1814:
walls, ring wells, pits, industrial items, and the remains of seeds and shells. Many of the pottery sherds contain Tamil-Brahmic inscriptions on them, which have provided additional evidence for the archaeologist to date them. Archaeologists agree that activities best illustrated in these material records are trade, hunting, agriculture and crafts. These excavations have provided evidence for the existence of the major economic activities mentioned in Sangam literature. Remnants of irrigation structures like reservoirs and ring wells and charred remains of seeds attest to the cultivation of different varieties of crops and knowledge of various agricultural techniques. Spinning whorls, cotton seeds, remains of a woven cotton cloth and dyeing vats provide evidence for the activities of the textile industry. Metallurgy has been supported by the discovery of an ancient blast furnace, along with its base and wall, anvil, slags and crucibles. The remains have indicated that, in addition to iron, the blacksmith may have worked with steel, lead, copper and bronze. The
Kodumanal excavation recovered several jewellery items and semi precious stones at different stages of manufacture, suggesting that they were locally manufactured. Remains of import and export articles recovered from Arikamedu indicate the important role it played as an Indo-Roman trading station. Building construction, pearl fishery and painting are other activities that have been supported by findings from these excavations.
1818:
and
Alagarmalai near Madurai, Edakal hill in Kerala and Jambai village in Villupuram district record various donations made by the kings and chieftains. Brief mentions of various aspects of the Sangam society such as agriculture, trade, commodities, occupations and names of cities are found in these inscriptions. Several coins issued by the Tamil kings of this age have been recovered from river beds and urban centers of their kingdoms. Most of them carry the emblem of the corresponding dynasty, such as the bow and arrow of the Cheras; some of them contain portraits and written legends. Numismatists have used these coins to establish the existence of the Tamil kingdoms during the Sangam age and associate the kings mentioned in the legends to a specific period. A large number of Roman coins have been found in Coimbatore and Madurai districts, providing more evidence for the brisk maritime trade between Rome and Tamilakam.
19:
759:). The markets of Madurai were cosmopolitan with people of various ethnicities and languages crowding into the shops. Foreign merchants and traders came to Madurai from such northern kingdoms as Kalinga to sell merchandise wholesale. According to the Mathuraikkanci, the great market was held in a large square and the items sold included garlands of flowers, fragrant pastes, coats with metallic belts, leather sandals, weapons, shields, carts, chariots and ornamented chariot steps. Garment shops sold clothing of various colours and patterns made of cotton, silk or wool, with the merchandise neatly arranged in rows. On the grain merchants' street, sacks of pepper and sixteen kinds of grains (including paddy, millet, gram, peas and
904:. The mercantile community of Tamilakam was aware of elementary banking operations. Lending through houses specializing in monetary transactions and fixation of rates were common. This was, evidently, necessitated by the extensive overseas trade. Accountants were in demand in view of monetary transactions and considerable trading activity. Merchant groups from Madurai and Karur made endowments, or donations, as attested by inscriptions found in Alagarmalai (c. 1st century BCE) and Pugalur (c. 3rd century CE). These inscriptions also mention that the various commodities traded by such merchants included cloth, salt, oil,
199:
900:. These findings suggest that merchant guilds were established at several industrial and trade centres of ancient Tamil country. Many of these merchant associations acted in union in their public activities. They were autonomous, meaning that they enjoyed freedom from state interference but also suffered from the lack of state backing. Merchants were expected to abide by a code of conduct, which was: "Refuse to take more than your due and never stint giving to others their due". Therefore, they went about running their business by openly announcing the profit they were aiming at, known as
1161:
873:
1362:, and was inevitable. The extreme opulence of some people as well as the abject poverty of some others are clearly portrayed in the contemporary literature. Most of the rich spent a part of their wealth on charity, the king's philanthropy setting an example. It was believed that one needed to accumulate wealth in order to give donations and perform righteous obligations. Sometimes, the men of the household undertook a long journey to the north of the
367:
1784:
including
Sivaraja Pillay, Kanakasabhai, K.A.N Sastri and George Hart have used information from these poems to describe the ancient Tamil society. Herman Tieken, a Dutch scholar, has expressed his disapproval of doing so, arguing that the poems were composed much later in the 8th-9th centuries CE. Tieken's methodology and his conclusions about the date of Sangam poems have been criticized by other scholars.
561:
1413:
1332:) along the highways and the ports. In the ports, duty was collected on inland goods, before being exported, and on overseas goods meant for the local markets, which were stamped with the official seal before being allowed into the country. The volume of trade in the port cities was high enough to warrant a large workforce to monitor and assess the goods. The state issued licenses to
609:) to light the fire used for smelting and welding. There were not many blacksmith shops in the rural areas. Blacksmiths were overworked as they had to serve the needs of neighboring villages. Shipbuilding was a native industry of Tamilakam. Ocean craft of varying sizes, from small catamarans (logs tied together) to big ships, navigated Tamil ports. Among the smaller crafts were
978:
1799:. Strabo (c. 1st century BCE) mentions the embassies sent by the Pandyas to the court of Augustus, along with a description of the ambassadors. Pliny (c. 77 CE) talks about the different items imported by the Romans from India and complains about the financial drain caused by them. He also refers to many Tamil ports in his work
1245:, were built that connected the distant parts of the country. These roads were as important to the army as they were to the merchants. Commodities like salt had to be transported long distances, such as from the sea coast to the interior villages. The state also built and expanded the infrastructure for shipping such as ports,
801:. The Puranakar was the outer city adjacent to the fort wall and was occupied by the soldiers. The Akanakar, the inner city, included the king's palace and the officers' quarters. The city market was located between these two divisions; the artisans and traders lived close to the market. Kaveripumpattinam, the port city of the
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shops, which were required to fly the license flag outside their premises. Flags were used by foreign merchants too, to indicate the nature of goods they were selling. The state also kept records of the weights and counts of all the goods sold by merchants. One of the significant aspects of the state
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and blowing on the shell. Convicts were used as pearl divers in Korkai. The
Periplus mentions that "Pearls inferior to the Indian sort are exported in great quantity from the marts of Apologas and Omana". Pearls were woven together with muslin cloth before being exported and were the most expensive
516:
were important industrial centers, known for their cotton textiles. Muslin cloth was woven with fine floral work of different colors. Silk cloth was manufactured with its threads gathered in small knots at its ends. Clothing was embroidered for the nobles and aristocrats who were the main customers.
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merchants who sold goods that they manufactured themselves and the retailers who sold goods manufactured by others. Itinerant traders were found in both the rural and urban markets, but the retailers were concentrated in the cities. In the rural markets, salt and grain merchants usually produced the
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sought pearls, cotton fabrics and conch shells from
Tamilakam in exchange for woollen clothing, hides and horses. Locally most trading was in food products – agricultural produce was supplemented by products from hunters, fishermen and shepherds who traded in meat, fish and dairy products.
