Ecological niche - Knowledge (XXG)

907:

segregation can never be excluded, and assumption of such randomness can indeed serve as a null-model. – Many physiological and morphological differences between species can prevent hybridization. Evidence for niche segregation as the result of reinforcement of reproductive barriers is especially convincing in those cases in which such differences are not found in allopatric but only in sympatric locations. For example, Kawano (2002) has shown this for giant rhinoceros beetles in Southeast Asia. Two closely related species occur in 12 allopatric (i.e., in different areas) and 7 sympatric (i.e., in the same area) locations. In the former, body length and length of genitalia are practically identical, in the latter, they are significantly different, and much more so for the genitalia than the body, convincing evidence that reinforcement is an important factor (and possibly the only one) responsible for niche segregation. - The very detailed studies of communities of Monogenea parasitic on the gills of marine and freshwater fishes by several authors have shown the same. Species use strictly defined microhabitats and have very complex copulatory organs. This and the fact that fish replicas are available in almost unlimited numbers, makes them ideal ecological models. Many congeners (species belonging to the same genus) and non-congeners were found on single host species. The maximum number of congeners was nine species. The only limiting factor is space for attachment, since food (blood, mucus, fast regenerating epithelial cells) is in unlimited supply as long as the fish is alive. Various authors, using a variety of statistical methods, have consistently found that species with different copulatory organs may co-occur in the same microhabitat, whereas congeners with identical or very similar copulatory organs are spatially segregated, convincing evidence that reinforcement and not competition is responsible for niche segregation.

31: 256: 550:) species, which often coexist with new species in their nonnative ranges, but do not appear to be constricted these requirements. In other words, contemporary niche theory predicts that species will be unable to invade new environments outside of their requirement (i.e. realized) niche, yet many examples of this are well-documented. Additionally, contemporary niche theory predicts that species will be unable to establish in environments where other species already consume resources in the same ways as the incoming species, however examples of this are also numerous. 534:

phosphorus, perhaps) and each species must outcompete the other species to get that resource (P1 needs to be better at obtaining nitrogen and P2 needs to be better at obtaining phosphorus). Intuitively, this makes sense from an inverse perspective: If both consumers are limited by the same resource, one of the species will ultimately be the better competitor, and only that species will survive. Furthermore, if P1 was outcompeted for the nitrogen (the resource it needed most) it would not survive. Likewise, if P2 was outcompeted for phosphorus, it would not survive.

623:. To understand the mechanisms of niche differentiation and competition, much data must be gathered on how the two species interact, how they use their resources, and the type of ecosystem in which they exist, among other factors. In addition, several mathematical models exist to quantify niche breadth, competition, and coexistence (Bastolla et al. 2005). However, regardless of methods used, niches and competition can be distinctly difficult to measure quantitatively, and this makes detection and demonstration of niche differentiation difficult and complex. 800: 305: 965: 653:

exclusion, the less competitive species were eliminated, leaving only the species that were able to coexist (i.e. the most competitive species whose realized niches did not overlap). Again, this process does not include any evolutionary change of individual species, but it is merely the product of the competitive exclusion principle. Also, because no species is out-competing any other species in the final community, the presence of niche differentiation will be difficult or impossible to detect.

644:

has excluded it from the lower portion of the slope. With this scenario, competition will continue indefinitely in the middle of the slope between these two species. Because of this, detection of the presence of niche differentiation (through competition) will be relatively easy. Importantly, there is no evolutionary change of the individual species in this case; rather this is an ecological effect of species Y out-competing species X within the bounds of species Y's fundamental niche.

902:

populations usually don't even approach exhaustion of resources, and too much emphasis on interspecific competition is therefore wrong. Concerning the possibility that competition has led to segregation in the evolutionary past, Wiens (1974, 1984) concluded that such assumptions cannot be proven, and Connell (1980) found that interspecific competition as a mechanism of niche segregation has been proven only for some pest insects. Barker (1983), in his review of competition in

169:

scales. Most literature has focused on Ginnellian niche constructs, often from a climatic perspective, to explain distribution and abundance. Current predictions on species responses to climate change strongly rely on projecting altered environmental conditions on species distributions. However, it is increasingly acknowledged that climate change also influences species interactions and an Eltonian perspective may be advantageous in explaining these processes.

984: 791:

result, species that produce such defenses are often poor competitors when predators are absent. Species can coexist through a competition-predation trade-off if predators are more abundant when the less defended species is common, and less abundant if the well-defended species is common. This effect has been criticized as being weak, because theoretical models suggest that only two species within a community can coexist because of this mechanism.

