495:
599:
4894:
5544:
903:
The initial /∅/ denotes a voiced laryngeal onset functioning as a zero initial. It was almost in complementary distribution with the initial /ŋ/, and the two have merged in most modern dialects as a zero initial, , or . The initial /ʋ/ has also merged with the zero initial and the /w/ medial in the
590:
initially aimed at
Mongolian but later adapted to other languages of the empire, including Chinese. It saw limited use until the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. The alphabet shows some influence of traditional phonology, in particular including voiced stops and fricatives that most scholars believe
640:
in 1037. The front matter includes a list of 'Phags-pa letters mapped to the 36 initials of the Song dynasty rime table tradition, with further letters for vowels. The entries are grouped into 15 rime classes corresponding closely to the 16 broad rime classes of the tables. Within each rime class,
907:
The distinction between the dental and retroflex sibilants has persisted in northern
Mandarin dialects, including that of Beijing, but the two series have merged in southwestern and southeastern dialects. A more recent development in some dialects (including Beijing) is the merger of palatal
737:
showed a three-way contrast between voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated and voiced consonants. The voicing distinction disappeared in most
Chinese varieties, with different effects on the initials and tones in each of the major groups. In Old Mandarin, Middle Chinese voiced stops and
660:, a new vernacular verse form. The entries are grouped into 19 rhyme classes each identified by a pair of exemplary characters. The rhyme classes are subdivided by tone and then into groups of homophones, with no other indication of pronunciation. The even tone (
995:, they are sufficient to account for the development to Old Mandarin. The LMC divisions are reflected in Old Mandarin by variation in the vowel, as well as the presence or absence of palatalization. Palatalization and lip rounding are represented by a medial
999:, as in modern varieties. Divisions III and IV are not distinguished by any of the varieties, and are marked with a palatal glide, except after retroflex initials. Palatal glides also occur in open division II syllables with velar or laryngeal initials.
2270:
Such syllables are placed after others of the same tone in the dictionary, perhaps to accommodate Old
Mandarin dialects in which former checked syllables retained a final glottal stop as in modern northwestern and southeastern dialects.
621:
was a rime dictionary based on ʼPhags-pa script. The prefaces of the only extant manuscript are dated 1308, but the work is believed to be derived from earlier ʼPhags-pa texts. The dictionary is believed to be based on
738:
affricates became voiceless aspirates in the "even" tone and voiceless non-aspirates in others, a typical feature of modern
Mandarin varieties. This distribution is also found in Shao Yong's 11th-century rhyme tables.
2145:. The pairs -uŋ/-wəŋ and -juŋ/-yŋ had also merged by this time. However, the language still distinguished mid and open vowels in the pairs -jɛw/-jaw, -jɛn/-jan and -wɔn/-wan. For example,
5019:
551:
A side-effect of foreign rule of northern China between the 12th and 14th centuries was a weakening of many of the old traditions. New genres of vernacular literature included
2189:
In Middle
Chinese, syllables with vocalic or nasal codas could have one of three pitch contours, traditionally called "even", "rising" and "departing". Syllables ending in a
741:
With the exception of the retroflex nasal, which merged with the dental nasal, the Late Middle
Chinese retroflex stops and retroflex sibilants merged into a single series.
641:
entries are grouped by the 'Phags-pa spelling of the final and then by the four tones of Middle
Chinese, the last of which is not indicated by the ʼPhags-pa spelling.
2387:
This differs somewhat from the standard language, in which syllables with Middle
Chinese voiceless initials are distributed across tones 1, 3 and 4 without pattern.
3406:
563:
poetry, which were rhymed according to contemporary vernacular pronunciation instead of the codified rules of formal poetry. Descriptive works less bound by the
4902:
2279:
The flourishing vernacular literature of the period also shows distinctively
Mandarin vocabulary and syntax, though some, such as the third-person pronoun
595:
syllables (ending in the stops /p/, /t/ or /k/ in Middle Chinese) were all written with a glottal stop ending. (Other tones are not marked by the script.)
3529:
3608:
687:, respectively. Syllables in the checked tone are distributed between the other tones, but placed after the other syllables with labels such as
5200:
2134:
416:
352:(12th to 14th centuries). New genres of vernacular literature were based on this language, including verse, drama and story forms, such as the
28:
2378:
The additional vowels in this rhyme group may reflect contrasts in Zhou Deqing's speech that were no longer distinguished in rhyming practice.
4439:
3442:
3423:
3306:
3287:
3183:
3161:
3142:
3123:
5250:
5092:
2208:) had no tonal contrasts but were traditionally treated as a separate "entering" tone category, parallel to syllables ending in nasals
2224:, each of the tones had split into two registers conditioned by the initials. When voicing was lost in all dialect groups except
2162:
5172:
2256:
Checked syllables are distributed across syllables with vocalic codas in other tones determined by the Middle Chinese initial:
3879:
3522:
266:
199:
494:
5488:
4942:
1322:
The two sources yield very similar sets of finals, though they sometimes differ in which finals were considered to rhyme:
280:
213:
5547:
5458:
4982:
598:
721:, such as the reduction and disappearance of final stop consonants and the reorganization of the Middle Chinese tones.
473:
345:
5463:
5335:
5260:
4917:
3433:
Shen, Zhongwei (2015), "Early Mandarin seen from ancient Altaic scripts", in S-Y. Wang, William; Sun, Chaofen (eds.),
392:
579:
5505:
5478:
5355:
5267:
5014:
4994:
5057:
3755:
3515:
3171:
3257:——— (1978), "The nature of the Middle Chinese tones and their development to Early Mandarin",
955:), thought to indicate a close or open vowel respectively. Each rhyme group was divided into four "divisions" (
5431:
5416:
5406:
5120:
3193:——— (1999). "Vocalism in Chinese dialect classification". In Simmons, Richard VanNess (ed.).
3772:
5443:
4317:
4279:
3682:
2360:
Palatalization was lost after retroflex initials, so -jɛ and -ɥɛ become -ɛ and -wɛ after retroflex initials.