1817:
Inscriptions are another source of deducing ancient Tamil history: most of them are written in Tamil-Brahmi script and found on rocks or pottery. The inscriptions have been used to corroborate some of the details provided by the Sangam literature. Cave inscriptions found at places such as
Mangulam
1349:
owned and among the pastoral folk it was the number of cows. Wealth was distributed unequally among the people, leading to distinct economic classes - the rich, the poor and the middle class. The nobility, state officers, export traders and court poets formed the wealthy class. Most agriculturists
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made up the wealthiest class. Foreign merchants, mainly Romans, also did business in the Tamil markets – not just in the port cities, but in inland cities such as
Madurai, where they exchanged indigenous goods for their offerings. Another category of merchants were the intermediaries or the
1813:
excavations at many sites in Tamil Nadu including
Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Kaveripumpattinam and Alagankulam, have yielded a variety of artifacts belonging to the Sangam era, such as various types of pottery and other items including black and red ware, rouletted ware, Russet coated ware, brick
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and the economic activities in the city. The historical value of the Sangam poems has been critically analysed by scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries. Historians agree that the descriptions of society, culture and economy in the poems are authentic, for the most part: many eminent scholars
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districts, these coins have been unearthed; the number of gold coins discovered has been described as a quantity amounting to five coolly loads. The quantity of silver coins has been variously described as "a great many in a pot", "about 500 in an earthen pot", "a find of 163 coins", "some
825:
were warehouses with little ventilation located underground. Since merchants from various places thronged the bazaar, each package for sale had the name and details of its owner written on it. Simple advertisements were used to indicate the goods available at different locations.
1217:. This could have been due to internal revolts and external attacks suffered by the Roman empire during that period. When order and good government were restored in Rome, trade with Tamilakam revived, as indicated by the finding of an increased number of coins from this period.
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The flourishing trade with the Romans had a substantial impact on the economy of ancient Tamil country and the royal treasury and the export traders accumulated large sums of Roman currency. Pliny writes that India, China and Arabia between them absorbed one hundred million
605:(literally: workplace), played an important role in the lives of ancient Tamils. Some of the essential items produced by blacksmiths were weapons of war, tools such as the plough, domestic utensils and iron wheels. They used a blow pipe or a pair of bellows (a
852:) and resold them to the consumers. Merchants selling agricultural produce in the cities were also retailers. At the upper end of the merchant hierarchy, were the rich merchants who participated in the export trade. There were three classes among them -
89:
in busy market places by merchant associations and commercial lending institutions. Merchants formed associations that operated autonomously, without interference from the state. The people of ancient Tamil country engaged in brisk overseas trade with
916:
The economic prosperity of the Tamils depended on foreign trade. Literary, archaeological and numismatic sources confirm the trade relationship between
Tamilakam and Rome, where spices and pearls from India were in great demand. With the accession of
696:
Most trade was by barter. Paddy was the most commonly accepted medium of exchange, followed by purified salt. Honey and roots were exchanged for fish liver oil and arrack, while sugarcane and rice flakes were traded for venison and toddy. Poems in
844:, travelled with their families in trains of carts. In the cities, artisans such as the blacksmiths and the oil mongers sold their products directly to the consumers. The bulk of the retailers operated in the textile industry. The textile dealers (
302:
and the protection of crops must be done according to a specific method in order to obtain a good yield. A wide range of tools needed for agriculture, from ploughing to harvesting, were manufactured. The basic tool was the plough also known as
731:– this involved taking a loan for a fixed quantity of a commodity to be repaid by the same quantity of the same commodity at a later date. Since barter was prevalent locally, coins were used almost exclusively for foreign trade.
689:, setting up shops in busy market places or stationing themselves at royal households. Sellers of fish, salt and grain hawked their goods, the textile merchants sold cloths from their shops in urban markets and the goldsmith, the
685:
In addition, people bought other goods such as items for personal hygiene, adornment and transportation. Mercantile transactions took place in busy market places. Traders used various modes of selling: hawking their goods from
816:
The market of
Kaveripumpattinam was similar to the one in Madurai. Large quantities of dyes, scented powder, flowers, textiles, salt, fish and sheep were sold. Flowers were in great demand, especially during festivals such as
1024:, and headed toward India. With assistance from the monsoons, the voyage took forty days to reach the ports of Tamilakam or Ceylon. Pliny writes that if the monsoons were blowing regularly, it was a forty-day trip to
834:
There were different types of merchants who operated in the ancient Tamil market, which gave rise to a wealth-based class distinction among them. Merchants in the lower levels of the hierarchy were of two varieties: the
813:. Maruvurpakkam was adjacent to the sea where the fishermen and the foreign merchants lived. The main streets of the market met at the centre where there was a temple dedicated to the local guardian deity of the city.
1221:'s coins have been traced to the end of the Roman empire. Scholars believe there was a Roman settlement near Madurai and that little copper coins with the Roman Emperors' heads on them might have been minted locally.
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as well. Several Vedic mantras refer to the wide use of the pearls, describing poetically that royal chariots and horses were decked with pearls. The use of pearls was so great that the supply of pearls from the
142:
and the most respected. Farmers were aware of different soil types, the best crops to grow and the various irrigation systems suitable for any given region. In the five geographical divisions of the Tamil country in
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Rajam, V. S. 1992. A reference grammar of classical Tamil poetry: 150 B.C.-pre-fifth/sixth century A.D. Memoirs of the American philosophical society, v. 199. Philadelphia, Pa: American Philosophical Society.
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The role of the state in trade related to two aspects: first, to provide an adequate infrastructure necessary to sustain the trade and second, to organise an efficient administrative apparatus for taxation.
1012:, finding that by this way it was possible to go directly from Rome to Tamilakam. Strabo writes that every year, about the time of the summer solstice, a fleet of one hundred and twenty vessels sailed from
707:
land well stocked with paddy that the housewife had exchanged for grams and fish. Artisans and professionals traded their services for goods. Quantities were measured by weighing balance, called the
1008:
first sailed a direct route from Rome to India, using the monsoon winds. His method was later improved upon by merchants who shortened the voyage by sailing due east from the port of Cana or
18:
121:
such as roads and ports—funded through taxation—to meet the needs of economic and social activity. Wealth was unequally divided among the people, giving rise to distinct economic classes.
537:
was used by the priestly class. The cloth manufacturers wove long pieces of cloth and delivered it to the dealers. The textile dealers then scissored off bits of required length, called
3574:
4159:
1354:. It was believed that this economic division of people was the result of a divine arrangement; the poor people were made to feel that their miserable condition was due to their past
1787:
Among literary sources in other languages, the most informative ones are Greek and Roman accounts of the maritime trade between the Roman empire and the kingdoms of Tamilakam.
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and the early centuries of the Christian era. It consists of 2381 known poems, with a total of over 50000 lines, written by 473 poets. Each poem belongs to one of two types:
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was the center of the pearl trade. Written records from Greek and Egyptian voyagers give details of the pearl fisheries off the Pandyan coast. According to one account, the
1739:
poems deal with outer experiences such as society, culture and warfare. These poems contain descriptions of various aspects of life in the ancient Tamil country. The
1644:
1241:, went through thick forests. It was the duty of the state to protect the merchant caravans on these trade routes from robbers and wild life. Main roads, known as
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1209:(235 CE]) have been discovered, covering a period of nearly three centuries. By far the greatest number of these Roman coins belong to the reigns of Augustus and
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located at the entrance to the Red Sea from the south. He writes that the passengers preferred to embark at Bacare (Vaikkarai) in Pandya country, rather than
496:, crafts and trade occupations were considered secondary to agriculture. Carpenters crafted wooden wares and blacksmiths worked in simple workshops. Weaving,
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in the Deccan, says that the high period of mining in South India was the last centuries of the pre-Christian era and the first two centuries of the
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331:, several irrigation techniques were developed to ensure an adequate and continuous supply of water. Farmers used a bullock-propelled device called
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1213:. After 235 CE, for the next one hundred years, there are no coins that can be dated, suggesting a temporary abeyance of trade between Rome and
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Abraham, Shinu (2003). "Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India".
