510:
412:
1736:
29:
364:
John
Kupchik (2023) calls all of these varieties Azuma Old Japanese, consisting of two dialects: Töpo-Suruga Old Japanese in the three provinces of Frellesvig's southern area and Eastern Old Japanese in the rest. The former dialect lacks attested Ainu loanwords. He remarks on the differences in the
1531:
365:
spelling of the two varieties. In earlier work, he had separated the dialects of
Shinano province as Central Old Japanese due to the absence of innovations shared with his Töpo-Suruga and Eastern Old Japanese groups.
986:
regarding vowel raising, the change from Proto-Japonic *ə to *o in Proto-Ryukyuan makes certain reconstruction impossible. Only four forms in
Eastern Old Japanese could correspond to the Proto-Ryukyuan
361:
with the varieties of Nara Old
Japanese, with North Eastern Old Japanese constituting the most divergent variety. However, the majority of songs and poems do not have information on their provenance.
991:
The hypothesis of a linguistic contact or a resemblance is therefore, in the state of current knowledge, only speculative. Thomas
Pellard (2015) also considers that this hypothesis is unproven.
3180:
3031:
3227:
1974:
1690:
3026:
1458:
966:
12 attestations in
Eastern Old Japanese of denasalization which could be attributed to Proto-Ryukyuan, but 10 of them actually correspond to the
2653:
845:
but on the verge of extinction. Eastern Old
Japanese and Hachijō have common characteristics not found in other branches of the Japonic family.
1541:
1405:
1378:
287:
Eastern Old
Japanese was not a unified variety but a collection of different dialects. Their demarcation differs depending on the author.
2648:
3262:
2132:
2533:
1777:
3239:
2958:
2912:
2907:
2433:
1967:
1683:
482:
3081:
2139:
2922:
2638:
3053:
2892:
2451:
486:
2786:
2766:
2570:
2523:
1832:
1755:
470:
1337:
255:
This variety is geographically opposed to
Western Old Japanese and Kyūshū Old Japanese. It was spoken to the east of
3267:
2902:
2776:
1960:
1792:
1676:
478:
897:
According to Maner Lawton Thorpe (1983), the phonological correspondences of
Eastern Old Japanese shared with the
377:
with a structure including a modifier at the start of the sentence, although there are exceptions. There are many
3187:
3165:
2953:
3222:
3160:
3150:
3114:
3012:
2963:
2887:
2862:
2471:
474:
388:
2528:
1772:
935:
Following his model, Western Old Japanese would have separated first, during the 4th-5th centuries, then the
901:
could be explained by the descend from a common language. Thus, he proposes the following phylogenetic tree:
2606:
1862:
947:
171:
1509:
943:
would have been populated by Japonic speakers directly from Kyūshū, without passing through central Japan.
2623:
959:
869:
540:
The Eastern Old Japanese lexicon is mainly inherited from Japonic languages. However, it is also contains
392:
236:
1416:
979:
fortition is only attested in two forms in Eastern Old Japanese, compared to only one in Proto-Ryukyuan,
914:
3104:
2993:
2466:
2012:
2002:
1941:
1924:
1339:
Coincidence or Contact: A Study of Sound Changes in Eastern Old Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages
849:
826:
350:
3155:
2978:
2882:
2756:
2558:
2007:
1936:
1787:
885:
463:
222:
489:\ respectively, which is confirmed by the comparison of the three Japanese dialects, as well as the
3204:
3086:
3058:
2973:
2553:
2498:
1725:
877:
838:
332:
306:
3175:
833:(between the 8th and the 12th centuries). However, there are still modern traces of this variety:
276:
231:
3234:
3096:
2983:
2917:
2807:
2802:
2515:
2257:
1929:
1904:
1746:
1627:
1619:
1588:
1580:
1489:
898:
541:
490:
3063:
2503:
2339:
2288:
320:
199:(万葉集), in the fourteenth and twentieth volumes, as well as some poems from volume sixteen ;
195:
2998:
2968:
2771:
2590:
2575:
2548:
2543:
2481:
2419:
2394:
2329:
2247:
2203:
2046:
2041:
2031:
2022:
1983:
1875:
1847:
1818:
1813:
1718:
1713:
1699:
1572:
1537:
1401:
1384:
1374:
1011:
545:
358:
163:
127:
65:
1650:
3192:
3170:
2948:
2744:
2585:
2387:
2377:
2372:
2360:
2308:
2252:
2213:
2149:
2105:
2090:
1870:
1611:
1564:
1481:
1473:
342:
324:
316:
272:
203:
135:
2713:
3217:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2580:
2353:
2264:
2164:
2125:
2120:
2081:
2061:
1852:
1764:
861:
346:
328:
298:
244:
183:
57:
2346:
1605:
940:
268:
264:
3212:
2563:
2538:
2461:
2441:
2414:
2365:
2317:
2281:
2235:
2179:
2174:
2154:
1797:
1782:
951:
302:
167:
509:
411:
3256:
3003:
2749:
2728:
2446:
2298:
2242:
2110:
2100:
2076:
2066:
2056:
1899:
1493:
926:
822:
494:
93:
1735:
1623:
1584:
166:(Insular Japonic), with the other varieties of Old Japanese, which all descend from
2988:
2817:
2382:
2276:
2220:
2189:
2184:
1997:
1912:
830:
459:
443:
374:
208:
139:
70:
936:
28:
3043:
2271:
970:
842:
493:. Thus, the Eastern Old Japanese vowel system would have been closer to that of
260:
256:
3072:
3038:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2718:
967:
455:
396:
243:
All this would give a total of 242 short poems and one long poem according to
1615:
1576:
1568:
1477:
1388:
2852:
2781:
2761:
2703:
1552:
955:
447:
187:
107:
2723:
2708:
962:
unconvincing in comparison with the Ryukyuan languages. In fact, he finds:
939:-branch would have separated three or four centuries later. Subsequently,
162:
Eastern Old Japanese constitutes a branch of the Japanese subgroup of the
3132:
3017:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2615:
2456:
290:
For example, Bjarke Frellesvig (2010) distinguishes three dialect areas:
1485:
207:(古今和歌集), of which a poem is written in this dialect (written during the
3109:
3048:
2665:
662:
Other words are close to Japonic forms that appeared in later periods:
3127:
2660:
2628:
382:
378:
215:
1952:
1668:
1430:
1432:
On the orthography and phonetics of the Azuma Old Japanese dialects
1351:
3122:
2670:
2633:
451:
143:
2680:
469:
There exists a correspondence between the Western Old Japanese \
1956:
1672:
504:
406:
1435:. Auckland: Department of Asian Studies Weekly Seminar Series
946:
However, Alexander Koji Makiyama (2015) finds the results of
462:. Typically, vowel sequences contract rather than merge. The
1734:
1450:
Azuma Old Japanese: A Comparative Grammar and Reconstruction
1169:
1167:
1256:
1254:
821:
The dialects of Eastern Old Japanese were replaced by the
1154:
1152:
1150:
521:
423:
174:, following the classification used by Kupchik (2011).
446:
structure of Eastern Old Japanese is strictly « (
848:
Modern Eastern Japanese dialects contain traces of a
829:), the descendant of Western Old Japanese during the
1907:
1101:
1099:
235:, however, this one is written with the spelling of
3203:
3143:
3095:
2937:
2795:
2737:
2679:
2614:
2605:
2514:
2480:
2432:
2405:
2328:
2202:
2030:
2021:
1990:
1892:
1861:
1840:
1831:
1806:
1763:
1754:
1745:
1706:
1090:
1066:
105:
100:
86:
54:
46:
38:
21:
1023:Following an analysis of modern Ryukyuan dialects.
1553:"Proto-Japonic *e and *o in Eastern Old Japanese"
1452:. Auckland, Nouvelle-Zélande: De Gruyter Mouton.
1369:Vovin, Alexander; Ishisaki-Vovin, Sambi (2021).
983:, in addition to the fact that it may be a loan;
856:'to exceed' (comparable to Western Old Japanese
381:, but unlike most SOV languages, there are also
182:Eastern Old Japanese is mainly attested through
1607:The linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu Islands
1533:Endangered Languages of the Caucasus and Beyond
666:Comparison of Eastern Old Japanese and Japonic
1418:A grammar of the Eastern Old Japanese dialects
1371:The Eastern Old Japanese Corpus and Dictionary
33:Eastern provinces (hatched) in the 8th century
1968:
1684:
8:
1117:
1424:(PhD thesis). Hawaii: University of Hawaii.