5377:
5220:
3818:
3471:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2174:
371:, an alphabet created in 1269 for several languages of the Mongol empire, including Chinese, and from two
78:
5566:
5372:
5295:
5009:
4987:
3742:
3575:
3337:
3299:
A lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese and Early Mandarin
881:
536:
of more than four centuries earlier, disguising changes in speech over the period. A rare exception was
483:
4826:
4816:
387:(1324). The rhyme books differ in some details but show many of the features characteristic of modern
3801:
713:
tend to retain more traditional elements, but are useful in filling in the spartan description of the
5140:
5108:
4937:
4821:
4580:
4128:
4062:
3557:
3501:
3234:
4735:
4244:
5384:
5350:
5185:
5152:
4999:
4927:
4844:
4685:
4680:
4434:
3750:
3041:
996:
860:
817:
793:
787:
770:
734:
368:
148:
5215:
4548:
5500:
5367:
5330:
5113:
5047:
5042:
4932:
4922:
4419:
4227:
4222:
3621:
3361:
3325:
3266:
3214:
3202:
3102:
3094:
3061:
144:
4771:
4526:
2161:
in the modern language, were distinguished as and . These pairs had also merged by the time of
4140:
5411:
5401:
5280:
5245:
5100:
5052:
5004:
4893:
4624:
4558:
4414:
4399:
4070:
4047:
4001:
3926:
3852:
3732:
3700:
3654:
3593:
3583:
3548:
3438:
3419:
3400:
3302:
3283:
3179:
3157:
3138:
3119:
760:
718:
637:
388:
83:
53:
4776:
4766:
4751:
4165:
2220:. Syllables with voiced initials tended to be pronounced with a lower pitch, and by the late
1307:
rhyme classes is a characteristic feature of Mandarin dialects. That merger, and that of the
5517:
5037:
4912:
4697:
4619:
4570:
4531:
4480:
4394:
4346:
4330:
4210:
4170:
4104:
4092:
4052:
4006:
3952:
3947:
3937:
3931:
3760:
3705:
3690:
3566:
3538:
3481:
3353:
3086:
3053:
2205:
2142:
755:
646:
587:
571:
420:
383:
303:
236:
93:
88:
4543:
4239:
4187:
4182:
4116:
5468:
5448:
5436:
5345:
5305:
5290:
5285:
5029:
4879:
4869:
4849:
4806:
4801:
4667:
4631:
4614:
4604:
4361:
4297:
4084:
3980:
3975:
3884:
3831:
3826:
3806:
3791:
3786:
3727:
3722:
3712:
3695:
3667:
3639:
3616:
3226:
2239:
shows the typical Mandarin rearrangement of the first three tone classes into four tones:
2153:
2147:
775:
517:
372:
70:
5473:
4761:
4177:
1002:
For example, the rhyme classes with nasal codas yield the following Old Mandarin finals:
989:
Although these categories are coarser than the finals of the Early Middle Chinese of the
5522:
5512:
5483:
5190:
5162:
4874:
4859:
4712:
4707:
4692:
4636:
4575:
4457:
4429:
4409:
4356:
4325:
4302:
4292:
4287:
4249:
4232:
4145:
4133:
4121:
4109:
4097:
4042:
4024:
3942:
3916:
3857:
3777:
3765:
3717:
3672:
3662:
3588:
2252:
the departing tone, including rising tone syllables with Middle Chinese voiced initials
2190:
730:
391:, such as the reduction and disappearance of final stops and the reorganization of the
137:
125:
4034:
5560:
5323:
5135:
5130:
4702:
4646:
4641:
4609:
4596:
4472:
4424:
4351:
4307:
4197:
3957:
3796:
3644:
3631:
3238:
3106:
2118:
983:
5145:
4521:
4404:
4377:
3921:
3911:
3090:
2221:
2138:
623:
617:
592:
500:
419:, which was based on various northern dialects. It has since been extended to both
377:
349:
310:
243:
3467:
3495:
516:
China had a strong and conservative tradition of phonological description in the
5340:
5314:
5210:
5180:
5157:
5125:
4864:
4854:
4658:
4553:
4538:
4501:
4449:
4270:
4261:
4157:
3996:
3871:
3598:
3381:
2170:
583:
553:
354:
120:
2332:-jaŋ occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.
2323:-jan occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.
2314:-jam occurs only in syllables with Middle Chinese velar and laryngeal initials.
908:
allophones of dental sibilants and velars, yielding a palatal series (rendered
4756:
4730:
4496:
4462:
3967:
3894:
2225:
2166:
840:
586:. His ʼPhags-pa script, promulgated in 1269, was a vertical adaptation of the
521:
17:
5205:
4956:
4947:
4675:
4565:
4217:
4205:
4016:
3847:
2229:
1316:
928:
The Late Middle Chinese rime tables divide finals between 16 rhyme classes (
537:
452:
173:
161:
34:
Form of Chinese spoken in northern China between the 12th and 14th centuries
2246:
the lower even tone, conditioned by Middle Chinese voiced or nasal initials
3489:
3485:
2249:
the rising tone (except for syllables with Middle Chinese voiced initials)
5527:
5495:
5081:
4722:
3903:
2178:
765:
526:
3329:
3270:
3206:
3098:
5394:
5074:
4961:
4790:
4386:
1346:
782:
545:
469:
3365:
3065:
5453:
5255:
2243:
the upper even tone, conditioned by Middle Chinese voiceless initials
1006:
Old Mandarin reflexes of Late Middle Chinese rhymes with nasal codas
991:
532:
423:
and related northern dialects from the 12th century to the present.
3507:
3357:
3057:
2263:
tone 3 in syllables with voiceless initials except the glottal stop
717:. The language shows many of the features characteristic of modern
570:
The first alphabetic writing system for Chinese was created by the
4966:
3416:
A Diachronically-motivated Segmental Phonology of Mandarin Chinese
597:
575:
559:
493:
360:
2828:
2826:
2777:
2775:
2651:
2649:
3118:, ABC Dictionary Series, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
644:
A more radical departure from the rhyme table tradition was the
3511:
3316:——— (1999), "Chinese traditional phonology",
2369:
z̩ following dental sibilants, r̩ following retroflex sibilants
591:
had disappeared from Mandarin dialects by that time. However,
472:
for their subjects in the northern area formerly ruled by the
2678:
2676:
705:
The phonology of Old Mandarin is most clearly defined in the
415:, 'language of the officials'), was initially applied to the
403:
The name "Mandarin", as a direct translation of the Chinese
3454:
The Jongyuan In Yunn: a guide to Old Mandarin pronunciation
3073:——— (2000b), "A diachronic study of Míng
540:'s adaptation of the rime tables, without reference to the
524:. For example, the phonological system of the 11th-century
2266:
tone 4 in syllables with sonorant or glottal stop initials
964:), crosscut with a two-way division between "open mouth" (
344:
was the speech of northern China during the Jurchen-ruled
2489:
2487:
367:
The phonology of Old Mandarin has been inferred from the
3195:
Issues in Chinese Dialect Description and Classification
3154:
The Politics of Language in Chinese Education, 1895–1919
2516:
2514:
2181:
dialect, where they are pronounced and respectively.
567:
tradition revealed how much the language had changed.
544:
tradition, to describe the phonology of 11th-century
477:
463:
457:
445:
439:
427:
404:
315:
248:
3437:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 91–103,
31:, the Mandarin koine of the Ming and Qing dynasties.
