433:
property lines through surveying techniques and the "centuriazation" of the fields. This policy would allow a rapid colonization of the land. Subsequently, late in the 2nd century BC, this would produce a crisis for the peasantry throughout the territory under Roman rule, caused by the huge quantity of slaves who were employed in all sectors, with a consequent decline in the competitiveness of small farmers. The crisis, despite the failed agrarian reform attempts of the
Tribunes Tiberius and Cayo Sempronio Graco, would favor the strengthening of the great landowners, possessors of large expanses of land dedicated to cultivation of a single crop and worked by slaves. The small farmer in many cases would be doomed to abandon his lands and swell the ranks of the growing number of Roman armies.
326:
24:
285:
527:
442:
381:) there are significant mineral deposits such as Almaden de la Plata or Aznalcollar in Sevilla, and the Almaden mercury that depended on Sisapo (Valle de Alcudia, Ciudad Real). This production, besides the remains of the same mineral deposits, is demonstrated by the many underwater wrecks in which silver ingots have been found, and lead and copper bars with the seals of Hispanic smelters.
147:
563:, whose fame was extended throughout the Empire. Garum sauce was produced by the process of maceration of fish viscera. As with the wine and oil trade, the production of garum generated an important auxiliary industry of packaging in amphorae, in which were conserved abundant remains, and thanks to which, it is possible to determine the reach of this trade.
468:
amphorae for olive oil, one can deduce the magnitude of the trade generated by the oil and hence the importance that olive cultivation had in
Hispania. This was undoubtedly the product of Hispania which was marketed in more abundance and for a longer period of time, and indeed is still the foundation of agriculture in southern Iberia.
260:. From the abundance of coins found, especially those of lower value, one can draw the conclusion that the money was used widely in everyday life. During expansion of Rome in Spain, many peoples of the Peninsula minted their own coins in order to facilitate payment of tribute and trade with the area under Roman rule.
471:
Amphorae of Betic origin has been found, besides in Mount
Testaccio (since most of the oil production was sent to Rome until the middle of the 3rd century AD), in locations as diverse as Alexandria, and even Israel. During the 2nd century AD, shipments of oil were destined for the Roman garrisons of
251:
Later, Carthage would introduce a more general use of the coins as payment for its troops, before and during the Roman invasion; but it would be the Romans who would impose the use of currency throughout the
Spanish territory, and not just that currency whose value was based on the metal contained in
517:
is remarkable. In his dozen books, he presented the characteristics of agriculture in his time (1st century AD), criticizing those defects that, in his understanding, ruined the industry, like the abandoning of the fields and the hoarding of land by the great landholders. In these books, he deals
495:
cultivation, classical sources discuss the quality and quantity of
Hispanic stock, some of them highly appreciated in Italy, while the production of others less selective were destined to be consumed by the greater public who had less purchasing power. This crop was produced mostly in the 'fundus'
312:
snatched the mines from the publicans during his dictatorship in the 80s and 70s BC, putting them in the hands of private individuals and obtaining with it great economic and political benefits. In the times of Strabo (1st century BC - 1st century AD, during the transition from the
Republic to the
275:
Once Roman power in
Hispania was consolidated, there were many mints that coined money, such as Tarraco (the first of the Roman mints in Hispania), Italica, Barcino, Caesaraugusta, Emerita Augusta, etc. And throughout the Empire, more than 400 mints provided coinage to most of Europe, North Africa
162:
was overwhelmed by the loss of important markets and by the tribute it had to pay Rome as compensation for the war. With the goal of alleviating this situation, the
Carthagenians decided to expand along the coast of Iberia, which had until then been outside the area of Roman influence. Carthage,
432:
were divided amongst the professional troops, the land being measured and divided for the colonization of the territory. Traditionally, farming had been idealized by Roman culture as the culmination of the aspirations of the citizen. The Romans pushed legislation on land ownership, guaranteeing
467:
from "Mount
Testaccio" as much as underwater deposits are evidence of trade with Rome. Mount Testaccio originated as a dumping ground for ceramic packaging of goods that arrived in Rome. From the size that the hill attained, which according to research, 80% of its volume is composed of Betician
411:
Beyond all of this, the work in the mines in the times of Roman
Hispania took place under appalling conditions. Millions of slaves were employed in mines in extremely dangerous work without any security and without a schedule that is humanly bearable. For a slave, the fate of the mines was the
226:
Besides the exploitation of mineral resources, Rome obtained with the conquest of Hispania access to what were probably the best agricultural lands in all of Romanized territory. Therefore, it became necessary to use those lands as soon as possible. During the Roman domination of the area, the
99:, experienced a strong revolution during and after the conquest of the peninsular territory by Rome, in such a way that, from an unknown but promising land, it came to be one of the most valuable acquisitions of both the Republic and Empire and a basic pillar that sustained the rise of Rome.