586:, then one will inevitably drive the other to extinction. This rule also states that two species cannot occupy the same exact niche in a habitat and coexist together, at least in a stable manner. When two species differentiate their niches, they tend to compete less strongly, and are thus more likely to coexist. Species can differentiate their niches in many ways, such as by consuming different foods, or using different areas of the environment. 750:, such as herbivorous insects. If a species density declines, so too will the density of its natural enemies, giving it an advantage. Thus, if each species is constrained by different natural enemies, they will be able to coexist. Early work focused on specialist predators; however, more recent studies have shown that predators do not need to be pure specialists, they simply need to affect each prey species differently. The 85:, which focuses on spatial patterns of ecological communities. "Species distributions and their dynamics over time result from properties of the species, environmental variation..., and interactions between the two—in particular the abilities of some species, especially our own, to modify their environments and alter the range dynamics of many other species." Alteration of an ecological niche by its inhabitants is the topic of 4878: 402: 5541: 332:, that define the requirements of an individual or a species to practice its way of life, more particularly, for its population to persist. The "hypervolume" defines the multi-dimensional space of resources (e.g., light, nutrients, structure, etc.) available to (and specifically used by) organisms, and "all species other than those under consideration are regarded as part of the coordinate system." 5529: 674: 1099: 431:. Hutchinson used the idea of competition for resources as the primary mechanism driving ecology, but overemphasis upon this focus has proved to be a handicap for the niche concept. In particular, overemphasis upon a species' dependence upon resources has led to too little emphasis upon the effects of organisms on their environment, for instance, colonization and invasions. 5561: 352: 5551: 730:

starts with the secretions from plant roots into the rhizosphere. If another plant that is kin is entering this area the plant will take up exudates. The exudate, being several different compounds, will enter the plants root cell and attach to a receptor for that chemical halting growth of the root meristem in that direction, if the interaction is kin.

956:

examples of nearly identical species clusters occupying the same niche were water beetles, prairie birds and algae. The basic idea is that there can be clusters of very similar species all applying the same successful strategy and between them open spaces. Here the species cluster takes the place of a single species in the classical ecological models.

160: 734:

between kin and non-kin competition. This means there could be specific subsets of genotypes in kin plants that selects well with specific strains that could outcompete other kin. What might seem like an instance in kin competition could just be different genotypes of organisms at play in the soil that increase the symbiotic efficiency.

777:

are more successful during wet years, while others are more successful during dry years. As a result, each species will have an advantage in some years, but not others. When environmental conditions are most favorable, individuals will tend to compete most strongly with member of the same species.

643:

Niche differentiation can arise from current competition. For instance, species X has a fundamental niche of the entire slope of a hillside, but its realized niche is only the top portion of the slope because species Y, which is a better competitor but cannot survive on the top portion of the slope,

593:

lizards in the Caribbean islands share common diets—mainly insects. They avoid competition by occupying different physical locations. Although these lizards might occupy different locations, some species can be found inhabiting the same range, with up to 15 in certain areas. For example, some live on

397:

occur, and that overlap in resource utilization directly enables the estimation of the competition coefficients. This postulate, however, can be misguided, as it ignores the impacts that the resources of each category have on the organism and the impacts that the organism has on the resources of each

66:

are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (for example, limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey). "The type and number of variables comprising the dimensions of an environmental niche vary from one species to another

819:

Two ecological paradigms deal with the problem. The first paradigm predominates in what may be called “classical” ecology. It assumes that niche space is largely saturated with individuals and species, leading to strong competition. Niches are restricted because “neighbouring” species, i.e., species

606:

states that two competing species can coexist when intra-specific (within species) competition is greater than inter-specific (between species) competition. Since niche differentiation concentrates competition within-species, due to a decrease in between-species competition, the Lotka-Volterra model

541:

These requirements are interesting and controversial because they require any two species to share a certain environment (have overlapping requirement niches) but fundamentally differ the ways that they use (or "impact") that environment. These requirements have repeatedly been violated by nonnative

513:

In contemporary niche theory, the "impact niche" is defined as the combination of effects that a given consumer has on both a). the resources that it uses, and b). the other consumers in the ecosystem. Therefore, the impact niche is equivalent to the Eltonian niche since both concepts are defined by

509:

within an ecosystem. The framework centers around "consumer-resource models" which largely split a given ecosystem into resources (e.g. sunlight or available water in soil) and consumers (e.g. any living thing, including plants and animals), and attempts to define the scope of possible relationships

155:

habitat it lives in—it breeds and feeds in the underbrush and escapes from its predators by shuffling from underbrush to underbrush. Its 'niche' is defined by the felicitous complementing of the thrasher's behavior and physical traits (camouflaging color, short wings, strong legs) with this habitat.