5424:
5393:
5322:
5313:
5304:
5238:
5229:
5171:
5091:
5066:
5028:
4975:
4901:
4837:
4789:
4744:
4721:
4666:
4657:
4595:
4514:
4489:
4471:
4448:
4385:
4376:
4339:
4316:
4278:
4269:
4260:
4196:
4156:
4083:
4061:
4033:
4015:
3989:
3966:
3902:
3893:
3870:
3840:
3817:
3741:
3681:
3653:
3630:
3607:
3574:
3565:
3556:
3282:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
656:) in 1324 as a guide to the rhyming conventions of
309:
302:
297:
279:
265:
260:
242:
235:
230:
212:
198:
193:
171:
159:
154:
134:
113:
67:
59:
49:
39:
2260:tone 2 in syllables with voiced obstruent initials
2113:In syllables with labial initials, Middle Chinese
2165:'s 1730 grammar. They are still distinguished in
1350:
1337:
3280:Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology
2125:before the Old Mandarin period. The remaining
3523:
2284:
2100:
2076:
2061:
2036:
2021:
1998:
1972:
1957:
1935:
1920:
1897:
1882:
1857:
1832:
1817:
1795:
1780:
1757:
1729:
1706:
1691:
1668:
1642:
1627:
1593:
1578:
1556:
1530:
1515:
1492:
1477:
1453:
1438:
1415:
1387:
1378:
1369:
1360:
1274:
1242:
1214:
1182:
1158:
1128:
1093:
1070:
1048:
977:
968:
959:
950:
941:
932:
688:
679:
670:
669:) is divided in upper and lower tones called
661:
651:
631:
606:
433:
410:
285:
271:
218:
204:
8:
3456:, Far Eastern Publications, Yale University.
417:lingua franca of the Ming and Qing dynasties
3000:
2988:
2976:
2868:
2856:
2844:
2832:
2805:
2781:
2766:
2754:
2742:
2730:
2718:
2706:
2694:
2682:
2667:
2655:
2640:
2592:
2580:
2556:
2544:
2442:
2289:), can be traced back to the Tang dynasty.
5543:
5319:
5310:
5235:
4663:
4382:
4275:
4266:
3899:
3571:
3562:
3530:
3516:
3508:
3435:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics
3405:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
294:
227:
36:
2305:-əm occurs only after retroflex initials.
3046:Journal of the American Oriental Society
3044:(2000a), "A brief history of Mandarin",
2133:before the early 17th century, when the
1324:
1004:
743:
512:(written in 'Phags-pa script at the top)
450:in the Korean Chinese-language textbook
3012:
2928:
2916:
2904:
2892:
2399:
2340:
2338:
2298:
2137:was described by European missionaries
1953:
1813:
1725:
1702:
1623:
1589:
1574:
1511:
697:'entering tone makes departing tone').
3398:
3222:
3212:
3024:
2964:
2952:
2940:
2817:
2793:
2628:
2616:
2568:
2532:
2520:
2505:
2493:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2430:
2406:
29:Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)
2880:
2604:
2418:
2356:
2354:
1344:
937:), each described as either "inner" (
7:
3201:monograph series. pp. 193–203.
2232:, this distinction became phonemic.
626:rime dictionaries, particularly the
582:on the orders of the Mongol emperor
530:was almost identical to that of the
2571:, p. 50, based on Dong (1954).
611:(-im, -əm), divided into four tones
1315:classes, was already reflected in
25:
5542:
5020:Literary and colloquial readings
4892:
3116:A Handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese
709:. The 'Phags-pa script and the
3297:——— (1991),
3278:——— (1984),
3259:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
3239:"Late Middle Chinese, Part II"
3199:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
3178:, Cambridge University Press,
3114:——— (2006),
3091:10.1080/02549948.2000.11731346
2285:
2152:
2146:
2101:
2077:
2062:
2037:
2022:
1999:
1973:
1958:
1936:
1921:
1898:
1883:
1858:
1833:
1818:
1796:
1781:
1758:
1730:
1707:
1692:
1669:
1643:
1628:
1594:
1579:
1557:
1531:
1516:
1493:
1478:
1454:
1439:
1416:
1389:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1319:'s 11th-century rhyme tables.
1275:
1243:
1215:
1183:
1159:
1129:
1094:
1071:
1049:
982:), with the latter indicating
978:
969:
960:
951:
942:
933:
689:
680:
671:
662:
652:
632:
607:
434:
411:
316:
286:
272:
249:
219:
205:
1:
1380:
1371:
482:for those formerly under the
5548:List of varieties of Chinese
3393:Historical Chinese Phonology
393:four tones of Middle Chinese
3468:BabelStone: Phags-pa Script
2096:
2072:
2057:
2032:
2017:
1994:
1968:
1931:
1916:
1893:
1878:
1853:
1828:
1791:
1776:
1753:
1687:
1664:
1638:
1552:
1526:
1488:
1473:
1449:
1434:
1411:
729:In Middle Chinese, initial
478:
464:
458:
446:
440:
428:
405:
5583:
5506:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
650:, created by Zhōu Déqīng (
26:
5540:
4890:
3545:
3452:Stimson, Hugh M. (1966),
3342:Phonology of Old Mandarin
3152:Kaske, Elisabeth (2008),
3135:Phonology of Old Mandarin
2344:This final occurs in the
1956:
1816:
1728:
1705:
1626:
1592:
1577:
1514:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1386:
1377:
1368:
1359:
1293:
1291:
1254:
1236:
1228:
1225:
1194:
1167:
1152:
1143:
1137:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1065:
1057:
1024:
1016:
1013:
1010:
880:
859:
839:
781:
752:
520:and their elaboration in
331:
327:
293:
226:
189:
185:
44:
3388:
3301:, Vancouver: UBC Press,
2796:, pp. 198, 201–202.
2535:, pp. 34–36, 52–54.
426:The language was called
267:Traditional Chinese
200:Traditional Chinese
27:Not to be confused with
986:of the syllable onset.
504:covering the syllables
281:Simplified Chinese
214:Simplified Chinese
2175:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
612:
513:
63:12th to 14th centuries
3414:Li, Wen-Chao (1999),
3235:Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
3137:, Mouton De Gruyter,
2348:but not in 'Phags-pa.
2177:dialects such as the
973:) or "closed mouth" (
601:
580:Drogön Chögyal Phagpa
572:Tibetan Buddhist monk
497:
484:Southern Song dynasty
3502:Chinese Text Project
3133:Hsueh, F.S. (1975),
2871:, p. 237, n. 7.
3027:, pp. 111–132.
2943:, pp. 195–197.
2931:, pp. 538–540.
2919:, pp. 306–308.
2835:, pp. 143–144.
2784:, pp. 121–122.
2769:, pp. 113–116.
2757:, pp. 118–120.
2745:, pp. 117–118.