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1878:உழுதுண்டு வாழ்வாரே வாழ்வார்மற் றெல்லாம் தொழுதுண்டு பின்செல் பவர். They live who live to plough and eat; The rest behind them bow and eat.
446:. For survey and taxation purposes, various measurements were used to measure the land and its produce. Small lots of land were known as
102:. Pepper, pearls, ivory, textiles and gold ornaments were exported from Tamilakam, and the main imports were luxury goods such as glass,
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969:. The government provided the essential infrastructure such as good harbours, lighthouses, and warehouses to promote overseas trade.
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referred to the process of removing weeds using a toothed implement attached to a plank and drawn by oxen. Lower-class peasants used
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and other cosmetics fetched high prices. Even greater was the demand for pepper which, according to Pliny, sold at the price of 15
487:
3212:"Onshore and Near shore explorations along the Southern Tamilnadu Coast: with a view to locating ancient ports and submerged sites"
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763:) were heaped by the side. The jewellers, who conducted business from a separate street, sold precious articles such as diamonds,
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1807:(c. 60 - 100 CE) an anonymous work, gives an elaborate description of the Tamil country and the riches of a 'Pandian Kingdom'.
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region was the most fit for cultivation, as it had the most fertile lands. Land was classified, according to its fertility, as
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during this period, is one of the oldest water-regulation structure in the world. Surface irrigation, sprinkler mechanism and
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near the ports to promote overseas trade. Several ports were constructed on both the east and the west coasts of Tamilakam.
508:. Spinning and weaving was a source of income for craftsmen; weaving was practised part-time by the farmers in rural areas.
668:, and the construction of temples, and other religion-related items such as procession cars and images. Baskets made of
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Tieken, Herman Joseph Hugo (2001) Kāvya in South India: old Tamil Caṅkam poetry. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. 229-230
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1056:. Evidence of Tamil trading presence in Egypt is seen in the form of Tamil inscriptions on pottery in Red Sea ports.
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collections contain poems sung in praise of various kings and poems that were composed by the kings themselves. The
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thousands enough to fill five or six Madras measures". Coins of all the Roman emperors from Augustus (27 BCE) to
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Ancient IND were active traders in various commodities, both locally and outside Tamil country. The kingdoms of
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and sellers of sandalwood and ivory patronised the aristocrats' quarters. Merchants dealt in conches and ivory.
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3765:
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or the northern boundary of Tamilakam, to earn wealth. One possible region that they might have gone to is the
3188:"Early Historic Agriculture in Southern Tamil Nadu: Archaeobotanical Research at Mangudi, Kodumanal and Perur"
1942:
941:. Most of the articles of luxury mentioned by the Roman writers came from Tamilakam. In the declining period,
3437:"Marine Archaeological Explorations in the Kaveripoompattiname Region: Fresh light on the Structural Remains"
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Other industries were carpentry, fishing, salt-manufacture, forestry, pottery, rope making, chank-cutting,
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was the most important crop; it was the staple cereal and served as a medium of exchange for inland trade.
4301:
3211:
1507:
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mines which produced the best and purest beryl in the world. At fifty-five different locations, mostly in
94:; the trade reached a peak after the discovery of a direct route for merchant ships between Tamilakam and
1281:
had developed Korkai, Saliyur, Kayal, Marungurpattinam (present day Alagankulam) and Kumari (present day
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and industrial products were still imported by Rome. The exports from the Tamil country included pepper,
3494:
3197:. Proceedings of the European Association for South Asian Archaeology Conference, Bonn, Germany: 341–350
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1502:
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1152:. The imports were mostly luxury items such as glass, gold and wine. Horses were imported from Arabia.
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brokers, who acted as information channels and offered their services mainly to the foreign merchants.
664:, the manufacture of leather sheaths for war weapons, the manufacture of jewellery, the production of
1944:
Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment
921:
in 27 BCE, trade between Tamilakam and Rome received a tremendous boost and culminated at the time of
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plants in front of their houses and laid flower gardens in between the houses. Farmers believed that
1350:
and inland merchants made up the middle class. The lowest class consisted of labourers and wandering
522:
872:
434:. One sixth of the produce was collected as tax. Taxes were collected by revenue officials known as
1595:
1580:
1512:
1472:
715:, the standard weight. Delicate balances made of ivory were used by the goldsmiths for measures of
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provides the genealogy of two collateral lines of the Cheras and describes the Chera country. The
1755:, the king's palace and the rule of Nedunj Cheliyan, the victor of the Talaialanganam battle. The
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1000:. Roman and Arab sailors were aware of the existence of the monsoon winds that blew across the
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How wealth was assessed varied from one community to another. Farmers counted the number of
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were exported from Tamilakam for personal adornment. Drugs, spices and condiments as well as
250:. Paddy was the main crop, with different varieties grown in the wetland of Marutam, such as
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taken by ships from Rome to Tamilakam has been described in detail by the writers, such as
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and poets who had received donations of land from the king and who gave these donations to
328:
148:
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Most farmers cultivated their own plots of land and were known by different names such as
1792:
1367:
1314:
1310:
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goods, transported them and sold them directly to the consumers. Salt merchants, known as
805:, had its market in a central open area close to the two main suburbs of the city –
790:
582:
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340:
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to represent 1,100,000 pounds, of which nearly half went to India, the preponderance to
751:, was located at the centre of a city. It had two adjacent sections: the morning bazaar (
179:
was cultivated only with dry crops due to limited irrigation facilities. The yield from
4260:
2873:, Book review, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 61, No. 4 (Nov., 2002), pp. 1404-1406
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2813:
1979:
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give the details of the trade route between the Red Sea coast and the western coast of
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were used for harvesting mature rice paddies. Since the rivers of the region were not
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2668:, (Translated from Tamil by E.Sa. Viswanathan), Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1988 p.40
1842:
1837:
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892:(c. 200 BCE) and pottery inscriptions found at Kodumanal refer to merchant guilds as
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188:
47:
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who dove into the sea avoided attacks from sharks by bringing up the right-whorled
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275:
219:
207:
139:
91:
55:
51:
1971:
This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world
1040:. The ships returned from Tamilakam carrying rich cargo which was transported in
270:. The peasants lived in groves of trees close to the farmlands and each house had
3507:
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135:
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793:, was a typical fortified city, with two divisions inside the fort – the
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for containing dried grains and other edible articles were also constructed.
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intervention in commerce was that it reinforced the authority of the ruler.
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1109:
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953:, textiles and gold ornaments, while the imports were luxury goods such as
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63:
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1293:(Nelcynda of Periplus of the Erythraean/Red Sea - Late 1st century CE) and
3389:
3334:
3317:
3093:
2816:(2004). "Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry by Herman Tieken".