955:

and other very similar warblers can serve as an example. The idea is that it is also a good strategy to be very similar to a successful species or have enough dissimilarity. Also trees in the rain forest can serve as an example of all high canopy species basically following the same strategy. Other

896:

Both paradigms acknowledge a role for all mechanisms (except possibly for that of random selection of niches in the first paradigm), but emphasis on the various mechanisms varies. The first paradigm stresses the paramount importance of interspecific competition, whereas the second paradigm tries to

790:

Species can differentiate their niche via a competition-predation trade-off if one species is a better competitor when predators are absent, and the other is better when predators are present. Defenses against predators, such as toxic compounds or hard shells, are often metabolically costly. As a

733:

Simonsen discusses how plants accomplish root communication with the addition of beneficial rhizobia and fungal networks and the potential for different genotypes of the kin plants, such as the legume M. Lupulina, and specific strains of nitrogen fixing bacteria and rhizomes can alter relationships

729:

Research has determined that plants can recognize each other's root systems and differentiate between a clone, a plant grown from the same mother plants seeds, and other species. Based on the root secretions, also called exudates, plants can make this determination. The communication between plants

1022:

of the rocky coast of the Isle. Connell described the upper portion of C. stellatus's range is limited by the barnacle's ability to resist dehydration during periods of low tide. The lower portion of the range was limited by interspecific interactions, namely competition with a cohabiting barnacle

295:

of specific individual phenomena, as the dynamics of this class of niche are difficult to measure at a broad geographic scale. However, the Eltonian niche may be useful in the explanation of a species' endurance of global change. Because adjustments in biotic interactions inevitably change abiotic

700:

Resource partitioning is the phenomenon where two or more species divides out resources like food, space, resting sites etc. to coexist. For example, some lizard species appear to coexist because they consume insects of differing sizes. Alternatively, species can coexist on the same resources if

168:

Grinnellian niches can be defined by non-interactive (abiotic) variables and environmental conditions on broad scales. Variables of interest in this niche class include average temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, and terrain aspect which have become increasingly accessible across spatial

610:

In reality, this still leaves the question of how much differentiation is needed for coexistence. A vague answer to this question is that the more similar two species are, the more finely balanced the suitability of their environment must be in order to allow coexistence. There are limits to the

279:

require certain resources in order to survive and reproduce, but also construct dams that alter water flow in the river where the beaver lives. Thus, the beaver affects the biotic and abiotic conditions of other species that live in and near the watershed. In a more subtle case, competitors that

935:

This example illustrates that the evidence for niche differentiation is by no means universal. Niche differentiation is also not the only means by which coexistence is possible between two competing species. However, niche differentiation is a critically important ecological idea which explains

923:

species. These beetle species, which eat the same food and occupy the same habitat, coexist without any evidence of segregation or exclusion. The beetles show no aggression either intra- or inter-specifically. Coexistence may be possible through a combination of non-limiting food and habitat

901:

is of particular importance in all those cases in which sympatric species (i.e., species occurring together in the same area) with large population densities use the same resources and largely exhaust them. However, Andrewartha and Birch (1954,1984) and others have pointed out that most natural

860:

Species must be specialized in order to survive. They may survive for a while in less optimal habitats under favourable conditions, but they will be extinguished when conditions become less favourable, for example due to changed weather conditions (this aspect was especially emphasized by Price

661:

Finally, niche differentiation can arise as an evolutionary effect of competition. In this case, two competing species will evolve different patterns of resource use so as to avoid competition. Here too, current competition is absent or low, and therefore detection of niche differentiation is

392:

and the actual distribution itself. One advantage in using statistics is illustrated in the figure, where it is clear that for the narrower distributions (top) there is no competition for prey between the extreme left and extreme right species, while for the broader distribution (bottom), niche

864:

Niches remain narrow or become narrower as the result of natural selection in order to enhance the chances of mating. This "mating theory of niche restriction" is supported by the observation that niches of asexual stages are often wider than those of sexually mature stages; that niches become

517:

The range of environmental conditions where a species can successfully survive and reproduce (i.e. the Hutchinsonian definition of a realized niche) is also encompassed under contemporary niche theory, termed the "requirement niche". The requirement niche is bounded by both the availability of

838:

Both paradigms agree that species are never “universal” in the sense that they occupy all possible niches; they are always specialized, although the degree of specialization varies. For example, there is no universal parasite which infects all host species and microhabitats within or on them.

713:

with small beaks are more able to consume small seeds, and finches with large beaks are more able to consume large seeds. If a species' density declines, then the food it most depends on will become more abundant (since there are so few individuals to consume it). As a result, the remaining

533:

Each consumer must outcompete the other for the resource that it needs most. For example, if two plants (P1 and P2) are competing for nitrogen and phosphorus in a given ecosystem, they will only coexist if they are limited by different resources (P1 is limited by nitrogen and P2 is limited by

906:

and related genera, which are among the best known animal groups, concluded that the idea of niche segregation by interspecific competition is attractive, but that no study has yet been able to show a mechanism responsible for segregation. Without specific evidence, the possibility of random

652:

Another way by which niche differentiation can arise is via the previous elimination of species without realized niches. This asserts that at some point in the past, several species inhabited an area, and all of these species had overlapping fundamental niches. However, through competitive

504:

Contemporary niche theory (also called "classic niche theory" in some contexts) is a framework that was originally designed to reconcile different definitions of niches (see Grinnellian, Eltonian, and Hutchinsonian definitions above), and to help explain the underlying processes that affect

274:

the environment. Unlike other niche concepts, it emphasizes that a species not only grows in and responds to an environment based on available resources, predators, and climatic conditions, but also changes the availability and behavior of those factors as it grows. In an extreme example,