317:
for this purpose. In other cases, the mines could belong to a city (generally to a colony). The profits from the mines were huge and remained so throughout the period of seven centuries of Roman rule, which converted Hispania into an economic mainstay of the Empire. The records show with
558:
Throughout the Roman period, Hispania stood out for its continuation of the flourishing trade of salted fish from Betica, extending its market throughout western Europe. This activity is reflected in the remains of factories whose product was, in addition to salted fish, the sauce
193:
to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. Despite this, throughout the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Rome took the unconquered lands of Hispania as an opportunity to pillage and plunder, frequently breaking peace treaties, like the accords from the times of
504:
needed for the manufacture of the bottle. Because of the number of said 'fundus' and the total production of the same, it was possible to keep the domestic market supplied and to export the considerable excess for consumption of other parts of the Empire.
554:
existed before the control of Carthage. Evidence exists for production and marketing of salted fish as early as the 5th century BC. The Carthaginians extended this trade throughout all of the western Mediterranean, as much Hispanic as North African.
213:
This policy of obtaining riches by force had its continuation in the campaigns of Pompey and later Julius Caesar, whom the histories say undertook not only to fight Pompey, but to profit from the conquest in order pay his creditors.
479:, where one of largest exporters of this product was located, is studied today in the archeological remains of La Catria. However through the history of Roman Hispania, a multitude of potteries and producers of oil existed in
271:
that completely controlled the issuance of coinage through the monetary courts, but later, with the rise of the dictators, its control was reduced to lower valued coins, later passing many of the mints to imperial control.
217:
Meanwhile, the Spanish Mediterranean coast, which had been conquered during the war against Carthage and rapidly Romanized, began its economic and commercial expansion that would soon make it famous in the Roman world.
412:
worst of all fortunes, and with almost complete certainty, a slave was destined to spend the rest of their short lives without seeing the light of the sun again, hauling mineral and stone all day long or swinging a
297:'Africanus', who paid special attention to the mines. Rome would continue the extraction practices that the Iberian peoples began and that the Carthaginians would improve by importing the techniques used in
292:
Undoubtedly, the first interest of Rome in Iberia was to take advantage of its legendary mineral wealth, besides that taken from Carthage. After the Second Punic War, the administration of was entrusted to
243:
to facilitate commercial transactions. Beforehand, the peninsular economy was based on the barter system, exchanging products rather than currency, but beginning in the 3rd century BC, Greek colonies like
460:, especially along the Mediterranean coast and Betic Tarragona, stands out. Under the Romans, the province of Bética specialized in the production of olive oil for export to Rome and northern Europe.
313:
dictators and the Empire), they were granted as concessions to private exploitation. This system permitted the rapid enriching of certain families who, coming from Italy, had settled in
53:
186:. In part due to the loss of these resources, and in greater part due to the isolation he found himself in, Hannibal had to renounce the war in Italy in 206 BC.
