752:
figures given mid-second century are 387,000 soldiers and 98 million denarii and total costs 181 million and is 253 and 432 denarii per soldier. The figures for AD 230 230 million denarii in pay and 438 total costs at 525 and 1,100 denarii respectively per soldier however with debased denarii with half the silver content of early 2nd century coins. By comparison Elton estimates the pay expenses of the Roman Army of 600,000 from 350–400 AD at 63,250 lbs. gold (63,250 million denarii) and total cost at 125,000 lbs. of gold (125,000 million denarii) which is only 105 denarii and 210 respectively. At the time the Empire had a sound gold coin, the solidus, tariffed at 72 to the pound from 309. The mid-fourth century figures are virtually the same as the
Augustan figures of 6 A.D. for 330,000 in 350. The discrepancy may be the result of lower pay scales, greater quantity for equipment needs as seen in the establishment of over 100 imperial armories and clothing mills, cost-cutting measures, the expenses associated with frequent troop movements and costs other than payrolls, animals and other easily quantifiable expenses.
748:
officers' salaries and do not include non-quantifiable military costs such as fortifications, ships, artillery, wagons, tackle, armor, uniforms, pension payments, allowances for families, periodic donatives. Accession and 5-year donatives increased pay 25–30% and was made in gold and silver. By comparison tax officials calculated the annual cost of a soldier at 36 solidi covering pay, provisions, and equipment. This was worth 500 silver denarii of the first century A.D. Even if inflated to boost gold income to pay mercenaries as replacements for Roman recruits it suggests a wide range of hidden costs. Harl points out p. 224, that the value of 100,000 war horses 12.5 million denarii or 12,500 pounds of gold. The number was 3 to 4 times this in the 4th century because of the vast expansion of the cavalry. The value of the horses (not the annual take-in which was much much less) was between 1.5–4 million solidi (20,800 and 55,000 pounds of gold or 21 million and 55 million denarii).
730:), than a Roman in the 1st century AD. Another factor to consider is that half the population was 25 or less (compare modern societies 35–40) meaning that larger portion of the population were too young and not taxpayers. Another factor is that many items of production were not taxed such as those for domestic use, clothing, buildings. Therefore, taxes (and compulsory services) to support the Roman military would have taken a much greater share of surplus per capita production i.e. surplus to the subsistence needs of producers, almost all agricultural. For the average peasant, the taxes and services he was obliged to provide to the military would have represented a significant share of his disposable surplus if situated within reasonable distance of the units. Compulsory services performed by the richer members of society helped to supply military needs (and maintain the infrastructures of cities and the empire, in effect a tax that was paid for in money or labor).
726:
150. Other sources suggest less, but not less than 60%. Military spending constituted, by one estimate, about 2.5% of the empire's GDP, which seems a tolerable burden if compared to the US, today's global superpower, which spent 3.8% of its GDP on defense in 2006 (18% of the federal budget). But the comparison is misleading. Due to modern technology, a modern economy is far more productive per capita than the Roman economy: on one estimate, the average
American in 1998 was at least 73 times more economically productive, in comparable terms (i.e. in
743:
the 600,000 as estimated by A. H. M. Jones, the cost would still be only about a third that for the 2nd-century army. Such a disparity is difficult to explain. Either the imperial government was collecting far less tax than in the 2nd century (an unlikely possibility, given the numerous complaints about the weight of the tax burden) or the extra costs are not readily evident. These additional costs may still have been "defense-related": e.g. fortifications, granaries, armories, clothing factories, irregular
21:
708:) were in the paid service of the empire during the whole period: the number is unknown, but there were at least 5,500 in Britain alone around 175 AD (surrendered Sarmatian cavalry posted there by Marcus Aurelius ). If this figure is multiplied by 10 to represent other frontier provinces, it is possible that there may have been 50,000–60,000 such irregulars at any given time.
764:
461:
725:
This was a very significant burden on the Roman economy, which was pre-industrial: at least 80% of its inhabitants worked in agriculture. A very high percentage of all the revenue from taxes and rents raised by the imperial government were spent on the military: about 80% of the imperial budget in c.