1372:

We will make the crucial distinction between variables that are dynamically modified (linked) by the presence of the species versus those that are not. ... is based upon variables not dynamically affected by the species...in contrast to...those that are subject to modification by niche

78:. An Eltonian niche emphasizes that a species not only grows in and responds to an environment, it may also change the environment and its behavior as it grows. The Hutchinsonian niche uses mathematics and statistics to try to explain how species coexist within a given community. 897:

explain many cases which are thought to be due to competition in the first paradigm, by reinforcement of reproductive barriers and/or random selection of niches. – Many authors believe in the overriding importance of interspecific competition. Intuitively, one would expect that

339:

in 1957. Hutchinson inquired into the question of why there are so many types of organisms in any one habitat. His work inspired many others to develop models to explain how many and how similar coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of

882:

Niches of similar species are segregated (as the result of natural selection) in order to prevent interspecific hybridisation, because hybrids are less fit. (Many cases of niche segregation explained by interspecific competition are better explained by this mechanism, i.e.,

172:

This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different

461:

resource or adaptive dimension will provide a niche specific to each species. Species can however share a 'mode of life' or 'autecological strategy' which are broader definitions of ecospace. For example, Australian grasslands species, though different from those of the

3457:

Wiens, J.A. 1984. Resource systems, populations, and communities. In: Price, P.W., Slobodchikoff, C.N. and Gaud, W.S. Eds. A new ecology. Novel approaches to interactive systems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, pp.

3330:

Chase, Jonathan M.; Abrams, Peter A.; Grover, James P.; Diehl, Sebastian; Chesson, Peter; Holt, Robert D.; Richards, Shane A.; Nisbet, Roger M.; Case, Ted J. (March 2002). "The interaction between predation and competition: a review and synthesis".

3411:

Price, P. W. 1983. Communities of specialists: vacant niches in ecological and evolutionary time. In Strong, D., Simberloff, D. and Abele, L. Eds.. Ecological Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence. Princeton University Press, Princeton,

3512:

Simkova, A., Desdevises,Y.,Gelnar,M. and Morand, S. (2000). Co-existence of nine gill ectoparasites (Dactylogyus: Monogenea) parasitising the roach Rutilus rutilus ( L.): history and present ecology. International Journal for Parasitology 30,

594:

the ground while others are arboreal. Species who live in different areas compete less for food and other resources, which minimizes competition between species. However, species who live in similar areas typically compete with each other.

163:

The Grinnellian niche can be described as the "needs" niche, or an area that meets the environmental requirements for an organism's survival. Most succulents are native in dry, arid regions like deserts and require large quantities of sun

614:

To answer questions about niche differentiation, it is necessary for ecologists to be able to detect, measure, and quantify the niches of different coexisting and competing species. This is often done through a combination of detailed

421:. However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly 445:

Hutchinson's "niche" (a description of the ecological space occupied by a species) is subtly different from the "niche" as defined by Grinnell (an ecological role, that may or may not be actually filled by a species—see

820:

with similar ecological characteristics such as similar habitats or food preferences, prevent expansion into other niches or even narrow niches down. This continual struggle for existence is an important assumption of

371:

might describe the frequency with which a species ate prey of a certain size, giving a more detailed niche description than simply specifying some median or average prey size. For such a bell-shaped distribution, the

477:). Also, when plants and animals are introduced into a new environment, they have the potential to occupy or invade the niche or niches of native organisms, often outcompeting the indigenous species. Introduction of 918:

Some competing species have been shown to coexist on the same resource with no observable evidence of niche differentiation and in “violation” of the competitive exclusion principle. One instance is in a group of

865:

narrower at the time of mating; and that microhabitats of sessile species and of species with small population sizes often are narrower than those of non-sessile species and of species with large population sizes.

835:. It is based on many empirical studies and theoretical investigations especially of Kauffman 1993. Causes of vacant niches may be evolutionary contingencies or brief or long-lasting environmental disturbances. 280:

consume resources at different rates can lead to cycles in resource density that differ between species. Not only do species grow differently with respect to resource density, but their own population growth can

3522:

Simkova, A., Gelnar, M. and Morand, S. (2001). Order and disorder in ectoparasite communities: the case of congeneric gill monogeneans (Dactylogyrus spp.). International Journal for Parasitology 31, 1205-1210.

251:. The existence of this carnivore niche is dependent on the further fact that mice form a definite herbivore niche in many different associations, although the actual species of mice may be quite different. 721:

are thought to coexist because they nest in different parts of trees. Species can also partition habitat in a way that gives them access to different types of resources. As stated in the introduction,

3540:

Simkova, A., Desdevises,Y., Gelnar,M. and Morand, S. 2001. Morphometric correlates of host specificity in Dactylogyrus species (Monogenea) parasites of European Cyprinid fish. Parasitology 123, 169-177.

611:

amount of niche differentiation required for coexistence, and this can vary with the type of resource, the nature of the environment, and the amount of variation both within and between the species.