2611:
2486:
2027:
1975:
1961:
1953:
1837:
1760:
1751:
1691:
1677:
1669:
1459:"Old Japanese in a panchronic perspective"
1173:
1006:
1004:
27:
18:
1400:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1530:Korkmaz, Ramazan; Doğan, Gürkan (2017).
1308:
1284:
1260:
664:
550:
1651:"Recent papers on Eastern Old Japanese"
1320:
1272:
1245:
1233:
1221:
1209:
1197:
1185:
1158:
1141:
1129:
1078:
1054:
1042:
1035:
1000:
1557:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
1345:(MA thesis). Arizona State University.
1296:
544:and Ainu loanwords, and only a few of
275:(then collectively referred to as the
1105:
357:He states that these dialects form a
142:, historically spoken in the east of
7:
893:Relation with the Ryukyuan languages
1517:. University of Southern California
950:in Eastern Old Japanese such as in
497:than that of Western Old Japanese.
146:, in the area traditionally called
1398:A History of the Japanese Language
259:, the capital of Japan during the
14:
1336:Makiyama, Alexander Koji (2015).
477:\ and the Eastern Old Japanese \(
1563:(2). Paris: CRLAO-EHESS: v-158.
552:Eastern Old Japanese vocabulary
508:
410:
190:written during the 8th century:
1091:Vovin & Ishisaki-Vovin 2021
1067:Vovin & Ishisaki-Vovin 2021
925:Western Old Japanese (from the
263:, approximately in the current
1:
1508:Thorpe, Maner Lawton (1983).
134:) is a group of heterogenous
3119:Kanji pronunciation sources
2893:Katakana Phonetic Extensions
1814:Kunigami (Northern Okinawan)
905:Japanese-Ryukyuan languages
860:, of the same meaning), the
3228:Speculative fiction writers
2787:Transcription into Japanese
1396:Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010).
1373:. Leiden, Pays-Bas: Brill.
3284:
2146:Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka
817:Extinction and descendants
373:Eastern Old Japanese is a
3263:Archaic Japanese language
2489:
1732:
1511:Ryūkyūan language history
1448:Kupchik, John E. (2023).
1429:Kupchik, John E. (2013).
1415:Kupchik, John E. (2011).
1350:Vovin, Alexander (2014).
131:
26:
3013:Sino-Japanese vocabulary
2472:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese
1616:10.1515/9781614511151.13
1604:Pellard, Thomas (2015).
1569:10.1163/1960602808X00055
1551:Pellard, Thomas (2008).
1536:. Leiden/Boston: Brill.
1478:10.1515/lingty-2022-0017
1472:(3). Helsinki: 683–691.
1118:Korkmaz & Doğan 2017
123:
2959:Godan and ichidan verbs
2777:Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
1457:Janhunen, Juha (2022).
251:Geographic distribution
16:Variety of Old Japanese
1739:
1353:Out of Southern China?
393:agglutinative language
3064:Court lady language (
2534:Southern Amami Ōshima
2467:Yilan Creole Japanese
1942:Early Modern Japanese
1925:Early Middle Japanese
1738:
677:Western Old Japanese
674:Eastern Old Japanese
560:Eastern Old Japanese
391:it is principally an
186:collected in several
2883:Small Kana Extension
2494:Eastern Old Japanese
2133:Northern Izu Islands
1937:Late Middle Japanese
1918:Eastern Old Japanese
1356:. Paris: EHESS/CRLAO
1200:, pp. 852, 854.
920:Eastern Old Japanese
456:consonant gemination
237:Western Old Japanese
120:Eastern Old Japanese
76:Eastern Old Japanese
22:Eastern Old Japanese
2434:Pidgins and creoles
1630:: hal-01289257
1591:: hal-00373303
1466:Linguistic Typology
1299:, pp. 224–258.
915:Kyūshū Old Japanese
852:, such as the verb
837:The relic language
667:
553:
3235:Classical Japanese
3082:Gender differences
2918:Extended shinjitai
1930:Classical Japanese
1905:Peninsular Japonic
1740:
948:diachronic changes
911:Ryukyuan languages
899:Ryukyuan languages
665:
551:
520:. You can help by
491:Ryukyuan languages
422:. You can help by
3268:Japonic languages
3250:
3249:
2954:Verb conjugations
2933:
2932:
2601:
2600:
2482:Japonic languages
2428:
2427:
2420:Okinawan Japanese
1984:Japanese language
1950:
1949:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1827:
1826:
1719:Japanese dialects
1700:Japonic languages
1543:978-90-04-32564-7
1407:978-1-139-48880-8
1380:978-9-004-47166-5
1248:, pp. 20–21.