757:
Explotación del salazón en la Bahía de Cádiz en la Antigüedad: Aportación al conocimiento de su evolución a través de la producción de las ánforas Mañá C. (PDF)
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Within the oil trade, the quantity of amphorae found, as much in Mount Testaccio as in other places, stands out. The Sevillian town of
984:
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With this purpose and others, one of the first strategic objectives of Rome when invading the peninsula was to take the mines near
1120:
1021:
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1036:
866:. Bosch Gimpera, Aguado Bleye, José Ferrandis. Obra dirigida por Ramón Menéndez Pidal. Editorial Espasa-Calpe S.A., Madrid 1935
651:
Prácticas ilegítimas contra las propiedades rústicas en época romana (II): "Immitere in alienum, furtum, damnum iniuria datum"
325:
1001:
1006:
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Since the mines were state owned, Rome created companies, 'public societies', which were public businesses administrated by
143:. Undoubtedly, these stories contributed to the increase in interest of the Mediterranean powers in the Iberian peninsula.
936:
756:
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annually, while the spoils of war during the same period, were never more than a little more than a third of this amount.
1060:
308:
for mining. These publicans, generally members of the equestrian order, enriched themselves rapidly and abundantly, but
36:
955:
947:
Departament de Prehistòria, Història Antiga i Arqueologia - Facultat de Geografia i Història, Universitat de Barcelona
610:
Las relaciones entre Hispania y el norte de África durante el gobierno bárquida y la conquista romana (237-19 a. J.C.)
46:
40:
32:
408:
was the administrative center of the mineral's production, and it was the principle economic activity of the city.
958:- Una exposición en profundidad sobre el monte Testaccio y su importancia en la comprensión de la economía romana.
613:
57:
750:
582:
131:
Phoenician legends had traditionally circulated throughout the Mediterranean about the infinite riches of the
239:
One of the most obvious symbols of civilization that foreign cultures brought to Hispania was the minting of
992:
760:
638:
628:
603:
680:
353:. Hannibal had given a great vitality to the silver mines of New Carthage. In those on the outskirts of
334:
730:). Tesis doctoral, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Isaías Arrayás Morales (páginas 200 en adelante) -
674:
377:(the same place where Scipio inflicted a major defeat on the Carthaginians on the west bank of the river
195:
942:
Universidad de Zaragoza, departamento de Historia Antigua - Bibliografía sobre la conquista de Hispania
924:
809:
de José Camón Aznar (catedrático de la Universidad de Madrid. Editorial Espasa Calpe, S.A. Madrid, 1954
206:
peoples only served to increase revenues from Rome via the immense spoils of war from the campaigns of
946:
711:
El uso de la moneda en las ciudades romanas de Hispania en época imperial: el área mediterránea (PDF)
705:
Las magistraturas locales en las ciudades romanas del área septentrional del Conventus Carthaginensis
727:
318:
sufficient accuracy mine production figures, that in the 2nd century BC were more than nine million
111:
with little or very limited trade, with the exception of the largest cities, located mainly on the
108:
1011:
724:
Morfología històrica del territorium de Tarraco en època tardo-republicana romana o ibèrica final
669:
Fuentes literarias griegas y romanas referentes a las explotaciones mineras de la Hispania romana
449:
401:
919:
163:
interested above all in getting quick profit, exploited the silver mines along the coastline of
766:
189:
After the expulsion of Carthage, part of the indigenous peoples of Hispania were forced to pay
1115:
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894:
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841:
822:
797:
731:
714:
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96:
513:
Inside the chronicles and treatises concerning agriculture in Hispania, the work of Cadizian
749:. Archivos CEIPAC. Victor Revilla Calvo (Dept. Prehistoria, Historia Antigua y Arqueología.