2680:
A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar
568:
Pearl fishing flourished during the Sangam age. The Pandyan port city of
3436:
1351:
1210:
1185:
1170:
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give a detailed description of the markets in big cities. The market, or
690:
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110:. Foreign trade brought in a large amount of internationally convertible
3102:
2837:
1752:
1325:
1318:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1278:
1197:
1081:
1033:
1025:
1021:
977:
929:(217 CE), after which it almost ceased. It was revived again under the
768:
665:
573:
509:
403:
295:
227:
99:
75:
67:
3400:Śaṅgam polity: the administration and social life of the Śaṅgam Tamils
3270:
Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century A.D
3161:
2488:
2363:
Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century A.D
727:. A different kind of barter involving deferred exchange was known as
370:
Kallanai is one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world
3327:
The Pandyan Kingdom: From the Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century
1788:
1532:
1333:
1306:
1302:
1262:
1065:
1037:
1029:
993:
942:
822:
802:
760:
704:
669:
591:
569:
513:
356:
348:
324:
291:
287:
235:
215:
187:
was unfit for cultivation. Some of the well known types of soil were
86:
79:
71:
59:
43:
2829:
2103:
2101:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
1096:
were also exported. The other articles exported from Tamilakam were
925:
who died in 68 CE. At that point, trade declined until the death of
3153:
82:
was the center of the pearl trade. Industrial activity flourished.
1751:
by Nakkirar contain a detailed description of the Pandyan capital
1193:
1159:
1105:
1097:
1073:
1017:
966:
958:
954:
950:
946:
938:
871:
780:
764:
577:
559:
365:
231:
197:
107:
103:
95:
17:
347:
were used as water storage systems and the water regulated using
323:
devices to scare animals and birds away from the standing crops.
34:: 600 BCE – 300 CE) describes the ancient economy of a region in
1189:
1093:
1045:
962:
922:
772:
335:
for bailing out water from deep wells and a manual setup called
3511:
3148:(4). American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87, No. 4: 461–481.
117:
The state played an important role in building and maintaining
3312:. South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Pub. Society, Tinnevelly.
1355:
937:, there was a great demand for articles of luxury, especially
344:
2074:
A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly
1735:
poems deal with inner human emotions such as love, while the
3479:. A History of Indian Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
1313:, all of them on the west coast. These ports were cited by
564:
Pearl fishing was an important industry in ancient Tamilakam
581:
product imported by Rome from India. The pearls from the
3435:
Tripati, Sila; Gaur, A.S.; Sundaresh; Gudigar, P. (1996).
46:. The main economic activities were agriculture, weaving,
3140:
Begley, Vimala (October 2003). "Arikamedu Reconsidered".
1164:
Local imitation of a coin of Augustus, c. 1st century AD.
2123:
History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 AD
525:. In addition to silk and cotton fabrics, cloth made of
2263:
2261:
2221:
2219:
1912:
1910:
1324:
To collect revenue from commerce, the state installed
545:, at the time of sale. Hence, the dealers were called
22:
Roman gold coins excavated in Pudukottai of Tamil Nadu
3219:
Riches of Indian Archaeological and Cultural Studies
1192:
have been found in the vicinity of the South Indian
557:
in Madurai and other big towns, stitched garments .
454:. Produce was measured using cubic-measures such as
4168:
4110:
4089:
3927:
3784:
3683:
3545:
2707:
2318:
2306:
2282:
2252:
2240:
2203:
2201:
2107:
2046:
1860:
876:
Coin of Roman Emperor Augustus found in Pudukkottai
363:methods were followed to prevent wastage of water.
2356:
2354:
880:Merchants organized themselves into groups called
3420:. Navrang Booksellers and Publishers, New Delhi.
2953:
2951:
1779:talks about the riches of the Chola port city of
1285:) as their centers of trade along the east coast.
418:paid tax on the land and its produce – the
175:yielded rich produce on a variety of crops, but
3344:Ancient Indian Literature: An Anthology. Vol III
2627:Ancient Indian Literature: An Anthology. Vol III
2533:
2531:
414:, were hired for specific tasks. Landlords and
410:. Sometimes independent farm laborers, known as
3455:Environment and Urbanisation in Early Tamilakam
2551:
2549:
2489:"Epigraphic Remains of Indian Traders in Egypt"
1184:Coins hoarded by the early Roman emperors from
1173:per annum from Rome. This sum is calculated by
1140:) are almost identical with their Tamil names,
85:Inland trading was conducted primarily through
1719:, dated between the last centuries of the pre-
517:Material was often dyed; the blue dye for the
3523:
1682:
38:that mostly covers the present-day states of
8:
2719:
2612:
2585:
2441:
2399:
2387:
2375:
2330:
2294:
2192:
2180:
2153:
2058:
1941:Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003).
1370:, where the gold mines were getting famous.
1004:on a seasonal basis. A Roman captain named
864:- based on the extent of their wealth; the
645:were smaller craft. The large ship, called
3530:
3516:
3508:
3346:. Sahitya Akademy, New Delhi. p. 43.
2126:. Asian Educational Services. p. 22.
2077:. Asian Educational Services. p. 20.
1689:
1675:
1389:
1382:, which coincides with the Sangam period.
848:) bought their products from the weavers (
442:, who were assisted by accountants called
3101:
3056:Krishnamurthy, pp. 20-23, 97-107, 132-148
2824:(1). American Oriental Society: 180–184.
2629:. Sahitya Academy, New Delhi. p. 43.
1297:(Vizhinjam) were their west coast ports.
617:used as ferries to cross rivers and the
3309:Educational System of the Ancient Tamils
3186:Cooke, M; D.Q. Fuller; K. Rajan (2003).
3122:Studies in the History of the Sangam Age
2818:Journal of the American Oriental Society
2494:Journal of the American Oriental Society
2027:
2015:
2003:
1928:
1889:
976:
3289:The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant
2776:The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant
2558:The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant
2345:The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant
1853:
1401:
1116:. The Greek and Arabic names for rice (
138:was the main occupation of the ancient
2746:
1916:
1901:
1707:The most important source of ancient
1374:, who has discussed the antiquity of
783:, coral beads and varieties of gold.
504:were prominent industries of ancient
7:
549:and the localities where they lived
131:Agriculture in ancient Tamil country
28:economy of the ancient Tamil country
3452:Venkata Subramanian, T. K. (1988).
1233:During the Sangam period, the main
585:were in demand in the kingdoms of
3499:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
3365:. New Century Book House, Madras.
2695:The Chronology of the Early Tamils
1947:. Allied Publishers. p. 508.
1309:, were the principal ports of the
1052:, finally reaching the capital of
430:and the tax on produce was called
282:and plantain trees. Peasants grew
50:, manufacturing and construction.
14:
3236:The History of the Pandya Country
3181:. Vol. 2. 2002. p. 802.
2791:The History of the Pandya Country
2644:. Vol. 2. 2002. p. 802.
2540:The History of the Pandya Country
2522:The History of the Pandya Country
2474:The History of the Pandya Country
2455:"More studies needed at Pattanam"
2414:The History of the Pandya Country
2270:The History of the Pandya Country
984:map showing ancient trade routes.
896:and the members of the guilds as
703:describe the prosperous house in
488:Industry in ancient Tamil country
66:were other commonly grown crops.
3575:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3238:. Selvi Pathippakam, Karaikudi.