1012:Japonic languages
814:
813:
660:
659:
538:
537:
454: », without
440:
439:
341:the provinces of
315:the provinces of
297:the provinces of
224:Azuma (asobi) uta
164:Japonic languages
117:
116:
3275:
3193:Polivanov system
3054:Honorific speech
2949:Japanese grammar
2612:
2487:
2028:
1977:
1970:
1963:
1954:
1909:
1838:
1761:
1752:
1693:
1686:
1679:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1547:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1516:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1463:
1453:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1425:
1423:
1411:
1392:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1346:
1344:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1171:
1162:
1156:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1008:
841:, spoken on the
683:Modern Japanese
680:Middle Japanese
668:
554:
533:
530:
512:
505:
435:
432:
414:
407:
133:
125:
122:(abbreviated as
110:
60:
31:
19:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3199:
3144:Transliteration
3139:
3115:Sound symbolism
3091:
3073:Role language (
3032:from Portuguese
2964:Irregular verbs
2942:
2940:
2929:
2878:Kana Supplement
2873:Kana Extended-B
2868:Kana Extended-A
2791:
2767:Historical kana
2733:
2675:
2654:by stroke count
2645:Kanji radicals
2639:by stroke count
2597:
2510:
2476:
2452:Hawaiian Creole
2424:
2401:
2324:
2198:
2017:
1986:
1981:
1951:
1946:
1880:
1857:
1823:
1802:
1741:
1730:
1702:
1697:
1659:
1657:
1649:
1646:
1644:Further reading
1633:
1631:
1603:
1594:
1592:
1550:
1544:
1529:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1498:
1496:
1461:
1456:
1447:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1421:
1414:
1408:
1395:
1381:
1368:
1359:
1357:
1349:
1342:
1335:
1332:
1327:
1319:
1315:
1307:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1259:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1174:Frellesvig 2010
1172:
1165:
1157:
1148:
1140:
1136:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1104:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1053:
1049:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1010:Like the other
1009:
1002:
997:
895:
888:, among others.
878:adjective verbs
827:Middle Japanese
819:
534:
528:
525:
518:needs expansion
503:
436:
430:
427:
420:needs expansion
405:
389:Morphologically
371:
285:
253:
245:Alexander Vovin
180:
170:(separate from
160:
106:
96:
89:
82:
61:
58:Language family
56:
50:4th–9th century
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3281:
3279:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3255:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3220:
3215:
3209:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3185:
3184:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3070:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3015:
3010:
3004:Native words (
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2943:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2685:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2620:
2618:
2609:
2607:Writing system
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2520:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2496:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2462:Pseudo-Chinese
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2442:Bamboo English
2438:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2415:Amami Japanese
2411:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2336:
2334:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2210:
2208:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1867:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1810:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1778:Southern Amami
1775:
1769:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1601:
1548:
1542:
1527:
1505:
1454:
1445:
1426:
1412:
1406:
1393:
1379:
1366:
1347:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1313:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1263:, p. 684.
1250:
1238:
1236:, p. 152.
1226:
1224:, p. 852.
1214:
1202:
1190:
1178:
1176:, p. 151.
1163:
1146:
1144:, p. 134.
1134:
1122:
1120:, p. 277.