2733:, pp. 122–125.
2709:, pp. 125–126.
2697:, pp. 126–127.
2658:, pp. 127–128.
2595:, pp. 42, 238.
2508:, pp. 6, 9–15.
1334:
1106:
1058:
1007:
904:standard language.
749:
695:rùshēng zuò qùshēng
348:and the Mongol-led
5501:Cantonese Bopomofo
5368:Chinese characters
5296:Written Sichuanese
3880:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
3386:Zhōngguó yǔyīn shǐ
3001:Pulleyblank (1991)
2989:Pulleyblank (1978)
2977:Pulleyblank (1978)
2869:Pulleyblank (1984)
2857:Pulleyblank (1991)
2845:Pulleyblank (1991)
2833:Pulleyblank (1971)
2806:Pulleyblank (1999)
2782:Pulleyblank (1984)
2767:Pulleyblank (1984)
2755:Pulleyblank (1984)
2743:Pulleyblank (1984)
2731:Pulleyblank (1984)
2719:Pulleyblank (1984)
2707:Pulleyblank (1984)
2695:Pulleyblank (1984)
2683:Pulleyblank (1984)
2668:Pulleyblank (1984)
2656:Pulleyblank (1984)
2641:Pulleyblank (1984)
2593:Pulleyblank (1984)
2581:Pulleyblank (1991)
2559:, pp. 65, 69.
2557:Pulleyblank (1984)
2545:Pulleyblank (1999)
2443:Pulleyblank (1999)
2433:, pp. 25, 49.
2409:, p. 23, 136.
2135:late Ming standard
2129:codas merged with
2117:codas had already
1325:
1299:The merger of the
1005:
744:
613:
514:
145:Chinese characters
5554:
5553:
5536:
5535:
5363:
5362:
5281:Written Cantonese
5276:
5275:
5058:Classical grammar
5053:Cantonese grammar
4888:
4887:
4785:
4784:
4591:
4590:
4510:
4509:
4372:
4371:
4079:
4078:
3866:
3865:
3756:Chengdu–Chongqing
3549:Sinitic languages
3444:978-0-19-985633-6
3425:978-0-8204-4293-8
3308:978-0-7748-0366-3
3289:978-0-7748-0192-8
3185:978-0-521-29653-3
3163:978-90-04-16367-6
3144:978-90-279-3391-1
3125:978-0-8248-3000-7
2967:, pp. 52–54.
2955:, pp. 34–36.
2631:, pp. 31–32.
2496:, pp. 51–52.
2469:, pp. 49–50.
2457:, pp. 48–49.
2206:checked syllables
2111:
2110:
1297:
1296:
901:
900:
820:
796:
719:Mandarin dialects
638:Ministry of Rites
518:rime dictionaries
476:, in contrast to
456:, after the name
389:Mandarin dialects
373:rime dictionaries
335:
334:
323:
322:
304:Standard Mandarin
256:
255:
237:Standard Mandarin
54:North China Plain
16:(Redirected from
5574:
5546:
5545:
5518:Taiwanese Hangul
5407:Mainland Chinese
5320:
5311:
5236:
4913:Standard Chinese
4896:
4664:
4383:
4276:
4267:
4149:
4137:
4125:
4113:
4101:
3900:
3572:
3563:
3539:Chinese language
3532:
3525:
3518:
3509:
3497:Zhongyuan Yinyun
3482:Internet Archive
3478:Zhongyuan Yinyun
3457:
3448:
3429:
3410:
3404:
3396:
3369:
3344:by F.S. Hsueh",
3338:Stimson, Hugh M.
3333:
3312:
3293:
3274:
3253:
3243:
3230:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3210:
3189:
3167:
3148:
3129:
3110:
3079:Monumenta Serica
3069:
3042:Coblin, W. South
3028:
3022:
3016:
3010:
3004:
2998:
2992:
2986:
2980:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2692:
2686:
2680:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2388:
2385:
2379:
2376:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2358:
2349:
2346:Zhongyuan Yinyun
2342:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2306:
2303:
2288:
2287:
2237:Zhongyuan Yinyun
2219:
2215:
2211:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2173:and some nearby
2156:
2150:
2143:Nicolas Trigault
2104:
2103:
2080:
2079:
2065:
2064:
2040:
2039:
2025:
2024:
2002:
2001:
1976:
1975:
1961:
1960:
1939:
1938:
1924:
1923:
1901:
1900:
1886:
1885:
1861:
1860:
1836:
1835:
1821:
1820:
1799:
1798:
1784:
1783:
1761:
1760:
1733:
1732:
1710:
1709:
1695:
1694:
1672:
1671:
1646:
1645:
1631:
1630:
1597:
1596:
1582:
1581:
1560:
1559:
1534:
1533:
1519:
1518:
1496:
1495:
1481:
1480:
1457:
1456:
1442:
1441:
1419:
1418:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1339:Zhongyuan Yinyun
1335:
1328:Zhongyuan Yinyun
1278:
1277:
1246:
1245:
1218:
1217:
1186:
1185:
1162:
1161:
1132:
1131:
1097:
1096:
1074:
1073:
1052:
1051:
1008:
981:
980:
972:
971:
963:
962:
954:
953:
945:
944:
936:
935:
816:
792:
750:
747:Zhongyuan Yinyun
745:Initials of the
715:Zhongyuan Yinyun
707:Zhongyuan Yinyun
692:
691:
683:
682:
674:
673:
665:
664:
655:
654:
647:Zhongyuan Yinyun
636:) issued by the
635:
634:
610:
609:
603:Zhongyuan Yinyun
588:Tibetan alphabet
481:
467:
461:
449:
443:
437:
436:
431:
421:Standard Chinese
414:
413:
408:
384:Zhongyuan Yinyun
369:ʼPhags-pa script
319:
318:
295:
289:
288:
275:
274:
252:
251:
228:
222:
221:
208:
207:
164:
149:ʼPhags-pa script
140:
73:
37:
21:
5582:
5581:
5577:
5576:
5575:
5573:
5572:
5571:
5557:
5556:
5555:
5550:
5532:
5469:Tongyong Pinyin
5449:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
5437:Dungan Cyrillic
5420:
5389:
5359:
5300:
5291:Written Hokkien
5272:
5231:
5225:
5201:Middle Mandarin
5167:
5087:
5062:
5024:
4971:
4904:
4897:
4884:
4833:
4781:
4740:
4717:
4653:
4587:
4506:
4485:
4467:
4444:
4368:
4335:
4312:
4256:
4192:
4152:
4143:
4131:
4119:
4107:
4095:
4075:
4057:
4029:
4011:
3985:
3962:
3889:
3862:
3836:
3813:
3737:
3677:
3649:
3626:
3603:
3552:
3541:
3536:
3464:
3451:
3445:
3432:
3426:
3413:
3397:
3390:
3380:
3377:
3375:Further reading
3372:
3336:
3315:
3309:
3296:
3290:
3277:
3256:
3241:
3233:
3221:
3211:
3192:
3186:
3170:
3164:
3151:
3145:
3132:
3126:
3113:
3072:
3040:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3011:
3007:
2999:
2995:
2987:
2983:
2975:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2951:
2947:
2939:
2935:
2927:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2879:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2855:
2851:
2847:, pp. 8–9.