2120:Iyengar, P.T. Srinivasa (2001).
1703:Sources of ancient Tamil history
1411:
195:, laterite soil and sandy soil.
3361:Sivathamby, Karthigesu (1981).
3329:. Swathi Publications, Madras.
3325:Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (1972).
3255:. Garnet Publications, Madras.
3142:American Journal of Archaeology
3125:. Delhi: Kalinga Publications.
1745:by Mankudi Maruthanaar and the
1068:and jewels, especially beryls (
74:were important centers for the
4312:Economic history of Tamil Nadu
3473:Zvelebil, Kamil Veith (1974).
3381:History of Tamilnad: 1565-1956
3363:Drama in ancient Tamil society
2927:Cooke et al., pp. 342-3, 348-9
2600:Drama in ancient Tamil society
2210:Drama in ancient Tamil society
1805:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
1:
4216:Confederate States of America
3539:Economic histories by country
3501:. Asian Educational Services.
3291:. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.
3268:Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003).
3011:Tripati et al., pp. 86, 88-89
2909:Gaur and Sundaresh, pp. 126-7
2666:A History of Tamil Literature
1277:, all on the east coast. The
3416:Sundararajan, Dr.S. (1991).
3306:Pillai, Jaya Kothai (1972).
3287:Mukund, Kanakalatha (1999).
3272:. Harvard University Press.
3234:Husaini, Dr. S.A.Q. (1962).
2984:Rajan, pp. 65-66, 95, 98-102
1261:) was the chief port of the
1237:, such those going over the
470:and weight-measures such as
4276:Scotland in the Middle Ages
4145:Mongolian People's Republic
3179:The Encyclopædia Britannica
2642:The Encyclopædia Britannica
1433:Chronology of Tamil history
1092:in Tamil, and a variety of
594:could not meet the demand.
98:, taking advantage of the
4338:
4226:England in the Middle Ages
3251:Krishnamurthy, R. (1997).
3020:Gaur and Sundaresh, p. 127
2945:Gaur and Sundaresh, p. 124
2900:Tripati et al., pp. 86, 89
2708:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2319:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2307:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2283:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2253:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2241:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2108:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
2047:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
1861:Venkata Subramanian (1988)
1700:
1317:(early 1st century CE and
1036:, which was infested with
933:emperors. Under the early
755:) and the evening bazaar (
485:
128:
4307:Tamil-language literature
2936:Tripati et al., pp. 86-88
2763:. pp. 14–15, 21, 31.
2071:Caldwell, Robert (1881).
1711:history is the corpus of
1265:; their other ports were
1084:(silver pieces) a pound.
3397:Subrahmanian, N (1980).
3378:Subrahmanian, N (1972).
2861:. June 2001. pp. 373-374
1044:from the Red Sea to the
888:. Stone inscriptions at
3195:South Asian Archaeology
1321:(2nd century AD) also.
1048:, then up the river to
830:Mercantile organization
355:, a dam built on river
206:The Tamils cultivated
3957:Bosnia and Herzegovina
3495:Pillai, K. N. Sivaraja
3403:. Ennes Publications.
3253:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
3210:Gaur, A.S; Sundaresh.
3047:Mahadevan, pp. 115-159
2859:Asian Folklore Studies
2573:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
2429:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
2228:Sangam Age Tamil Coins
1715:poems, referred to as
1438:List of Tamil monarchs
1165:
985:
877:
565:
450:and larger tracts as
371:
203:
23:
4150:Serbia and Montenegro
4111:Former industrialized
3418:Ancient Tamil Country
3384:. Koodal Publishers.
3177:"Cankam literature".
3119:Balambal, V. (1998).
3094:10.1353/asi.2003.0031
2734:Ancient Tamil Country
2640:"Cankam literature".
2309:, pp. 75–76, 80.
2168:Ancient Tamil Country
1404:History of Tamil Nadu
1163:
980:
875:
789:, the capital of the
739:Sangam works such as
563:
369:
339:, for shallow wells.
201:
21:
4169:Historical economies
3458:. Tamil University.
3342:Sharma, TRS (2000).
3002:Begley, pp. 472, 480
2855:Kavya in South India
2664:Dr. M. Varadarajan,
2625:Sharma, TRS (2000).
4012:Republic of Ireland
3691:Antigua and Barbuda
3441:Man and Environment
3038:Mahadevan, pp. 7-24
2761:The Pandyan Kingdom
2720:Subrahmanian (1980)
2613:Subrahmanian (1980)
2586:Subrahmanian (1980)
2442:Subrahmanian (1980)
2400:Subrahmanian (1980)
2388:Subrahmanian (1980)
2376:Subrahmanian (1980)
2331:Subrahmanian (1980)
2297:, pp. 244–245.
2295:Subrahmanian (1980)
2212:. pp. 173–174.
2193:Subrahmanian (1980)
2181:Subrahmanian (1980)
2154:Subrahmanian (1980)
2061:, pp. 240–241.
2059:Subrahmanian (1980)
1801:The Natural History
1581:Vijayanagara Empire
1473:Three Crowned Kings
1060:Imports and exports
649:, Kalam had masts (
183:was limited, while
4317:Ancient Tamil Nadu
3082:Asian Perspectives
3065:Husaini, pp. 20-21
2853:. Tieken, Herman,
2693:Pillay, Sivaraja.
2509:– via JSTOR.
2487:Salomon, Richard.
2321:, pp. 71, 80.
1985:on 6 February 2007
1625:Ancient Tamil Nadu
1606:Thondaiman Kingdom
1488:Naming conventions
1166:
986:
908:, sugar and gold.
878:
566:
553:. Tailors, called
400:absentee landlords
398:. There were also
372:
204:
24:
4289:
4288:
4241:Habsburg monarchy
4209:Republic of China
3486:978-3-447-01582-0
3465:978-81-7090-110-5
3132:978-81-85163-87-1
2710:, pp. 12–13.
2560:. pp. 22–23.
2542:. pp. 20–21.
2347:. pp. 17–19.
2133:978-81-206-0145-1
2084:978-81-206-0145-1
1904:, pp. 50–51.
1781:Kaveripumpattinam
1717:Sangam literature
1699:
1698:
1576:Madurai Sultanate
1448:Maritime contacts
1255:Kaveripumpattinam
1225:Role of the state
1207:Alexander Severus
601:, working in the
145:Sangam literature
4329:
4231:Ethiopian Empire
4186:Byzantine Empire
4135:Empire of Brazil
3532:
3525:
3518:
3509:
3502:
3490:
3476:Tamil Literature
3469:
3448:
3431:
3412:
3393:
3374:
3357:
3338:
3321:
3302:
3283:
3264:
3247:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3216:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3192:
3182:
3173:
3136:
3115:
3105:
3066:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3039:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3021:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2993:Rajan, pp. 66-67
2991:
2985:
2982:
2976:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2958:
2955:
2946:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2928:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2883:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2851:G.E. Ferro-Luzzi
2848:
2842:
2841:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2711:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2675:
2669:
2662:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2553:
2544:
2543:
2535:
2526:
2525:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2451:
2445:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2358:
2349:
2348:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2265:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2205:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2068:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1984:
1978:. Archived from
1977:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1770:Pathirruppaththu
1691:
1684:
1677:
1596:Kalahasti Nayaks
1545:Medieval history
1415:
1390:
1156:Foreign exchange
1132:) and cinnamon (
1054:the Roman empire
402:who were mostly
155:(fertile land),
76:textile industry
4337:
4336:
4332:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4164:
4140:Empire of Japan
4120:Austria-Hungary
4112:
4106:
4085:
3923:
3879:Solomon Islands
3780:
3679:
3541:
3536:
3506:
3505:
3493:
3487:
3472:
3466:
3451:
3434:
3428:
3415:
3396:
3377:
3360:
3354:
3341:
3324:
3305:
3299:
3286:
3280:
3267:
3250:
3233:
3224:
3222:
3214:
3209:
3200:
3198:
3190:
3185:
3176:
3139:
3133:
3118:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:Abraham, p. 219
2917:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2857:(Book review).