1110:
1095:
1083:
1071:
1059:
1047:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1016:
999:
998:
996:
993:
989:
988:
984:
977:
952:denasalization
933:
932:
931:
930:
923:
922:
921:
918:
917:(not attested)
912:
894:
891:
890:
889:
846:
818:
815:
812:
811:
808:
806:
803:
800:
796:
795:
792:
790:
787:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
763:
762:
759:
757:
755:
752:
748:
747:
744:
742:
739:
736:
732:
731:
728:
726:
724:
721:
717:
716:
713:
710:
708:
705:
701:
700:
697:
694:
692:
689:
685:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
658:
657:
654:
650:
649:
646:
642:
641:
638:
634:
633:
630:
626:
625:
622:
618:
617:
614:
610:
609:
606:
602:
601:
598:
594:
593:
590:
586:
585:
582:
578:
577:
574:
570:
569:
566:
562:
561:
558:
536:
535:
515:
513:
502:
499:
438:
437:
417:
415:
404:
401:
370:
367:
355:
354:
339:
336:
313:
310:
295:
284:
281:
252:
249:
241:
240:
228:
220:
212:
200:
179:
176:
172:Proto-Ryukyuan
168:proto-Japanese
159:
158:Classification
156:
115:
114:
111:
103:
102:
101:Language codes
98:
97:
92:
90:
87:
84:
83:
81:
80:
79:
78:
64:
62:
55:
52:
51:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
35:
32:
24:
23:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3280:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3188:Cyrillization
3186:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3176:Wāpuro rōmaji
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3006:yamato kotoba
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2994:Counter words
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2936:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2729:Kana ligature
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2624:Script reform
2622:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2447:Bonin English
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2431:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1991:Earlier forms
1989:
1985:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1959:
1958:
1955:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1900:Proto-Japonic
1898:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1863:Macro-Yaeyama
1860:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1689:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1671:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1602:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1513:
1512:
1506:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1434:
1433:
1427:
1420:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1355:
1354:
1348:
1341:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1323:, p. 16.
1322:
1317:
1314:
1311:, p. 80.
1310:
1309:Makiyama 2015
1305:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1285:Makiyama 2015
1281:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1261:Janhunen 2022
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1212:, p. 16.
1211:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1069:, p. ix.
1068:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1005:
1001:
994:
992:
985:
982:
978:
975:
972:
969:
965:
964:
963:
961:
960:vowel raising
957:
953:
949:
944:
942:
938:
928:
927:Kansai Region
924:
919:
916:
913:
910:
909:
907:
906:
904:
903:
902:
900:
892:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
844:
840:
836:
835:
834:
832:
828:
824:
823:Kyoto dialect
816:
809:
807:
804:
801:
798:
797:
793:
791:
788:
785:
782:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
760:
758:
756:
753:
750:
749:
745:
743:
740:
737:
734:
733:
729:
727:
725:
722:
719:
718:
714:
711:
709:
706:
703:
702:
698:
695:
693:
690:
687:
686:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
669:
663:
655:
652:
651:
647:
644:
643:
639:
636:
635:
631:
628:
627:
623:
620:
619:
615:
612:
611:
607:
604:
603:
599:
596:
595:
591:
588:
587:
583:
580:
579:
575:
572:
571:
567:
564:
563:
559:
556:
555:
549:
547:
543:
532:
529:February 2024
523:
519:
516:This section
514:
511:
507:
506:
500:
498:
496:
495:Proto-Japonic
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
467:
465:
464:accent system
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
434:
431:February 2024
425:
421:
418:This section
416:
413:
409:
408:
402:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
384:
380:
376:
368:
366:
362:
360:
352:
348:
344:
340:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
311:
308:
304:
300:
296:
293:
292:
291:
288:
282:
280:
278:
274:
273:Tōhoku region
270:
266:
262:
258:
250:
248:
246:
238:
234:
233:
229:
227:(東遊び歌) ;
226:
225:
221:
218:
217:
213:
210:
206:
205:
204:Kokin wakashū
201:
198:
197:
193:
192:
191:
189:
185:
177:
175:
173:
169:
165:
157:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:上代東国方言, 上代東国語
129:
121:
112:
109:
104:
99:
95:
94:Proto-Japonic
91:
85:
77:
74:
73:
72:
69:
68:
67:
63:
59:
53:
49:
45:
42:Eastern Japan
41:
37:
30:
25:
20:
3181:In Esperanto
3151:Romanization
3105:Pitch accent
3087:Dictionaries
3074:
3066:nyōbō kotoba
3065:
3019:
3018:Loan words (
3005:
2989:Topic marker
2903:ARIB STD B24
2649:by frequency
2529:Amami Ōshima
2493:
2406:
2395:
2354:
2340:
2330:
2318:
2305:East San'in
2289:
2265:
2236:
2214:
2204:
2140:
2091:
2047:
2032:
2013:Early Modern
2003:Early Middle
1917:
1913:Old Japanese
1658:. Retrieved
1655:academia.edu
1654:
1632:. Retrieved
1606:
1593:. Retrieved
1560:
1556:
1532:
1519:. Retrieved
1510:
1497:. Retrieved
1486:10138/358257
1469:
1465:
1449:
1437:. Retrieved
1431:
1417:
1397:
1370:
1358:. Retrieved
1352:
1338:
1330:Bibliography
1321:Pellard 2015
1316:
1304:
1292:
1287:, p. 3.