354:
183:
172:
668:
662:
656:
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Centro para el estudio de la interdependencia provincial en la antigüedad clásica (CEIPAC)
700:
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economy of Hispania experienced a major production expansion, fueled further by roads and
155:
107:
Before the entrance of Rome into Iberia, almost all of the peninsula was based on a rural
769:. Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Rosalía Rodríguez López (Universidad de
288:
Bars of lead from the mines of New Carthage. Municipal Archaeological Museum of Cartagena
150:
Mining tools from the mines of New Carthage. Municipal Archaeological Museum of Cartagena
693:
456:
Of the agricultural production of Hispania since the 2nd century BC, the cultivation of
1026:
526:
294:
264:
207:
168:
116:
1109:
747:
Producción artesanal, viticultura y propiedad rural en la Hispania Tarraconense (PDF)
572:
535:
112:
834:
de Amando Melón. Editorial Volvntad, S.A., Tomo primero, Vol. I-Serie E. Madrid 1928
777:
Observaciones sobre el depósito de la cosa debida en caso de «mora creditoris» (PDF)
171:, extracting large amounts of this metal with which it financed a great part of the
872:. Abad Casal, Lorenzo. Publicaciones de la Exma. Diputación Provincial de Sevilla.
776:
476:
378:
268:
199:
93:
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in Rome. Its principal areas of extraction were the current Spanish provinces of
1096:
979:
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Notas a la contribución de la Península Ibérica al erario de la República romana
441:
429:
245:
228:
203:
1069:
1078:
796:
de Antonio Gª y Bellido. Colección Austral de Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid 1945.
770:
657:
La exportación del aceite hispano en el Imperio romano: estado de la cuestión
492:
405:
164:
132:
146:
713:. Universitat de Valencia - Servei de publicacions. Nuria Lledó Cardona -
794:
España y los españoles hace dos mil años (según la Geografía de Estrabón)
550:
in the southern peninsula, it can be deduced that the commerce of salted
547:
464:
358:
319:
314:
305:
257:
176:
159:
136:
120:
779:. Archivos de la Universidad de Lieja (Bélgica). Elena Quintana Orive (
619:
El impacto de la conquista de Hispania en Roma (154-83 a. C.)
501:
417:
413:
370:
190:
883:
El mosaico romano en Hispania : crónica ilustrada de una sociedad
980:
Celtiberia.net: Mercenarios hispanos durante la Segunda Guerra Púnica
853:. Antonio Urbieto Arteta. Volumen II. Editorial Debate, Madrid 1994.
539:
480:
457:
445:
393:
389:
346:
342:
140:
1017:
Coordinadora para la defensa del Molinete - BAÑOS PÚBLICOS ROMANOS
885:. Tarrats Bou, F. Alfafar : Global Edition - Contents, S.A.
560:
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began minting coins, but with no influence beyond its boundaries.
240:
145:
989:
985:
En Hispania: Página de D. José Miguel Corbí, catedrático de Latín
551:
497:
496:(latifundias), that understood all the processes needed to make
366:
362:
350:
341:
With regards to minerals, Rome extracted with greater interest
198:, which had allowed long periods of peace. The uprising of the
920:
Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: La Hispania prerromana
901:
635:
Segobriga y la religión en la Meseta sur durante el Principado
369:, and other minerals in great quantities, making about 40,000
17:
1032:
Bibliografía sobre la arquitectura de los teatros de Hispania
392:, much appreciated as a mineral for the making, as crystal,
625:
Veinticinco años de estudios sobre la ciudad hispano-romana
518:
extensively with the cultivation of olives and grapevines.
681:
Destrucción de los mosaicos mitológicos por los cristianos
135:
and how commercial expeditions returned from the coast of
1065:
Las explotaciones mineras de Lapis Specularis en Hispania
821:. Pellón Olagorta, Ramón. Espasa Calpe S.A. Madrid 2001.
663:
Administración de las minas en época romana. Su evolución
546:
Thanks to archeological research about the production of
975:
Mapa de los Pueblos Pre-Romanos de Iberia (circa 200 AC)
925:
Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes: Hispania Romana
767:
La agricultura como «officium» en el mundo romano (PDF)
840:. Rafael Altamira y Crevea. Tomo I. Barcelona, 1900.