2843:
2839:
2831:
2824:
2816:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2773:
2765:
2761:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2737:
2729:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2681:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2627:
2623:
2615:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2591:
2587:
2583:, pp. 7–8.
2579:
2575:
2567:
2563:
2555:
2551:
2543:
2539:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2492:
2485:
2481:, pp. 1–3.
2477:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2417:
2413:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2352:
2343:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2277:
2187:
1354:
1341:
926:
786:
727:
703:
492:
401:
381:(1308) and the
160:
141:
136:
130:
116:
109:
74:
71:Language family
69:
35:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5580:
5578:
5570:
5569:
5559:
5558:
5552:
5551:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5534:
5533:
5531:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5513:Taiwanese kana
5510:
5509:
5508:
5503:
5493:
5492:
5491:
5486:
5484:Lessing-Othmer
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5441:
5440:
5439:
5428:
5426:
5422:
5421:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5397:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5326:
5317:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5286:Written Dungan
5283:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5271:
5270:
5265:
5264:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5242:
5240:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5191:Middle Chinese
5188:
5183:
5177:
5175:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5158:Wubi (Wang Ma)
5155:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5143:
5138:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5117:
5116:
5106:
5103:
5097:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5078:
5070:
5068:
5064:
5063:
5061:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5034:
5032:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4979:
4977:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4950:
4945:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4909:
4907:
4899:
4898:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4875:Xiangnan Tuhua
4872:
4867:
4862:
4860:Shaozhou Tuhua
4857:
4852:
4847:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4811:
4810:
4809:
4804:
4795:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4748:
4746:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4738:
4733:
4727:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4716:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4689:
4688:
4683:
4672:
4670:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4601:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4486:
4484:
4483:
4477:
4475:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4391:
4389:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4349:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4322:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4284:
4282:
4273:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4242:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4202:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4162:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4138:
4126:
4114:
4102:
4089:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4067:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4039:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3961:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3908:
3906:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3876:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3823:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3780:
3773:Renshou–Fushun
3770:
3769:
3768:
3758:
3747:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3683:Central Plains
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3659:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3580:
3578:
3569:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3527:
3520:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3493:
3475:
3463:
3462:External links
3460:
3459:
3458:
3449:
3443:
3430:
3424:
3418:, Peter Lang,
3411:
3395:], Taipei.
3376:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3358:10.2307/412925
3352:(4): 940–944,
3334:
3324:(2): 101–137,
3313:
3307:
3294:
3288:
3275:
3265:(2): 173–203,
3254:
3231:
3223:|journal=
3190:
3184:
3168:
3162:
3149:
3143:
3130:
3124:
3111:
3070:
3058:10.2307/606615
3052:(4): 537–552,
3037:
3030:
3029:
3017:
3015:, p. 943.
3013:Stimson (1977)
3005:
2993:
2991:, p. 193.
2981:
2979:, p. 192.
2969:
2957:
2945:
2933:
2929:Coblin (2000a)
2921:
2917:Coblin (2000b)
2909:
2907:, p. 539.
2905:Coblin (2000a)
2897:
2895:, p. 942.
2893:Stimson (1977)
2885:
2873:
2861:
2849:
2837:
2822:
2810:
2808:, p. 127.
2798:
2786:
2771:
2759:
2747:
2735:
2723:
2721:, p. 125.
2711:
2699:
2687:
2685:, p. 127.
2672:
2670:, p. 253.
2660:
2645:
2633:
2621:
2619:, p. 193.
2609:
2597:
2585:
2573:
2561:
2549:
2547:, p. 126.
2537:
2525:
2510:
2498:
2483:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2445:, p. 125.
2435:
2423:
2411:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2380:
2371:
2362:
2350:
2334:
2325:
2316:
2307:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2276:
2273:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2191:stop consonant
2186:
2183:
2163:Joseph Prémare
2109:
2108:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2084:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1996:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
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1877:
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1591:
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1564:
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1524:
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1505:
1502:
1500:
1490:
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1472:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1367:
1357:
1356:
1349:
1343:
1326:Finals of the
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1179:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1012:
946:) or "outer" (
925:
922:
899:
898:
895:
892:
890:
887:
884:
878:
877:
874:
871:
868:
866:
863:
857:
856:
853:
851:
849:
846:
843:
837:
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
813:
812:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
790:
779:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
726:
723:
702:
699:
578:school leader
498:A page of the
491:
488:
444:language') or
400:
397:
342:Early Mandarin
333:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
321:
320:
313:
307:
306:
300:
299:
298:Transcriptions
291:
290:
283:
277:
276:
269:
263:
262:
261:Early Mandarin
258:
257:
254:
253:
246:
240:
239:
233:
232:
231:Transcriptions
224:
223:
216:
210:
209:
202:
196:
195:
191:
190:
187:
186:
183:
182:
177:
169:
168:
165:
157:
156:
155:Language codes
152:
151:
142:
138:Writing system
135:
132:
131:
129:
128:
126:Middle Chinese
119:
117:
114:
111:
110:
108:
107:
106:
105:
104:
103:
102:
101:
77:
75:
68:
65:
64:
61:
57:
56:
51:
47:
46:
45:Early Mandarin
42:
41:
33:
24:
18:Early Mandarin
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5579:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5549:
5539:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5498:
5497:
5494:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5442:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5433:
5432:Cyrillization
5430:
5429:
5427:
5423:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5396:
5392:
5386:
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5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
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5369:
5366:
5365:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5325:
5324:Script styles
5321:
5318:
5316:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5303:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
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5237:
5234:
5228:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
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5207:
5204:
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5170:
5164:
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5139:
5137:
5134:
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5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5115:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5107:
5104:
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4911:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4900:
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4881:
4878:
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4682:
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4461:
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4411:
4408:
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4403:
4401:
4398:
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4390:
4388:
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4379:
4375:
4363:
4360:
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4353:
4350:
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4315:
4309:
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4299:
4296:
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4286:
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4281:
4277:
4274:
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4268:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4251:
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4243:
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4115:
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4026:
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4018:
4014:
4008:
4005:
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3998:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3982:
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3959:
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3901:
3898:
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3828:
3825:
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3816:
3808:
3805:
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3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
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3646:
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3635:
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3623:
3620:
3618:
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3610:
3606:
3600:
3597:
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3579:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3528:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3394:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3216:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3172:Norman, Jerry
3169:
3165:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3026:
3025:Norman (1988)
3021:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3006:
3003:, p. 10.