1280:
1275:, p. 9.
1273:Kupchik 2011
1268:
1246:Kupchik 2011
1241:
1234:Pellard 2008
1229:
1222:Kupchik 2011
1217:
1210:Kupchik 2013
1205:
1198:Kupchik 2011
1193:
1188:, p. 1.
1186:Kupchik 2023
1181:
1161:, p. 3.
1159:Kupchik 2011
1142:Pellard 2008
1137:
1132:, p. 2.
1130:Kupchik 2013
1125:
1113:
1108:, p. 8.
1093:, p. x.
1086:
1081:, p. 4.
1079:Kupchik 2013
1074:
1062:
1057:, p. 3.
1055:Pellard 2008
1050:
1045:, p. 7.
1043:Kupchik 2011
1038:
1019:
990:
980:
973:
945:
934:
896:
881:
873:
865:
857:
853:
831:Heian period
820:
661:
539:
526:
522:adding to it
517:
468:
466:is unknown.
441:
428:
424:adding to it
419:
399:also exist.
387:
375:SOV language
372:
363:
356:
289:
286:
277:Azuma region
269:Chūbu region
265:Kantō region
254:
242:
232:Sakimori uta
230:
223:
219:(風土記) ;
214:
209:Heian period
202:
194:
181:
178:Attestations
161:
151:
147:
140:Old Japanese
119:
118:
75:
71:Old Japanese
3161:Nihon-shiki
3044:Wasei-kango
2979:Possessives
2939:Grammar and
2772:Modern kana
2757:Punctuation
2738:Orthography
2559:Tokunoshima
2171:Gifu-Aichi
2141:Tōkai–Tōsan
2008:Late Middle
1788:Tokunoshima
1634:17 December
1521:18 December
1297:Thorpe 1983
971:case marker
870:predicative
843:Izu Islands
460:long vowels
444:phonotactic
397:blend words
261:Nara Period
188:anthologies
3257:Categories
3205:Literature
3075:yakuwarigo
3059:Honorifics
3039:Wasei-eigo
3027:from Dutch
2974:Adjectives
2941:vocabulary
2719:Hentaigana
2714:Man'yōgana
2554:Okinoerabu
2258:Okuyoshino
1793:Okinoerabu
1660:7 February
1360:26 October
1106:Vovin 2014
1031:References
968:possessive
862:imperative
707:kapyerute
501:Vocabulary
307:Shimotsuke
88:Early form
3097:Phonology
2984:Particles
2923:Half/Full
2853:Shift JIS
2782:Yotsugana
2762:Kanazukai
2704:Okurigana
2616:Logograms
2228:Shiramine
2073:Southern
2053:Northern
1610:. CRLAO.
1577:0153-3320
1494:249679997
1389:0921-5239
956:fortition
850:substrate
712:kaferude
573:mountain
403:Phonology
359:continuum
283:Varieties
196:Man'yōshū
136:varieties
108:ISO 639-3
3020:gairaigo
2999:Numerals
2969:Pronouns
2908:Enclosed
2888:Katakana
2863:Hiragana
2859:Unicode
2814:ISO/IEC
2796:Encoding
2699:Furigana
2694:Katakana
2689:Hiragana
2591:Yonaguni
2571:Southern
2549:Okinawan
2544:Kunigami
2524:Northern
2516:Ryukyuan
2457:Kyowa-go
2388:Tsushima
2378:Nagasaki
2373:Kumamoto
2361:Chikuzen
2225:Kanazawa
2215:Hokuriku
2150:Shizuoka
2117:Eastern
2106:Kanagawa
2097:Western
2042:Hokkaidō
2023:Dialects
1876:Yonaguni
1848:Miyakoan
1841:Miyakoan
1833:Southern
1819:Okinawan
1807:Okinawan
1756:Northern
1747:Ryukyuan
1714:Japanese
1707:Japanese
1624:54004881
1585:15508935
799:eyebrow
754:yanakyi
688:rainbow
671:English
629:journey
557:English
548:origin.