453:

A niche is a very specific segment of ecospace occupied by a single species. On the presumption that no two species are identical in all respects (called Hardin's 'axiom of inequality') and the

417:

An organism free of interference from other species could use the full range of conditions (biotic and abiotic) and resources in which it could survive and reproduce which is called its

1339: 1302: 3476:

Barker, J.S.F. 1983. Interspecific competition. In: Ashburner, M., Carson, H.L. and Thompson, jr., J.N. Ed. The genetics and biology of Drosophila. Academic Press, London, pp. 285-341.

438:

to explain how a population could jump from one niche to another that suited it, jump to an 'adaptive zone', made available by virtue of some modification, or possibly a change in the

995:

of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche, along with characteristics of the geographic template and the species that influence its potential to colonize. The

999:

of a species is the area it occupies in which environmental conditions are favorable, without restriction from barriers to disperse or colonize. A species will be confined to its

355:

Where three species eat some of the same prey, a statistical picture of each niche shows overlap in resource usage between three species, indicating where competition is strongest.

1083:, which lives specifically in old growth forests. Other plants and animals, called generalists, are not as particular and can survive in a range of conditions, for example the 876:

The random selection of niches in largely empty niche space will often automatically lead to segregation (this mechanism is of particular importance in the second paradigm).

30: 3367:

Rohde, K. 1980. Warum sind ökologische Nischen begrenzt? Zwischenartlicher Antagonismus oder innerartlicher Zusammenhalt? Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 33, 98-102.

147:. In other words, the niche is the sum of the habitat requirements and behaviors that allow a species to persist and produce offspring. For example, the behavior of the 3902: 3859: 3798: 3585: 2662: 2201: 259:

Beaver dam in Hesse, Germany. By exploiting the resource of available wood, beavers are affecting biotic conditions for other species that live within their habitat.

367:

using the 'resource-utilization' niche employing histograms to describe the 'frequency of occurrence' as a function of a Hutchinson coordinate. So, for instance, a

3979: 6344: 5597: 3989: 3295:

Holt, Robert D.; Grover, James; Tilman, David (November 1994). "Simple Rules for Interspecific Dominance in Systems with Exploitative and Apparent Competition".

492:

The mathematical representation of a species' fundamental niche in ecological space, and its subsequent projection back into geographic space, is the domain of

442:, that made the adaptive zone available to it without a discontinuity in its way of life because the group was 'pre-adapted' to the new ecological opportunity. 726:

lizards appear to coexist because each uses different parts of the forests as perch locations. This likely gives them access to different species of insects.

398:

category. For instance, the resource in the overlap region can be non-limiting, in which case there is no competition for this resource despite niche overlap.

3737:

Bastolla, U., Lässig, M., Manrubia, S.C., Valleriani, A. (August 2005). "Biodiversity in model ecosystems, I: coexistence conditions for competing species".

6488: 393:

overlap indicates competition can occur between all species. The resource-utilization approach postulates that not only can competition occur, but that it

222: 1210:. In Simon A. Levin; Stephen R. Carpenter; H. Charles J. Godfray; Ann P. Kinzig; Michel Loreau; Jonathan B. Losos; Brian Walker; David S. Wilcove (eds.). 291:(biotic variables) on local scales. Because of the narrow extent of focus, data sets characterizing Eltonian niches typically are in the form of detailed 6558: 3984: 243:

For instance there is the niche that is filled by birds of prey which eat small animals such as shrews and mice. In an oak wood this niche is filled by

4094: 1571:"Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels" 6095: 2784:

Caldwell, Janalee P; Vitt, Laurie J (1999). "Dietary asymmetry in leaf litter frogs and lizards in a transitional northern Amazonian rain forest".

1904: 778:

For example, in a dry year, dry-adapted plants will tend to be most limited by other dry-adapted plants. This can help them to coexist through a

1003:

when confronting biotic interactions or abiotic barriers that limit dispersal, a more narrow subset of its larger fundamental geographic range.

631:

Over time, two competing species can either coexist, through niche differentiation or other means, or compete until one species becomes locally

6568: 6296: 1142: 2592:

Pacala, Stephen W.; Roughgarden, Jonathan (February 1985). "Population Experiments with the Anolis Lizards of St. Maarten and St. Eustatius".

2576: 717:

Although "resource" generally refers to food, species can partition other non-consumable objects, such as parts of the habitat. For example,

116:

The ecological meaning of niche comes from the meaning of niche as a recess in a wall for a statue, which itself is probably derived from the

4053: 3952: 3717: 1759: 1184: 6573: 1071:, no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time. The parameters of a realized niche are described by the 50:

is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition. It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of

6130: 5304: 3448:

Wiens, J.A. 1974. Habitat heterogeneity and avian community structure in North American grasslands. American Midland Naturalist 91,195-213.