2849:
2845:
2830:10.2307/4132191
2812:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2718:
2714:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2638:
2634:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2571:Krishnamurthy.
2570:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2554:
2547:
2537:
2536:
2529:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2504:
2502:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2436:
2427:Krishnamurthy.
2426:
2425:
2421:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2386:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2360:
2359:
2352:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2313:
2305:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2267:
2266:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2230:. pp. 5–6.
2226:Krishnamurthy.
2225:
2224:
2217:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2099:
2089:
2087:
2085:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2045:
2034:
2028:Balambal (1998)
2026:
2022:
2016:Balambal (1998)
2014:
2010:
2004:Balambal (1998)
2002:
1998:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1955:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1929:Balambal (1998)
1927:
1923:
1915:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1890:Balambal (1998)
1888:
1884:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1824:
1793:Pliny the Elder
1731:(outside). The
1705:
1695:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1619:
1611:
1610:
1551:Kalabhra Empire
1546:
1538:
1537:
1463:
1453:
1452:
1423:
1388:
1343:
1341:Personal wealth
1289:held sway over
1257:(also known as
1227:
1158:
1062:
998:Pliny the Elder
975:
914:
832:
737:
678:
583:Pandyan kingdom
523:preferred color
490:
484:
361:drip irrigation
163:(hardland) and
133:
127:
12:
11:
5:
4335:
4333:
4325:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4294:
4293:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4266:Ottoman Empire
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4221:Dutch Republic
4218:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4188:
4183:
4181:Ashanti Empire
4178:
4176:Ancient Greece
4172:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4125:Czechoslovakia
4122:
4116:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4093:
4091:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4069:United Kingdom
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3972:Czech Republic
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3924:
3922:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3788:
3786:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3535:
3534:
3527:
3520:
3512:
3504:
3503:
3491:
3485:
3470:
3464:
3449:
3432:
3426:
3413:
3394:
3375:
3358:
3352:
3339:
3322:
3303:
3297:
3284:
3278:
3265:
3248:
3231:
3207:
3183:
3174:
3154:10.2307/504104
3137:
3131:
3116:
3088:(2): 207–223.
3076:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3058:
3049:
3040:
3031:
3022:
3013:
3004:
2995:
2986:
2977:
2975:Begley, p. 475
2968:
2959:
2957:Begley, p. 472
2947:
2938:
2929:
2920:
2911:
2902:
2893:
2884:
2882:Begley, p. 461
2875:
2871:Anne E. Monius
2863:
2843:
2805:
2796:
2781:
2766:
2751:
2739:
2732:Sundararajan.
2724:
2712:
2700:
2685:
2682:. p. 127.
2670:
2657:
2647:
2632:
2617:
2605:
2602:. p. 175.
2590:
2588:, p. 232.
2578:
2563:
2545:
2527:
2512:
2479:
2464:
2461:. 23 May 2013.
2446:
2444:, p. 359.
2434:
2419:
2404:
2402:, p. 357.
2392:
2390:, p. 360.
2380:
2378:, p. 246.
2368:
2365:. p. 141.
2350:
2335:
2333:, p. 254.
2323:
2311:
2299:
2287:
2275:
2257:
2245:
2233:
2215:
2197:
2195:, p. 356.
2185:
2183:, p. 253.
2173:
2166:Sundararajan.
2158:
2156:, p. 241.
2146:
2132:
2112:
2097:
2083:
2063:
2051:
2032:
2020:
2008:
1996:
1960:
1953:
1933:
1921:
1906:
1894:
1882:
1865:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1823:
1820:
1811:Archaeological
1776:Pattinappaalai
1701:Main article:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1686:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1591:Tanjore Nayaks
1588:
1586:Madurai Nayaks
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1561:Pandyan Empire
1558:
1556:Pallava Empire
1553:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1407:
1399:
1398:
1387:
1384:
1342:
1339:
1226:
1223:
1157:
1154:
1061:
1058:
1010:Cape Guardafui
974:
971:
935:Roman emperors
913:
910:
846:aruvai vanigar
831:
828:
736:
733:
682:northern India
677:
674:
547:aruvai vanigar
531:Sirai Maravuri
486:Main article:
483:
480:
408:tenant farmers
351:and shutters.
171:(salty land).
129:Main article:
126:
123:
119:infrastructure
112:Roman currency
36:southern India
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4334:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4302:Tamil history
4300:
4299:
4297:
4282:
4281:Tamil Country
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4256:Mongol Empire
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4088:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3771:United States
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3528:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3471:
3467:
3461:
3457:
3456:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3427:81-7013-072-7
3423:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3382:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3353:81-260-0794-X
3349:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3310:
3304:
3300:
3298:81-250-1661-9
3294:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3279:0-674-01227-5
3275:
3271:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3220:
3213:
3208:
3196:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3062:
3059:
3053:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3035:
3032:
3029:Rajan, p. 141
3026:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3008:
3005:
2999:
2996:
2990:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2972:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2897:
2894:
2888:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2809:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2778:. p. 24.
2777:
2770:
2767:
2762:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2747:Pillai (1972)
2743:
2740:
2735:
2728:
2725:
2722:, p. 23.
2721:
2716:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2701:
2697:. p. 11.
2696:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2651:
2648:
2643:
2636:
2633:
2628:
2621:
2618:
2615:, p. 22.
2614:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2579:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2524:. p. 19.
2523:
2516:
2513:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2476:. p. 18.
2475:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2438:
2435:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2416:. p. 20.
2415:
2408:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2364:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2288:
2285:, p. 81.
2284:
2279:
2276:
2272:. p. 24.
2271:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2255:, p. 45.
2254:
2249:
2246:
2243:, p. 87.
2242:
2237:
2234:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2174:
2170:. p. 85.
2169:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2135:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2116:
2113:
2110:, p. 55.
2109:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2086:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2049:, p. 86.
2048:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2030:, p. 67.
2029:
2024:
2021:
2018:, p. 61.
2017:
2012:
2009:
2006:, p. 65.
2005:
2000:
1997:
1981:
1974:
1972:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1954:81-7764-548-X
1950:
1946:
1945:
1937:
1934:
1931:, p. 64.
1930:
1925:
1922:
1919:, p. 51.
1918:
1917:Pillai (1972)
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:Pillai (1972)
1898:
1895:
1892:, p. 60.
1891:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1874:"Thirukkural"
1869:
1866:
1863:, p. 26.
