 August
1589:29 August
1259:WASHwatch
1109:29 August
1084:29 August
548:aqueducts
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2166:Zimbabwe
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2046:Eswatini
2031:Cameroon
2011:Botswana
1859:19440440
1757:8 August
1719:21 March
1641:21 March
1380:cite web
1151:Archived
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765:See also
649:and the
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386:hardness
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2224:India
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2066:Kenya
2056:Ghana
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2016:Benin
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