2558: 469:

Once a niche is left vacant, other organisms can fill that position. For example, the niche that was left vacant by the extinction of the

6761: 4886: 1352:

A Townsend Peterson; Jorge Soberôn; RG Pearson; Roger P Anderson; Enrique Martínez-Meyer; Miguel Nakamura; Miguel Bastos Araújo (2011).

1239:

A Townsend Peterson; Jorge Soberôn; RG Pearson; Roger P Anderson; Enrique Martínez-Meyer; Miguel Nakamura; Miguel Bastos Araújo (2011).

670:

Below is a list of ways that species can partition their niche. This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates several classic examples.

67:

the relative importance of particular environmental variables for a species may vary according to the geographic and biotic contexts".

6178: 3531:

Simkova, A., Gelnar, M. and Sasal, P. (2001). Aggregation of congeneric parasites (Monogenea: Dactylogyrus). Parasitology 123, 599-607.

2545: 288: 6514: 6337: 5590: 4474: 2828: 1659: 1332: 1292: 3910:

Pyke, G.H. (1982). "Local geographic distributions of bumblebees near Crested Butte, Colorado: competition and community structure".

5850: 4499: 3217: 2069: 2040: 1980: 1887: 1694: 1629: 1365: 1252: 1223: 1076: 1822: 136:

was probably the first to use it in a research program in 1917, in his paper "The niche relationships of the California Thrasher".

3402:

Kauffman, S.A. 1993. The origins of order. Self-organization and selection in evolution. Oxford University Press, New York Oxford.

3376:

Rohde, K. 2005a. Eine neue Ökologie. Aktuelle Probleme der evolutionären Ökologie. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 58, 420-426.

1471: 947:

Research using mathematical modelling is indeed demonstrating that predation can indeed stabilize lumps of very similar species.

5564: 6593: 6306: 6173: 5885: 3806:

Kronfeld-Schor, N., Dayan, T. (1999). "The dietary basis for temporal partitioning: food habits of coexisting Acomys species".

2214: 2089: 1137: 1117: 1068: 1032: 579: 454: 3494:

Rohde, K. 1991. Intra- and interspecific interactions in low density populations in resource-rich habitats. Oikos 60, 91-104.

100:

class, but there are exceptions. A premier example of a non-standard niche filling species is the flightless, ground-dwelling

6851: 6978: 6623: 751: 578:) refers to the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist. The 537:

The availability of the limiting resources (nitrogen and phosphorus in the above example) in the environment are equivalent.

1681:"Elton focused on the niche of a species as its functional role within the food chain and its impact upon the environment" 769:) occurs when species differ in their competitive abilities based on varying environmental conditions. For example, in the 255: 7024: 6578: 6330: 5583: 4484: 879:

Niches are segregated due to interspecific competition (this mechanism is of particular importance in the first paradigm).

493: 6456: 2714:

Strong, D.R.J. (1982). "Harmonious coexistence of hispine beetles on Heliconia in experimental and natural communities".

506: 5512: 526:

Contemporary niche theory provides three requirements that must be met in order for two species (consumers) to coexist:

3663:"The Influence of Interspecific Competition and Other Factors on the Distribution of the Barnacle Chthamalus Stellatus" 3430:

Andrewartha,H.G. and Birch, L.C. 1954. The distribution and abundance of animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

603: 6813: 5704: 5502: 3467:

Connell, J.H. 1980. Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past. Oikos 35, 131-138.

348:(resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species). 1714: 3421:

Rohde, K. 1977. A non-competitive mechanism responsible for restricting niches. Zoologischer Anzeiger 199, 164-172.

7164: 6878: 6598: 5802: 5699: 4950: 884: 799: 93: 746:

more generally). For example, trees could differentiate their niche if they are consumed by different species of

7149: 7059: 6671: 6563: 6421: 6406: 6401: 5792: 4985: 4945: 4910: 4522: 4101: 4078: 4046: 2489: 898: 104:

bird of New Zealand, which feeds on worms and other ground creatures, and lives its life in a mammal-like niche.

6818: 705:

can coexist when different species are differently limited by nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, and light. In the

304: 7049: 7044: 7014: 6281: 6163: 4265: 4074: 3056:

Grover, James P (1994). "Assembly Rules for Communities of Nutrient-Limited Plants and Specialist Herbivores".

2844:

MacArthur, Robert H. (October 1958). "Population Ecology of Some Warblers of Northeastern Coniferous Forests".

2575:

Joshua Anderson. "Interspecific Competition, Competitive Exclusion, and Niche Differentiation". Retrieved from

218: 701:

each species is limited by different resources, or differently able to capture resources. Different types of

635:. Several theories exist for how niche differentiation arises or evolves given these two possible outcomes. 6893: 6756: 6666: 6534: 6416: 6386: 6243: 6208: 5928: 5895: 5870: 5037: 4171: 3439:

Andrewartha, H.G. and Birch, L.C. 1984. The ecological web. University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London.

1112: 296:

factors, Eltonian niches can be useful in describing the overall response of a species to new environments.

3867:

Lawler, S.P., Morin, P.J. (1993). "Temporal overlap, competition, and priority effects in larval anurans".