3002:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2965:Norman (1988)
2961:
2958:
2954:
2953:Norman (1988)
2949:
2946:
2942:
2941:Norman (1999)
2937:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2886:
2883:, p. 65.
2882:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2820:, p. 50.
2819:
2818:Norman (1988)
2814:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2794:Norman (1999)
2790:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2643:, p. 47.
2642:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2629:Norman (1988)
2625:
2622:
2618:
2617:Norman (1988)
2613:
2610:
2607:, p. 38.
2606:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2577:
2574:
2570:
2569:Norman (1988)
2565:
2562:
2558:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2533:Norman (1988)
2529:
2526:
2523:, p. 49.
2522:
2521:Norman (1988)
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2506:Coblin (2006)
2502:
2499:
2495:
2494:Norman (1988)
2490:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2479:Coblin (2006)
2475:
2472:
2468:
2467:Norman (1988)
2463:
2460:
2456:
2455:Norman (1988)
2451:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2431:Norman (1988)
2427:
2424:
2421:, p. 46.
2420:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2407:Norman (1988)
2403:
2400:
2394:
2384:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2329:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2282:
2274:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2207:
2192:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1856:
1852:
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1847:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1831:
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1824:
1811:
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1802:
1794:
1790:
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1769:
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1698:
1690:
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1634:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1588:
1585:
1572:
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1565:
1563:
1555:
1551:
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1545:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1529:
1525:
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1501:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1476:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1445:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1396:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1288:
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1283:
1281:
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1199:
1196:
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1189:
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1177:
1174:
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1169:
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1157:
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1149:
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1140:
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1127:
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1123:
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1092:
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1077:
1069:
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1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1009:
1003:
1000:
998:
994:
993:
987:
985:
984:labialisation
976:
967:
958:
949:
940:
931:
923:
921:
919:
915:
911:
905:
896:
893:
891:
888:
885:
883:
879:
875:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
858:
854:
852:
850:
847:
844:
842:
838:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
815:
814:
810:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
791:
789:
784:
780:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
751:
748:
742:
739:
736:
732:
724:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
700:
698:
696:
686:
677:
668:
659:
649:
648:
642:
639:
629:
625:
620:
619:
604:
600:
596:
594:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
568:
566:
562:
561:
556:
555:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
534:
529:
528:
523:
519:
511:
507:
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502:
496:
489:
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480:
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471:
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460:
455:
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448:
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430:
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386:
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380:
379:
374:
370:
365:
363:
362:
357:
356:
351:
347:
343:
339:
330:
326:
317:Zǎoqí Guānhuà
314:
312:
308:
305:
301:
296:
292:
284:
282:
278:
270:
268:
264:
259:
247:
245:
241:
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234:
229:
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217:
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197:
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127:
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118:
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100:
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90:
87:
86:
85:
82:
81:
80:
76:
72:
66:
62:
58:
55:
52:
48:
43:
38:
30:
19:
5567:Old Mandarin
5454:Hanyu Pinyin
5444:Romanization
5351:Semi-cursive
5196:Old Mandarin
5195:
5153:Stroke count
5080:
5073:
4995:Old National
4838:Unclassified
3743:Southwestern
3576:Northeastern
3558:Major groups
3547:
3496:
3477:
3453:
3434:
3415:
3392:
3385:
3382:Dong, Tonghe
3349:
3345:
3341:
3321:
3317:
3298:
3279:
3262:
3258:
3249:
3245:
3198:
3194:
3175:
3153:
3134:
3115:
3082:
3078:
3077:phonology",
3074:
3049:
3045:
3033:
3032:
3020:
3008:
2996:
2984:
2972:
2960:
2948:
2936:
2924:
2912:
2900:
2888:
2881:Hsueh (1975)
2876:
2864:
2859:, p. 9.
2852:
2840:
2813:
2801:
2789:
2762:
2750:
2738:
2726:
2714:
2702:
2690:
2663:
2636:
2624:
2612:
2605:Hsueh (1975)
2600:
2588:
2576:
2564:
2552:
2540:
2528:
2501:
2474:
2462:
2450:
2438:
2426:
2419:Kaske (2008)
2414:
2402:
2383:
2374:
2365:
2345:
2328:
2319:
2310:
2301:
2280:
2278:
2269:
2255:
2236:
2234:
2222:Tang dynasty
2188:
2158:
2139:Matteo Ricci
2130:
2126:
2122:
2119:dissimilated
2114:
2112:
2105:
2081:
2066:
2041:
2026:
2003:
1977:
1962:
1940:
1925:
1902:
1887:
1862:
1837:
1822:
1800:
1785:
1762:
1734:
1711:
1696:
1673:
1647:
1632:
1598:
1583:
1561:
1535:
1520:
1497:
1482:
1458:
1443:
1420:
1355:rhyme class
1352:Menggu Ziyun
1351:
1347:medial class
1342:rhyme class
1338:
1332:Menggu Ziyun
1331:
1327:
1321:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1298:
1279:
1247:
1219:
1187:
1163:
1133:
1098:
1075:
1053:
1011:Rhyme class
1001:
990:
988:
974:
965:
956:
947:
938:
929:
927:
920:in pinyin).
917:
913:
909:
906:
902:
746:
740:
728:
714:
711:Menggu Ziyun
710:
706:
704:
694:
684:
675:
666:
657:
645:
643:
627:
624:Song dynasty
618:Menggu Ziyun
616:
614:
605:rhyme group
602:
593:checked tone
569:
564:
558:
552:
550:
541:
531:
525:
515:
509:
505:
501:Menggu Ziyun
499:
468:used by the
451:
429:Hàn'ér yányǔ
425:
402:
382:
378:Menggu Ziyun
376:
366:
359:
353:
350:Yuan dynasty
341:
338:Old Mandarin
337:
336:
311:Hanyu Pinyin
244:Hanyu Pinyin
194:Chinese name
179:
172:
99:Old Mandarin
98:
79:Sino-Tibetan
40:Old Mandarin
5523:Xiao'erjing
5385:Punctuation
5378:Traditional
5331:Oracle bone
5315:Logographic
5211:Proto-Hakka
5186:Eastern Han
5181:Old Chinese
5043:Classifiers
5010:Northern Wu
4938:Singaporean
4144: [
4132: [
4120: [
4108: [
4096: [
3472:Andrew West
3085:: 267–335,
3034:Works cited
882:Approximant
628:Lǐbù yùnlüè
584:Kublai Khan
522:rime tables
346:Jin dynasty
121:Old Chinese
115:Early forms
5474:Wade–Giles
5373:Simplified
5268:Vernacular
5261:in Vietnam
5114:Simplified
5101:Biaoxingma
5048:Honorifics
4983:Historical
4928:Philippine
4918:Sichuanese
4845:Badong Yao
4549:Shao–Jiang
4420:Philippine
4228:Xiangxiang
4223:Shuangfeng
3968:Taizhou Wu
3751:Sichuanese
3318:Asia Major
3252:: 121–166.