742:
or 168,000 pounds of gold for an army of 387,000 all costs. This compares with Elton's estimate of 31,625 lbs. of gold for 300,000 soldiers, 47,438 lbs of gold for 450,000 and 63.250 lbs. for 600,000 base pay only. His figure is doubled when other costs are factored in. Even if the establishment was
751:
By comparison, the payroll for the 330,000 soldiers in 6 AD is 68 million silver denarii (1000 per lb. of gold) but the total cost with retirement benefits and equipment and supplies was 124 million denarii – or 206 and 375 denarii respectively per soldier averaged or 131,250 lbs. of gold. The
747:
forces, or payments to tribal chiefs to buy peace and allegiance. The latter had a long history: such payments are recorded in Julio-Claudian times. Elton points out that his estimates are for very base pay, 9 solidi for cavalrymen and 5 for foot soldiers, allowing 10% additional expenses for
733:
There is also a great disparity between the costs of the 4th-century army and its 2nd-century counterpart. The much lower remuneration for 4th-century soldiers is reflected in total army costs. Duncan-Jones estimates the total annual cost of the military in c. 150 AD at c. 670 million
695:(contrary to popular belief, Roman warships of this period were not rowed by the forced labor of convicts or slaves, but by volunteer professional oarsmen) and perhaps the same again in the
489:
482:
267:
163:
79:
55:
221:
475:
141:
806:
1167:
1118:
1102:
367:
29:
1162:
45:
123:
237:
198:
149:
353:
286:
74:
687:
contained probably 30,000–40,000 marines, sailors, and oarsmen, of which 15,000–20,000 in the
Mediterranean fleets at
172:
799:
The Impact of the Roman Army (200 B.C. – A.D. 476): Economic, Social, Political, Religious and
Cultural Aspects
382:
37:
514:
contributed. Supply contracts with the military generated trade with producers near the base, throughout the
510:
and the infrastructure to support it, as well as the economic development to which the presence of long-term
722:) therefore, the standing Roman military establishment may have comprised over half a million effectives.
249:
98:
727:
348:
84:
338:
280:
769:
507:
465:
189:
697:
434:
1114:
1098:
802:
778:
712:
441:
307:
296:
418:
407:
322:
41:
412:
390:
333:
515:
427:
397:
358:
526:
The size and growth of the Roman army of the
Principate may be summarised as follows:
1156:
402:
374:
302:
312:
203:
1113:
Kenneth W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Empire 300 B.C. to 700 A.D. 1996 p. 217
759:
684:
671:
343:
118:
108:
64:
785:
676:
670:
Note: Figures are based on official (not actual) unit strengths and exclude
328:
701:(English Channel fleet) and the fluvial flotillas on the Rhine and Danube.
833:
869:
782:, the military treasury at Rome from which veterans' benefits were funded
941:
Goldsworthy (1995) 58: 9 cohorts of 480 men each plus German bodyguards
868:
28 legions of 5,500 each (double-strength 1st cohorts introduced under
692:
688:
93:
798:
511:
183:
950:
Goldsworthy (1995) 58: 9 double-cohorts of 800 men each plus 2,000
812:
738:. This is 167.5 million denarii. This translates into 1.67 million
1097:
High Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe Ad 350–425, 1996 pp. 118–125
1051:
Journal of the Int'l Assoc. for
Research in Income and Wealth
788:, a bonus paid by emperors to secure soldiers' loyalty
1075:
Derived from historical GDP estimates in A. Madison
834:"Economic Life of the Soldier on Roman Military"
704:Substantial numbers of irregular tribal troops (
801:, Editors: Lukas de Blois and Elio Lo Cascio,
483:
8:
905:Auxiliary Deployment in the Reign of Hadrian
846:David Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy," in
1077:The World Economy: a Millennial Perspective
932:raised in the late 2nd/early 3rd centuries
490:
476:
272:
242:
168:
60:
15:
1038:Money and Government in the Roman empire
528:
825:
171:
107:
63:
36:
506:concerns the costs of maintaining the
7:
974:Hassall (2000) 320 estimates 380,000
14:
1049:Cf. article by R.W. Goldsmith in
518:, and across provincial borders.
762:
459:
19:
848:A Companion to the Roman Empire
717:
1:
354:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
991:(1979) 454 estimates 438,000
859:25 legions of 5,000 men each
531:Roman army numbers 24–305 AD
268:Frontiers and fortifications
1009:John Lydus De Mensibus I.47
985:How Big was the Roman Army?
504:economics of the Roman army
80:Decorations and punishments
1184:
924:(2000) 523–527 identify 4
850:(Blackwell, 2010), p. 296.