3099:

Chesson, Peter; Kuang, Jessica J. (13 November 2008). "The interaction between predation and competition".

2577:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/interspecific-competition-competitive-exclusion-niche-differentiation.html

2380: 1523: 964: 7039: 6983: 6918: 6781: 6716: 6651: 6311: 6213: 6001: 5709: 5689: 5114: 4796: 4738: 4381: 3340: 1147: 812: 478: 435: 35: 3503:

Rohde, K. 1994. Niche restriction in parasites: proximate and ultimate causes. Parasitology 109, S69-S84.

2154:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" 987:

Graph depicting how a realized niche fits within a fundamental niche depending on varying abiotic factors

7154: 6943: 6888: 6751: 6736: 6519: 6476: 6466: 6461: 6218: 6198: 6054: 6044: 5986: 5981: 5817: 5669: 5199: 5174: 5154: 4494: 4235: 4165: 4145: 3896: 3853: 3792: 3579: 3151: 2656: 2195: 1935: 1127: 1056: 583: 345: 313: 281: 3662: 3485:

Kawano, K. 2002. Character displacement in giant rhinoceros beetles. American Naturalist 159, 255-271.

1035:. These experiments demonstrate how biotic and abiotic factors limit the distribution of an organism. 7069: 7034: 7029: 6953: 6948: 6903: 6801: 6771: 6766: 6618: 6481: 6471: 6016: 5855: 5644: 5419: 5229: 5179: 4990: 4960: 4831: 4791: 4753: 4401: 4039: 4004: 3817: 3756: 3612: 3249: 3108: 2511: 2439: 2322: 2104: 1072: 992: 910:

For a detailed discussion, especially of competition and reinforcement of reproductive barriers, see

426: 341: 336: 194: 129: 5575: 3345: 2546:

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/community-ecosystem-ecology/a/niches-competition

7119: 7094: 6958: 6928: 6873: 6786: 6676: 6661: 6608: 6441: 6376: 6258: 6188: 5719: 5554: 5507: 5497: 5334: 5204: 4915: 4905: 4826: 4768: 3941:"Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients: the elements of a predictive theory of competition" 831:

The other paradigm assumes that niche space is to a large degree vacant, i.e., that there are many

747: 710: 681: 620: 368: 325: 228:, defined a niche as follows: "The 'niche' of an animal means its place in the biotic environment, 148: 105: 6322: 2225:

On the logic of the relation between the niche and the corresponding geographic environment, see:

92:

The majority of species exist in a standard ecological niche, sharing behaviors, adaptations, and

7130: 7079: 7074: 6883: 6846: 6544: 6509: 6366: 6291: 6193: 6125: 6115: 6049: 5996: 5807: 5752: 5714: 5639: 5449: 5429: 5414: 5239: 5234: 5032: 4980: 4863: 4858: 4773: 4728: 4655: 4577: 4527: 4089: 4084: 3927: 3884: 3841: 3780: 3746: 3690: 3567: 3312: 3132: 3081: 3073: 2978: 2861: 2801: 2766: 2731: 2693: 2644: 2609: 2471: 2408: 1927: 1800: 1792: 1494: 543: 329: 198: 144: 139:

The Grinnellian niche concept embodies the idea that the niche of a species is determined by the

97: 86: 75: 51: 6588: 3209: 3203: 1014:) on Scotland's Isle of Cumbrae. In his experiments, Connell described the dominant features of 2749:

Leibold, M.A. (1995). "The niche concept revisited: mechanistic models and community context".

2676:

Hutchinson, G.E. (1959). "Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why are there so many kinds of animals?".

7019: 6988: 6776: 6603: 6411: 6276: 6253: 6110: 5991: 5767: 5679: 5664: 5649: 5629: 5434: 5314: 5169: 4836: 4562: 4250: 4240: 4199: 4020: 3948: 3940: 3833: 3772: 3713: 3682: 3640: 3277: 3213: 3184: 3124: 3035: 3017: 2970: 2952: 2911: 2903: 2824: 2527: 2463: 2455: 2400: 2358: 2340: 2291: 2183: 2120: 2065: 2036: 2032: 2025: 2020: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1960: 1883: 1755: 1739: 1690: 1655: 1625: 1600: 1551: 1543: 1361: 1328: 1288: 1248: 1219: 1180: 1122: 1060: 1052: 1007: 952: 821: 742:

Predator partitioning occurs when species are attacked differently by different predators (or

706: 470: 2057: 1877: 1649: 1619: 1353: 1240: 7159: 6973: 6746: 6628: 6613: 6549: 6529: 6446: 6436: 6431: 6396: 6228: 6168: 6039: 5840: 5782: 5694: 5654: 5544: 5159: 4733: 4343: 4306: 4191: 4161: 4012: 3919: 3876: 3825: 3764: 3674: 3630: 3620: 3559: 3390:

K. Rohde: Nonequilibrium Ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005b, 223 pp. auf

3350: 3304: 3267: 3257: 3174: 3166: 3116: 3065: 3025: 3009: 2960: 2942: 2895: 2853: 2793: 2758: 2723: 2685: 2636: 2601: 2519: 2447: 2392: 2348: 2330: 2281: 2243: 2173: 2165: 2112: 1919: 1837: 1784: 1747: 1684: 1590: 1582: 1535: 1486: 1449: 1324: 1316: 1207: 1048: 547: 486: 360: 190: 2269: 1284: 1276: 983: 518:

resources as well as the effects of coexisting consumers (e.g. competitors and predators).