3246:Asia Major
2395:References
2275:Vocabulary
2082:jiāng-yáng
2004:dōng-zhōng
1345:Finals by
735:affricates
250:Gǔ Guānhuà
5412:Taiwanese
5402:Cantonese
5246:Classical
5206:Proto-Min
5141:Microsoft
5000:Cantonese
4976:Phonology
4957:Cantonese
4948:Singdarin
4933:Malaysian
4923:Taiwanese
4827:Rongjiang
4817:Yongjiang
4813:Southern
4798:Northern
4772:Luo–Guang
4681:Hong Kong
4676:Guangzhou
4632:Taiwanese
4625:Changting
4559:Zhanjiang
4473:Zhongshan
4440:Malaysian
4435:Singapore
4400:Zhangzhou
4352:Zhongshan
4245:Yong–Quan
4141:Jing-Zhan
4071:Xuancheng
4048:Jiangshan
3927:Changzhou
3848:Junjiahua
3701:Guanzhong
3584:Changchun
3500:, at the
3340:(1977), "
3225:ignored (
3215:cite book
3156:, BRILL,
3107:192485681
2230:Old Xiang
2042:gēng-qīng
1941:huán-huān
1903:xiān-tiān
1801:lián-xiān
1317:Shao Yong
1061:-əm, -im
861:Fricative
794:voiceless
788:affricate
771:Retroflex
701:Phonology
538:Shao Yong
453:Nogeoldae
174:Glottolog
162:ISO 639-3
5561:Category
5496:Bopomofo
5425:Phonetic
5417:Two-cell
5346:Clerical
5256:in Japan
5251:Adoption
5239:Official
5230:Literary
5105:Boshiamy
5082:Xiehouyu
5038:Numerals
5015:Mandarin
4943:Standard
4903:Standard
4777:Qin–Lian
4767:Yong–Xun
4752:Gao–Yang
4698:Jiujiang
4686:Malaysia
4620:Tingzhou
4571:Wenchang
4532:Jianyang
4522:Northern
4481:Sanxiang
4395:Quanzhou
4378:Southern
4347:Manjiang
4211:Changsha
4171:Nanchang
4166:Chang–Du
4063:Xuanzhou
4053:Qingtian
4007:Wencheng
3953:Jiangyin
3948:Jinxiang
3938:Shaoxing
3932:Hangzhou
3912:Shanghai
3853:Qinjiang
3761:Minjiang
3733:Xinjiang
3691:Dongping
3655:Jiaoliao
3594:Shenyang
3567:Mandarin
3401:citation
3384:(1954),
3346:Language
3330:41645549
3271:23752830
3237:(1971),
3207:23825680
3174:(1988),
3099:40727264
2179:Yangzhou
1978:hán-shān
1863:zhēn-wén
1838:yán-xián
1712:xiāo-háo
1566:-z̩, -r̩
1043:Div. IV
1040:Div. III
1031:Div. IV
1028:Div. III
1025:Div. II
818:aspirate
766:Sibilant
725:Initials
685:yángpíng
527:Guangyun
94:Mandarin
5395:Braille
5356:Cursive
5306:Scripts
5173:History
5163:ZhengMa
5109:Cangjie
5075:Chengyu
5030:Grammar
5005:Hokkien
4962:Hokkien
4870:Waxiang
4850:Danzhou
4822:Guandao
4807:Younian
4802:Tongdao
4791:Pinghua
4731:Taishan
4647:Raoping
4615:Huizhou
4605:Meixian
4581:Banqiao
4554:Leizhou
4544:Pu–Xian
4539:Central
4527:Jian'ou
4502:Longyan
4450:Teochew
4387:Hokkien
4362:Nanlang
4318:Fu–Ning
4298:Changle
4280:Houguan
4271:Eastern
4218:Loushao
4206:Changyi
4188:Da–Tong
4183:Ying–Yi
4129:Yanzhou
3997:Wenzhou
3990:Oujiang
3981:Tiantai
3976:Taizhou
3885:Zhi–Yan
3832:Nantong
3827:Nanjing
3802:Gui–Liu
3792:Nanping
3787:Kunming
3713:Luoyang
3668:Qingdao
3640:Tianjin
3617:Beijing
3609:Beijing
3480:at the
3176:Chinese
3075:Guānhuá
2157:, both
1763:qīn-xún
1674:yóu-hóu
1648:jiē-lái
1498:chē-zhē
1037:Div. II
1022:Div. I
1017:Closed
676:yīnpíng
546:Kaifeng
490:Sources
470:Mongols
406:Guānhuà
89:Chinese
84:Sinitic
5464:Postal
5459:MPS II
5336:Bronze
5216:Ba–Shu
5136:Google
5131:Pinyin
5067:Idioms
4880:Yeheni
4762:Wu–Hua
4757:Goulou
4736:Xinhui
4713:Dapeng
4708:Weitou
4693:Xiguan
4668:Yuehai
4637:Sixian
4576:Haikou
4566:Hainan
4497:Zhenan
4463:Haklau
4458:Swatow
4430:Penang
4415:Taiwan
4410:Chawan
4357:Longdu
4326:Ningde
4303:Gutian
4293:Fuqing
4288:Fuzhou
4250:Qiyang
4233:Wugang
4178:Yi–Liu
4105:Xiu-Yi
4093:Ji-She
4043:Quzhou
4035:Chu–Qu
4025:Jinhua
4017:Wuzhou
4002:Rui'an
3943:Ningbo
3917:Suzhou
3807:Wuming
3778:Zigong
3766:Leshan
3728:Lanyin
3723:Dungan
3718:Xuzhou
3696:Gangou
3673:Weihai
3663:Dalian
3622:Taiwan
3589:Harbin
3490:part 2
3486:part 1
3441:
3422:
3366:412925
3364:
3328:
3305:
3286:
3269:
3205:
3182:
3160:
3141:
3122:
3105:
3097:
3066:606615
3064:
1599:qí-wēi
1562:zhī-sī
1536:jiā-má
1034:Div. I
992:Qieyun
966:kāikǒu
924:Finals
761:Dental
756:Labial
565:Qieyun
542:Qieyun
533:Qieyun
479:Nánrén
465:Hànrén
459:Hàn'ér
441:Hàn'ér
375:, the
50:Region
5528:Nüshu
5232:forms
5146:Sogou
5093:Input
4967:Hakka
4905:forms
4745:Other
4703:Shiqi
4642:Hailu