1862:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1844:
1843:Tamil cuisine
1841:
1839:
1838:Tamil culture
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1742:Maduraikkanci
1738:
1734:
1730:
1727:(inside) and
1726:
1722:
1721:Christian era
1718:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1660:Ancient sites
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1601:Gingee Nayaks
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1571:Chera Kingdom
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1518:Early Pandyas
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1461:Sangam period
1457:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1380:Christian era
1377:
1373:
1372:F. R. Allchin
1369:
1368:Mysore region
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:Western Ghats
1236:
1231:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1114:tortoiseshell
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
983:
979:
972:
970:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
912:Foreign trade
911:
909:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
874:
870:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
838:
829:
827:
824:
820:
814:
812:
811:Pattinapakkam
808:
807:Maruvurpakkam
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
745:Pattinappalai
742:
741:Maduraikkanci
734:
732:
730:
729:Kuri edirppai
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
701:
694:
692:
688:
683:
675:
673:
671:
667:
663:
658:
656:
653:) and sails (
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
595:
593:
588:
584:
579:
575:
571:
562:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
511:
507:
503:
502:ship building
500:, smithy and
499:
498:pearl fishing
495:
489:
481:
479:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
422:was known as
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
368:
364:
362:
358:
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346:
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338:
334:
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322:
318:
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306:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
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269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
200:
196:
194:
190:
189:alluvial soil
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
141:
137:
132:
124:
122:
120:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
100:monsoon winds
97:
93:
88:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
48:pearl fishery
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
20:
16:
4280:
4271:Roman Empire
4236:Feudal Japan
4204:Ming dynasty
4199:Song dynasty
4155:Soviet Union
4130:East Germany
3934:
3874:Saudi Arabia
3791:
3650:South Africa
3552:
3498:
3475:
3454:
3444:
3440:
3417:
3399:
3380:
3362:
3343:
3326:
3308:
3288:
3269:
3252:
3235:
3223:. Retrieved
3218:
3199:. Retrieved
3194:
3178:
3145:
3141:
3121:
3085:
3081:
3061:
3052:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3016:
3007:
2998:
2989:
2980:
2971:
2966:Rajan, p. 67
2962:
2941:
2932:
2923:
2914:
2905:
2896:
2891:Rajan, p. 57
2887:
2878:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2846:
2821:
2817:
2814:Hart, George
2808:
2799:
2793:. p. 7.
2790:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2760:
2754:
2749:, p. 8.
2742:
2736:. p. 3.
2733:
2727:
2715:
2703:
2694:
2688:
2679:
2673:
2665:
2660:
2650:
2641:
2635:
2626:
2620:
2608:
2599:
2598:Sivathamby.
2593:
2581:
2575:. p. 5.
2572:
2566:
2557:
2539:
2521:
2515:
2503:. Retrieved
2501:(4): 734–735
2498:
2492:
2482:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2449:
2437:
2431:. p. 6.
2428:
2422:
2413:
2407:
2395:
2383:
2371:
2362:
2344:
2338:
2326:
2314:
2302:
2290:
2278:
2269:
2248:
2236:
2227:
2209:
2208:Sivathamby.
2188:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2149:
2137:. Retrieved
2122:
2115:
2088:. Retrieved
2073:
2066:
2054:
2023:
2011:
1999:
1987:. Retrieved
1980:the original
1970:
1963:
1943:
1936:
1924:
1897:
1885:
1877:
1868:
1856:
1833:Tamil people
1816:
1809:
1800:
1786:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1748:Netunalvatai
1746:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1706:
1650:Inscriptions
1630:Architecture
1566:Chola Empire
1528:Early Cholas
1523:Early Cheras
1497:
1483:Legal system
1402:
1364:Venkata Hill
1359:
1347:ploughshares
1344:
1330:sungachavadi
1329:
1328:checkposts (
1323:
1267:Nagapattinam
1258:
1242:
1235:trade routes
1232:
1228:
1183:
1167:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1108:, diamonds,
1089:
1078:crape ginger
1069:
1063:
1042:camel trains
1016:, a port of
1002:Indian Ocean
987:
915:
901:
897:
893:
885:
881:
879:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
833:
819:Indira vizha
818:
815:
810:
806:
798:
794:
785:
761:sesame seeds
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
738:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
711:named after
708:
698:
695:
687:door to door
679:
676:Inland trade
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
623:fishing boat
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
596:
567:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
491:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
411:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
373:
343:, lakes and
336:
332:
317:Palliyadutal
316:
312:
308:
304:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
205:
202:Pearl millet
191:, red soil,
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
159:(dry land),
156:
152:
134:
116:
84:
62:, grams and
27:
25:
15:
4246:Inca Empire
4194:Han dynasty
4102:New Zealand
4064:Switzerland
4029:Netherlands
3889:South Korea
3869:Philippines
3849:North Korea
3605:Ivory Coast
3447:(1): 86–90.
3103:10125/17189
2505:11 February
2361:Mahadevan.
1797:South India
1443:Wootz steel
1376:gold mining
1283:Kanyakumari
1247:lighthouses
1215:South India
1179:South India
1014:Myos Hormos
990:trade route
973:Trade route
821:. Near the
662:gem cutting
603:Panikkalari
587:North India
551:aruvai vidi
492:During the
444:Ayakanakkar
384:Yerinvalnar
321:stone sling
274:, coconut,
222:, various
136:Agriculture
125:Agriculture
106:, wine and
4296:Categories
4160:Yugoslavia
3904:Tajikistan
3814:East Timor
3799:Azerbaijan
3793:Arab world
3625:Mozambique
3615:Madagascar
3072:References
1758:Purananuru
1618:Categories
1493:Government
1287:Ay Kingdom
1271:Marakkanam
1251:warehouses
1202:Coimbatore
1124:), ginger(
1070:vaiduriyam
1050:Alexandria
906:plowshares
898:nikamattor
700:Purananuru
599:blacksmith
555:tunnagarar
527:wood fibre
519:loin cloth
494:Sangam age
300:irrigation
248:sandalwood
193:black soil
185:Kalarnilam
165:Kalarnilam
40:Tamil Nadu
32:Sangam era
4322:Tamilakam
4113:economies
4097:Australia
4024:Lithuania
3884:Singapore
3859:Palestine
3824:Indonesia
3751:Nicaragua
3696:Argentina
3497:(1984) .
3221:: 122–130
3170:245265477
3112:153420843
2789:Husaini.
2538:Husaini.
2520:Husaini.
2472:Husaini.
2459:The Hindu
2412:Husaini.
2268:Husaini.
1764:Agananuru
1645:Monuments
1640:Economies
1478:Education
1428:Tamiḻakam
1352:minstrels
1275:Arikamedu
1171:sesterces
1110:amethysts
1102:spikenard
1090:kurundham
1088:, called
982:Silk Road
931:Byzantine
927:Caracalla
866:perunkudi
862:perunkudi
837:itinerant
795:Puranakar
777:sapphires
757:allangadi
753:nalangadi
651:Paaymaram
574:fishermen
506:Tamilakam
380:Ulutunbar
329:perennial
288:ploughing
264:Aivananel
212:sugarcane
169:Uvarnilam
64:sugarcane
4251:Iroquois
4074:Scotland
4049:Slovakia
4039:Portugal
3962:Bulgaria
3909:Thailand
3864:Pakistan
3854:Mongolia
3844:Malaysia
3804:Cambodia
3761:Paraguay
3721:Colombia
3701:Barbados
3684:Americas
3675:Zimbabwe
3585:Ethiopia
3570:Botswana
3261:39131200
3244:15033846
3225:5 August
3201:5 August
2774:Mukund.