711:At its peak under emperor
1168:Military of ancient Rome
1053:Series 30 (1984) 263–288
881:33 legions of 5,500 each
383:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
368:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes
38:Military of ancient Rome
1163:Economy of ancient Rome
1147:Elton, pp. 118–120, 126
1064:Pocket World in Figures
466:Ancient Rome portal
1088:Duncan-Jones (1994) 45
720: 193–211 AD
814:Ancient Roman Economy
728:international dollars
349:Neckar-Odenwald Limes
164:Technological history
1027:Mattingly (2006) 356
1000:MacMullen (1979) 455
339:Lower Germanic Limes
238:Strategy and tactics
173:Military engineering
75:Unit types and ranks
962:Implied by Tacitus
920:(1996) 257–260 and
890:Implied by Tacitus
770:Ancient Rome portal
533:
508:Imperial Roman army
334:Lauter Valley Limes
952:equites singulares
698:classis Britannica
529:
435:Limes Tripolitanus
56:Structural history
1018:Keppie (1996) 383
807:978-90-04-16044-6
779:aerarium militare
713:Septimius Severus
668:
667:
619:Praetorian Guard
500:
499:
451:
450:
442:Limes Mauretaniae
297:Limes Britannicus
258:
257:
222:Political history
212:
211:
132:
131:
1175:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1111:
1105:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1073:
1067:
1060:
1054:
1047:
1041:
1036:R. Duncan-Jones
1034:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1007:
1001:
998:
992:
981:
975:
972:
966:
960:
954:
948:
942:
939:
933:
914:
908:
901:
895:
888:
882:
879:
873:
866:
860:
857:
851:
844:
838:
837:
830:
772:
767:
766:
765:
721:
719:
638:Total Roman Army
534:
492:
485:
478:
464:
463:
462:
323:Limes Germanicus
273:
250:Infantry tactics
243:
199:Triumphal arches
169:
150:Wars and battles
142:Campaign history
61:
23:
22:
16:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1112:
1108:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1074:
1070:
1061:
1057:
1048:
1044:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
982:
978:
973:
969:
961:
957:
949:
945:
940:
936:
915:
911:
902:
898:
889:
885:
880:
876:
867:
863:
858:
854:
845:
841:
832:
831:
827:
823:
795:
793:Further reading
768:
763:
761:
758:
716:
674:effectives and
577:Mid rule c. 300
576:
568:
560:
553:
545:
524:
522:Military burden
496:
460:
458:
453:
452:
447:
419:Limes Sarmatiae
413:Anastasian Wall
391:Pannonian Limes
270:
260:
259:
254:
240:
230:
229:
228:
224:
214:
213:
208:
194:
166:
156:
155:
154:
144:
134:
133:
128:
103:
89:
58:
48:
20:
12:
11:
5:
1181:
1179:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1106:
1090:
1081:
1068:
1062:The Economist
1055:
1042:
1029:
1020:
1011:
1002:
993:
976:
967:
955:
943:
934:
909:
896:
883:
874:
861:
852:
839:
824:
822:
819:
818:
817:
810:
794:
791:
790:
789:
783:
774:
773:
757:
754:
666:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
634:
633:
631:
629:
626:
623:
620:
616:
615:
613:
611:
608:
605:
602:
598:
597:
595:
593:
590:
587:
584:
580:
579:
572:
563:
556:
549:
540:
523:
520:
512:military bases
498:
497:
495:
494:
487:
480:
472:
469:
468:
455:
454:
449:
448:
446:
445:
438:
431:
428:Limes Arabicus
423:
422:
415:
410:
405:
400:
398:Limes Alutanus
394:
393:
387:
386:
378:
377:
371:
370:
364:
363:
362:
361:
359:Wetterau Limes
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
318:
317:
316:
315:
310:
308:Hadrian's Wall
305:
292:
291:
290:
289:
276:
271:
266:
265:
262:
261:
256:
255:
253:
252:
246:
241:
236:
235:
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226:
225:
220:
219:
216:
215:
210:
209:
207:
206:
201:
195:
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187:
179:
176:
175:
167:
162:
161:
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157:
153:
152:
146:
145:
140:
139:
136:
135:
130:
129:
127:
126:
121:
115:
112:
111:
105:
104:
102:
101:
96:
90:
88:
87:
82:
77:
71:
68:
67:
59:
54:
53:
50:
49:
40:
34:
33:
25:
24:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1180:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1144:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1119:0-8018-5291-9
1116:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1103:0-19-815007-5
1100:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1006:
1003:
997:
994:
990:
986:
980:
977:
971:
968:
965:
959:
956:
953:
947:
944:
938:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
913:
910:
906:
900:
897:
893:
887:
884:
878:
875:
871:
865:
862:
856:
853:
849:
843:
840:
835:
829:
826:
820:
816:
815:
811:
808:
804:
800:
797:
796:
792:
787:
784:
781:
780:
776:
775:
771:
760:
755:
753:
749:
746:
741:
737:
731:
729:
723:
714:
709:
707:
702:
700:
699:
694:
690:
686:
681:
680:
678:
673:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
632:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
617:
614:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
599:
596:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
581:
578:
573:
571:
567:
564:
562:
557:
555:
550:
548:
544:
541:
539:
536:
535:
532:
527:
521:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
493:
488:
486:
481:
479:
474:
473:
471:
470:
467:
457:
456:
444:
443:
439:
437:
436:
432:
430:
429:
425:
424:
421:
420:
416:
414:
411:
409:
408:Trajan's Wall
406:
404:
403:Limes Moesiae
401:
399:
396:
395:
392:
389:
388:
385:
384:
380:
379:
376:
375:Norican Limes
373:
372:
369:
366:
365:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
326:
325:
324:
320:
319:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
303:Antonine Wall
301:
300:
299:
298:
294:
293:
288:
285:
284:
283:
282:
278:
277:
275:
274:
269:
264:
263:
251:
248:
247:
245:
244:
239:
234:
233:
223:
218:
217:
205:
202:
200:
197:
196:
191:
190:Siege engines
188:
186:
185:
181:
180:
178:
177:
174:
170:
165:
160:
159:
151:
148:
147:
143:
138:
137:
125:
122:
120:
117:
116:
114:
113:
110:
106:
100:
97:
95:
92:
91:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
72:
70:
69:
66:
62:
57:
52:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
26:
18:
17:
1143:
1138:Harl, p. 125
1134:
1129:Harl, p. 224
1125:
1109:
1093:
1084:
1076:
1071:
1063:
1058:
1050:
1045:
1037:
1032:
1023:
1014:
1005:
996:
988:
984:
979:
970:
963:
958:
951:
946:
937:
929:
925:
921:
917:
916:J. C. Spaul
912:
904:
899:
891:
886:
877:
864:
855:
847:
842:
828:
813:
777:
750:
744:
739:
735:
732:
724:
710:
705:
703:
696:
682:
675:
669:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
574:
570:Start 284 AD
569:
565:
558:
551:
546:
542:
537:
530:
525:
503:
501:
440:
433:
426:
417:
381:
321:
295:
279:
182:
313:Saxon Shore
1157:Categories
983:MacMullen
928:and 20–30
907:(2003) 120
903:P. Holder
872:(r. 81–96)
821:References
685:Roman navy
672:Roman navy
575:Diocletian
566:Diocletian
559:S. Severus
538:Army corps
344:Main Limes
1040:(1994) 45
786:donativum
745:foederati
736:sesterces
706:foederati
677:foederati
554:c. 130 AD
329:Alb Limes
930:cohortes
922:COHORS 2
870:Domitian
756:See also
658:350,000?
628:~10,000
625:~10,000
622:~~5,000
610:250,000
607:218,000
604:125,000
601:Auxilia
592:182,000
589:155,000
586:125,000
583:Legions
543:Tiberius
516:province
124:Admirals
99:Generals
30:a series
28:Part of
964:Annales
892:Annales
693:Ravenna
689:Misenum
663:390,000
653:442,000
648:383,000
643:255,000
552:Hadrian
94:Auxilia
85:Legions
1117:
1101:
1079:(2001)
1066:(2007)
809:, 2007
805:
561:211 AD
227:
184:Castra
119:Fleets
46:AD 476
42:753 BC
32:on the
740:aurei
547:24 AD
287:Walls
281:Limes
204:Roads
1115:ISBN
1099:ISBN
989:KLIO
926:alae
894:IV.5
803:ISBN
691:and
683:The
502:The
109:Navy
65:Army
987:in
918:ALA
1159::
718:r.
44:–
836:.
715:(
679:.
491:e
484:t
477:v
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