542:Koreanic
383:prefixes
379:suffixes
369:Typology
338:Southern
294:Northern
247:(2014).
211:) ;
128:Japanese
3223:Writers
3156:Hepburn
3110:Rendaku
3049:Engrish
2745:Braille
2666:Ryakuji
2586:Yaeyama
2504:grammar
2499:Hachijō
2396:Satsugū
2355:Hichiku
2341:Hōnichi
2295:San'yō
2290:Chūgoku
2266:Shikoku
2205:Western
2165:Nagaoka
2161:Echigo
2126:Tochigi
2121:Ibaraki
2082:Nairiku
2062:Tsugaru
2033:Eastern
1893:History
1871:Yaeyama
1726:Hachijō
1595:10 June
1499:29 June
1439:10 June
981:*bakare
976: ;
908:Kyūshū
872:suffix
864:suffix
839:Hachijō
761:yanagi
751:willow
735:rudder
723:munkyi
720:barley
691:nwonsi
613:person
605:mother
597:father
581:flower
546:Sinitic
485:\ and \
473:\ and \
343:Shinano
333:Shimōsa
325:Musashi
317:Hitachi
312:Central
309: ;
66:Japonic
3218:Poetry
3166:Kunrei
3128:Kan-on
2899:Other
2808:EUC-JP
2724:Sōgana
2709:Gojūon
2661:Kokuji
2629:Kanbun
2581:Tarama
2576:Miyako
2366:Hakata
2331:Kyūshū
2319:Umpaku
2282:Sanuki
2248:Banshū
2237:Kansai
2180:Mikawa
2175:Nagoya
2155:Narada
2048:Tōhoku
1853:Tarama
1622:
1583:
1575:
1540:
1492:
1404:
1387:
1377:
937:Kyūshū
868:, the
858:sugus-
854:sugos-
802:maywo
789:yukyi
786:yökyi
766:horse
715:kaede
704:maple
656:pyimo
640:kamyi
637:deity
632:tapyi
621:river
616:pyitö
395:, but
351:Tōtōmi
347:Suruga
329:Sagami
321:Kōzuke
299:Kazusa
216:Fudoki
148:Togoku
39:Region
3240:texts
3213:Books
3133:Tō-on
3123:Go-on
2750:Kanji
2671:Ateji
2634:Kanji
2564:Yoron
2539:Kikai
2407:Other
2309:Inshū
2299:Bingo
2253:Kishū
2243:Awaji
2111:Tokyo
2101:Gunma
2092:Kantō
2077:Kesen
2067:Akita
2057:Nanbu
1798:Yoron
1783:Kikai
1773:Amami
1765:Amami
1620:S2CID
1581:S2CID
1515:(PDF)
1490:S2CID
1462:(PDF)
1422:(PDF)
1343:(PDF)
995:Notes
987:form.
941:Kantō
886:verbs
810:mayu
805:mayu
794:yuki
783:snow
775:muma
769:muma
746:kaji
741:kadi
738:kati
730:mugi
699:niji
696:niji
653:rope
645:peak
624:kapa
608:papa
600:titi
592:kötö
589:word
584:pana
576:yama
565:girl
335:; and
303:Mutsu
184:poems
152:Azuma
144:Japan
2848:0213
2843:0212
2838:0211
2833:0208
2828:0201
2824:JIS
2818:2022
2681:Kana
2383:Saga
2347:Ōita
2277:Tosa
2221:Kaga
2190:Hida
2185:Mino
1662:2023
1636:2022
1597:2023
1573:ISSN
1538:ISBN
1523:2022
1501:2023
1441:2023
1402:ISBN
1385:ISSN
1375:ISBN
1362:2022
958:and
778:uma
772:uma
568:kwo
458:nor
442:The
349:and
331:and
305:and
271:and
257:Nara
3171:JSL
2913:EIS
2803:EUC
2272:Iyo
1998:Old
1628:HAL
1612:doi
1589:HAL
1565:doi
1482:hdl
1474:doi
974:-ga
884:on
880:or
876:on
874:-ke
866:-ro
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279:).
150:or
138:of
124:EOJ
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1166:^
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