2759:Sastri.
2678:Sastri.
2556:Mukund.
2343:Mukund.
1822:See also
1508:Religion
1395:a series
1393:Part of
1243:Peruvali
1211:Tiberius
1186:Augustus
1146:inchiver
1130:zanjabil
1126:Gingibar
1086:Sapphire
1006:Hippalus
919:Augustus
890:Mangulam
858:kavippar
850:kaarugar
799:Akanakar
797:and the
769:emeralds
709:Tulakkol
691:lapidary
535:Naarmadi
482:Industry
420:land tax
416:peasants
404:brahmins
388:Vellalar
353:Kallanai
313:kalappai
292:manuring
284:turmeric
244:tamarind
240:plantain
228:coconuts
181:Vanpulam
177:Pinpulam
173:Menpulam
161:Vanpulam
157:Pinpulam
153:Menpulam
4090:Oceania
4007:Ireland
4002:Hungary
3992:Germany
3982:Estonia
3977:Denmark
3967:Croatia
3952:Belgium
3947:Austria
3942:Albania
3919:Vietnam
3776:Uruguay
3741:Jamaica
3731:Ecuador
3660:Tunisia
3645:Somalia
3640:Senegal
3630:Nigeria
3620:Morocco
3590:Eritrea
3560:Algeria
3409:7978869
3371:9760754
2838:4132191
2139:15 July
2090:15 July
1753:Madurai
1635:Culture
1503:Society
1498:Economy
1468:Sources
1386:Sources
1360:tivinai
1326:customs
1319:Ptolemy
1299:Muchiri
1295:Vilinam
1291:Niranam
1279:Pandyas
1198:Madurai
1175:Mommsen
1134:Karpion
1082:denarii
1066:muslins
1038:pirates
1034:Muziris
1026:Muziris
1022:Red Sea
1020:on the
894:nikamam
886:Nikamam
735:Markets
666:jaggery
607:turutti
529:called
510:Madurai
476:Kalanju
396:Kalamar
392:Karalar
349:sluices
333:Kapilai
325:Sickles
309:nanchil
296:weeding
260:Pudunel
216:millets
149:Marutam
68:Madurai
60:millets
4261:Muisca
4190:China
4059:Sweden
4044:Russia
4034:Norway
3997:Greece
3987:France
3936:Europe
3928:Europe
3914:Turkey
3899:Taiwan
3834:Israel
3756:Panama
3746:Mexico
3711:Canada
3706:Brazil
3670:Zambia
3665:Uganda
3635:Rwanda
3600:Guinea
3565:Angola
3554:Africa
3546:Africa
3483:
3462:
3424:
3407:
3390:708451
3388:
3369:
3350:
3335:714083
3333:
3318:732125
3316:
3295:
3276:
3259:
3242:
3168:
3162:504104
3160:
3129:
3110:
2836:
2130:
2081:
1989:27 May
1951:
1803:. The
1789:Strabo
1533:Velirs
1334:liquor
1311:Cheras
1307:Kannur
1263:Cholas
1150:karuva
1138:quarfa
1074:pearls
1072:) and
1030:Ocelis
994:Strabo
947:pearls
943:cotton
902:Utiyam
842:umanar
823:bazaar
803:Cholas
791:Cheras
787:Vanchi
773:rubies
765:pearls
749:angadi
705:Pandya
670:wicker
647:Kappal
641:, and
639:Teppam
615:padagu
592:Ganges
570:Korkai
539:aruvai
521:was a
514:Urayur
440:Kavidi
436:Variya
412:Adiyor
376:Mallar
357:Kaveri
256:Sennel
252:Vennel
236:cotton
224:pulses
220:pepper
147:, the
140:Tamils
87:barter
80:Korkai
72:Urayur
56:Pepper
44:Kerala
4079:Wales
4054:Spain
4019:Italy
3894:Syria
3839:Japan
3819:India
3809:China
3736:Haiti
3716:Chile
3655:Sudan
3610:Kenya
3595:Ghana
3580:Egypt
3215:(PDF)
3191:(PDF)
3166:S2CID
3158:JSTOR
3108:S2CID
2834:JSTOR
1983:(PDF)
1976:(PDF)
1849:Notes
1828:Tamil
1737:puram
1729:Puram
1713:Tamil
1709:Tamil
1655:Forts
1513:Music
1315:Pliny
1303:Tondi
1259:Puhar
1194:beryl
1142:arisi
1118:Oryza
1106:betel
1098:ivory
1064:Fine
1028:from
1018:Egypt
967:topaz
959:coral
955:glass
951:ivory
939:beryl
882:Sattu
854:ippar
781:topaz
713:Tulam
643:Navai
627:Pahri
619:timil
578:conch
472:Tulam
468:Kalam
428:Karai
341:Tanks
337:Erram
280:areca
268:Torai
232:beans
208:paddy
108:topaz
104:coral
96:Egypt
52:Paddy
3829:Iran
3785:Asia
3766:Peru
3726:Cuba
3481:ISBN
3460:ISBN
3422:ISBN
3405:OCLC
3386:OCLC
3367:OCLC
3348:ISBN
3331:OCLC
3314:OCLC
3293:ISBN
3274:ISBN
3257:OCLC
3240:OCLC
3227:2007
3203:2007
3127:ISBN
2507:2024
2141:2007
2128:ISBN
2092:2005
2079:ISBN
1991:2007
1949:ISBN
1791:and
1761:and
1733:akam
1725:Akam
1422:Main
1356:sins
1273:and
1249:and
1219:Zeno
1200:and
1190:Nero
1148:and
1136:and
1128:and
1120:and
1112:and
1094:ruby
1046:Nile
996:and
988:The
965:and
963:wine
923:Nero
860:and
809:and
743:and
723:and
721:Nali
717:Urai
655:Paay
635:Toni
631:Odam
621:, a
613:and
611:ambi
597:The
543:tuni
533:and
512:and
474:and
466:and
464:Cher
460:Nali
456:Tuni
452:Veli
438:and
432:Vari
424:Irai
394:and
345:dams
311:and
305:meli
276:palm
272:jack
266:and
246:and
92:Rome
70:and
42:and
26:The
3150:doi
3098:hdl
3090:doi
2826:doi
2822:124
2655:p12
2499:111
1188:to
1122:urz
884:or
657:).
541:or
426:or
167:or
4298::
3445:21
3443:.
3439:.
3217:.
3193:.
3164:.
3156:.
3146:87
3144:.
3106:.
3096:.
3086:42
3084:.
2950:^
2832:.
2820:.
2548:^
2530:^
2497:.
2491:.
2457:.
2353:^
2260:^
2218:^
2200:^
2100:^
2035:^
1909:^
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1397:on
1358:,
1305:,
1301:,
1269:,
1181:.
1144:,
1104:,
1100:,
961:,
957:,
949:,
856:,
779:,
775:,
771:,
767:,
725:Ma
719:,
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633:,
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625:.
478:.
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448:Ma
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307:,
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294:,
290:,
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2828::
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1993:.
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