990:
Simulacra Romae - Las capitales provinciales romanas
937:
Universidad de Zaragoza: Historia antigua - Hispania
384:
Another important mineral extracted in Hispania was
256:
that comprised them, and were endorsed by the Roman
893:. Libro declarado «de interés turístico nacional»,
675:
Panorama general de la escultura romana en Cataluña
231:that opened the markets of the rest of the Empire.
870:Arte Hispalense, nº21: Pinturas romanas en Sevilla
483:itself as much as in the area to the east of it.
694:Revista Lucentum, XIX-XX, 2000-2001 (formato PDF)
838:Historia de España y de la civilización española
500:, occasionally including the manufacture of the
45:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
741:Las constituciones imperiales de Hispania (PDF)
807:Las artes y los pueblos de la España primitiva
487:Cultivation of grapevines and commerce in wine
428:As soon as the first conquests obtained them,
1002:Identificación de puentes romanos en Hispania
759:. Archivos CEIPAC. Lázaro Lagóstena Barrios (
416:in the galleries, always under the threat of
252:the coin, but others of lower value than the
8:
373:labor in them. Even today in the region of
914:The Virtual Library of Miguel de Cervantes:
707:, por Julián Hurtado Aguña - ISSN 0213-2338
127:The economic strategy of the Roman conquest
1022:Zona arqueológica de Cercadilla (Córdoba)
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
964:- Documento con bibliografía relacionada
594:The Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library
578:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
534:, located in the ancient Roman city of
530:Ruins of a factory for salted fish and
1012:La construcción de los puentes romanos
962:Universitat de les Illes Balears (pdf)
115:coast, which had regular contact with
1042:El garum, la salsa del Imperio Romano
1037:Obras hidráulicas romanas en Hispania
7:
1047:Las provincias de la Hispania Romana
956:Exposición «El monte de las ánforas»
864:Historia de España. España romana, I
361:, Rome continued extracting silver,
1074:Algunas cecas provinciales romanas
14:
743:. Archivo CEIPAC. Fernando Martín
515:Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella
222:The economy of Romanized Hispania
1083:Algunas cecas imperiales romanas
813:El trabajo en la Hispania Romana
22:
637:- Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
627:- Juan Manuel Abascal Palazón (
781:Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
683:- José María Blázquez Martínez
677:- José María Blázquez Martínez
671:- José María Blázquez Martínez
665:- José María Blázquez Martínez
659:- José María Blázquez Martínez
647:- José María Blázquez Martínez
621:- José María Blázquez Martínez
329:Entrances to a copper mine in
1:
1092:El alma de la pintura en Roma
1101:Escultura romana: el retrato
851:Historia ilustrada de España
832:Geografía histórica española
653:- M.ª Carmen Santapau Pastor
614:José María Blázquez Martínez
1052:Grupo Gastronómico Gaditano
1142:
688:Other on-line publications
437:Olives and commerce in oil
154:After their defeat in the
1126:Economic history of Spain
900:nº 44, 21 February 2005,
819:Diccionario de los Íberos
815:. VVAA. Ed. Sílex, 1999.
751:Universidad de Barcelona
583:Romanization of Hispania
388:, a type of translucent
31:This article includes a
1121:Economy of ancient Rome
639:Universidad de Alicante
629:Universidad de Alicante
604:Universidad de Alicante
337:) mined in Roman times.
139:loaded with cargoes of
60:more precise citations.
1007:Los ingenieros romanos
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509:Treatises of Columella
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338:
335:Principado de Asturias
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151:
602:- Alberto J. Lorrio (
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522:Trade in salted goods
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276:and the Middle East.
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103:The Pre-Roman economy
1088:Acropoliscórdoba.org
1056:El «Garum Gaditanum»
761:Universidad de Cádiz
448:in the province of
235:Circulating currency
931:University sources:
267:period, it was the
109:subsistence economy
90:economy of Hispania
995:2010-07-11 at the
699:2006-01-02 at the
544:
542:in southern Spain.
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196:Graccus Sempronius
179:Italian campaign.
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33:list of references
891:978-84-933702-1-3
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491:With respect to
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430:cultivated lands
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