4610:Wuhua
4597:Hakka
4515:Other
4490:Other
4425:Pedan
4340:Other
4331:Fu'an
4308:Matsu
4240:Ji–Xu
4198:Xiang
4148:]
4136:]
4124:]
4117:Qi-De
4112:]
4100:]
3958:Shadi
3904:Taihu
3858:Gyami
3841:Other
3797:Wuhan
3706:Xi'an
3645:Jinan
3470:, by
3391:[
3389:中國語音史
3362:JSTOR
3326:JSTOR
3267:JSTOR
3242:(PDF)
3203:JSTOR
3103:S2CID
3095:JSTOR
3062:JSTOR
2293:Notes
2216:, or
2185:Tones
2015:-juŋ
1914:-ɥɛn
1459:gē-hū
1421:yú-mú
1313:jiāng
1280:jiāng
1234:-wəŋ
1153:-ɥɛn
1144:-jɛn
1141:-jan
1086:-jɛm
1083:-jam
1014:Open
997:glide
975:hékǒu
841:Nasal
776:Velar
731:stops
690:入聲作去聲
576:Sakya
560:sanqu
447:Hànyǔ
361:sanqu
5489:Yale
5479:EFEO
5341:Seal
5126:Dayi
4723:Siyi
4405:Amoy
3922:Wuxi
3819:Huai
3632:Jilu
3488:and
3439:ISBN
3420:ISBN
3407:link
3303:ISBN
3284:ISBN
3227:help
3180:ISBN
3158:ISBN
3139:ISBN
3120:ISBN
2235:The
2228:and
2169:and
2159:guān
2151:and
2141:and
2106:yáng
2092:-waŋ
2089:-jaŋ
2067:gēng
2055:-yŋ
2052:-wəŋ
2027:dōng
1988:-wan
1985:-jan
1949:-wɔn
1926:xiān
1909:-jɛn
1888:zhēn
1876:-yn
1845:-jam
1807:-jɛm
1747:-waw
1744:-jaw
1735:xiāo
1721:-wɔw
1718:-jɛw
1658:-waj
1655:-jaj
1509:-ɥɛ
1407:-ɥ-
1330:and
1311:and
1309:dàng
1305:gěng
1303:and
1301:zēng
1289:-jaŋ
1286:-aŋ
1267:-waŋ
1262:-waŋ
1257:-jaŋ
1248:dàng
1237:-yŋ
1229:-iŋ
1226:-əŋ
1220:gěng
1202:-wəŋ
1188:zēng
1175:-juŋ
1164:tōng
1150:-wan
1147:-wɔn
1138:-an
1134:shān
1103:-ən
1099:zhēn
1080:-am
1076:xián
1054:shēn
957:děng
916:and
835:kʰ-
832:tʂʰ-
829:tsʰ-
783:Stop
733:and
678:and
667:píng
633:禮部韻略
615:The
574:and
557:and
506:tsim
435:漢兒言語
399:Name
358:and
287:早期官话
273:早期官話
180:None
5221:Gan
5121:CKC
4988:Old
4865:She
4855:Mai
4659:Yue
4262:Min
4158:Gan
4085:Hui
3934:(?)
3872:Jin
3599:Taz
3354:doi
3087:doi
3054:doi
3050:120
2218:/ŋ/
2214:/n/
2210:/m/
2202:/k/
2200:or
2198:/t/
2194:/p/
2171:Gan
2121:to
2086:-aŋ
2049:-iŋ
2046:-əŋ
2033:15
2012:-uŋ
1982:-an
1963:hán
1894:10
1873:-un
1870:-in
1867:-ən
1842:-am
1829:18
1823:tán
1814:12
1792:19
1786:qīn
1777:13
1770:-im
1767:-əm
1754:17
1741:-aw
1726:10
1703:11
1697:yóu
1688:11
1681:-iw
1678:-əw
1665:16
1652:-aj
1633:jiā
1615:-əj
1608:-uj
1584:zhī
1546:-wa
1543:-ja
1527:13
1512:15
1504:-jɛ
1489:14
1474:14
1469:-wɔ
1466:-jɔ
1450:12
1432:-y
1404:-w-
1401:-j-
1252:-aŋ
1207:-yŋ
1197:-iŋ
1192:-əŋ
1170:-uŋ
1121:-yn
1116:-un
1111:-in
948:wài
939:nèi
930:shè
897:∅-
876:x-
855:ŋ-
826:tʰ-
823:pʰ-
811:k-
808:tʂ-
805:ts-
653:周德清
510:lim
508:to
474:Jin
462:or
438:, '
340:or
220:古官话
206:古官話
60:Era
5563::
4146:zh
4134:zh
4122:zh
4110:zh
4098:zh
3895:Wu
3484::
3403:}}
3399:{{
3360:,
3350:53
3348:,
3322:12
3320:,
3261:,
3250:16
3248:,
3244:,
3219::
3217:}}
3213:{{
3197:.
3101:,
3093:,
3083:48
3081:,
3060:,
3048:,
2825:^
2774:^
2675:^
2648:^
2513:^
2486:^
2353:^
2337:^
2281:tā
2226:Wu
2212:,
2196:,
2167:Wu
2131:-n
2127:-m
2123:-n
2115:-m
2097:3
2078:江陽
2073:2
2058:2
2038:庚青
2018:1
2000:東鐘
1995:1
1974:寒山
1969:8
1954:8
1937:桓歡
1932:9
1917:9
1899:先天
1879:7
1859:真文
1854:7
1834:監咸
1797:廉纖
1759:侵尋
1708:蕭豪
1670:尤侯
1644:皆來
1639:6
1624:6
1605:-i
1595:齊微
1590:4
1575:4
1558:支思
1553:3
1540:-a
1532:家痲
1521:má
1494:車遮
1483:gē
1463:-ɔ
1455:哥戈
1444:yú
1435:5
1429:-u
1417:魚模
1412:5
1390:撮口
1381:合口
1372:齊齒
1363:開口
979:合口
970:開口
918:x-
914:q-
912:,
910:j-
894:ɻ-
889:l-
886:ʋ-
873:ʂ-
870:s-
865:f-
848:n-
845:m-
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785:or
681:陽平
672:陰平
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608:侵尋
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412:官話
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2286:他
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2154:關
2148:官
2102:陽
2063:庚
2023:東
1959:寒
1922:先
1884:真
1819:覃
1782:侵
1731:蕭
1693:尤
1629:佳
1580:支
1517:痲
1479:哥
1440:魚
1398:-
1276:江
1244:宕
1216:梗
1184:曾
1160:通
1130:山
1095:臻
1072:咸
1050:深
961:等
952:外
943:內
934:攝
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663:平
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167:–
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