7109: 6968: 6938: 6933: 6923: 6856: 6841: 6721: 6701: 6583: 6451: 6357: 6248: 6158: 6100: 6085: 5684: 5610: 5444: 5409: 4758: 4700: 4542: 4479: 4321: 4195: 1019: 689: 406: 174: 133: 2309:

Tingley, Reid; Vallinoto, Marcelo; Sequeira, Fernando; Kearney, Michael R. (2014-07-15).

2001:

Ecological concepts: the contribution of ecology to an understanding of the natural world

4877: 4008: 3969: 3821: 3760: 3616: 3253: 3236:

Angert, Amy L.; Huxman, Travis E.; Chesson, Peter; Venable, D. Lawrence (14 July 2009).

3112: 2515: 2443: 2326: 2228: 2108: 1845: 1744:

Beaver as Engineers: Influences on Biotic and Abiotic Characteristics of Drainage Basins

1443: 401: 7089: 6913: 6866: 6796: 6791: 6686: 6553: 6426: 6233: 6223: 6203: 6080: 6006: 5971: 5910: 5787: 5742: 5634: 5533: 5299: 5109: 4940: 4935: 4925: 4920: 4821: 4763: 4695: 4690: 4552: 4547: 4441: 4396: 4373: 4255: 4245: 4187: 3635: 3600: 3272: 3237: 3030: 2997: 2965: 2930: 2353: 2310: 2178: 2153: 1595: 1570: 1132: 1104: 948: 825: 779: 770: 364: 292: 17: 4016: 3205:

Biotic interactions in the tropics: their role in the maintenance of species diversity

1502: 7143: 7114: 6090: 6064: 6021: 6011: 5966: 5953: 5933: 5825: 5659: 5614: 5379: 5274: 5164: 5139: 5134: 5027: 4975: 4970: 4748: 4665: 4567: 4532: 4301: 3354: 2648: 2396: 1804: 1539: 832: 743: 702: 447: 117: 3845: 3784: 3601:"Self-organized similarity, the evolutionary emergence of groups of similar species" 3571: 3316: 3085: 2697: 2488:

Jessica Harwood, Douglas Wilkin (August, 2018). "Habitat and Niche". Retrieved from

2412: 2128: 1299:

The geographic range of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche

201:, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar 7099: 7084: 6741: 6711: 6656: 6539: 6504: 6381: 5880: 5424: 5404: 5369: 5364: 5354: 5349: 5329: 5309: 5219: 5189: 5149: 5129: 5119: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 4965: 4955: 4930: 4587: 4421: 4338: 4296: 4225: 4157: 3550:

Shmida, A., Ellner, S. (1984). "Coexistence of plant species with similar niches".

3136: 2982: 2475: 937: 850:

The following mechanisms for niche restriction and segregation have been proposed:

774: 463: 351: 82: 3974: 2523: 2116: 1416: 3202:

Gilbert, Gregory (2005). Burlesem, David; Pinard, Michelle; Hartley, Sue (eds.).

3152:"How specialised must natural enemies be to facilitate coexistence among plants?" 1775:

Armstrong, Robert A.; McGehee, Richard (February 1980). "Competitive Exclusion".

1751: 1175:. In Heams, Thomas; Huneman, Philippe; Lecointre, Guillaume; et al. (eds.). 6391: 6120: 5938: 5900: 5875: 5865: 5830: 5777: 5757: 5474: 5469: 5439: 5394: 5339: 5279: 5264: 5259: 5224: 5184: 5074: 5064: 5059: 4743: 4469: 4391: 4270: 4260: 4211: 4153: 3150:

Sedio, Brian E.; Ostling, Annette M.; Ris Lambers, Janneke Hille (August 2013).

1841: 1080: 685: 673: 619:

studies, controlled experiments (to determine the strength of competition), and

317: 101: 5528: 3768: 1742:; Pastor, John; Pinay, Gilles (1995). Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H. (eds.). 968:

Diagram representation of the effects of competitive exclusion on the barnacle

54:

and competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and when

7104: 6681: 6646: 6286: 6238: 6183: 6153: 6059: 5976: 5920: 5797: 5747: 5459: 5454: 5399: 5384: 5324: 5289: 5284: 5254: 5214: 5194: 5124: 5104: 4853: 4680: 4572: 4517: 4446: 4426: 4386: 4291: 4207: 4141: 4137: 2490:

https://www.ck12.org/biology/habitat-and-niche/lesson/Habitat-and-Niche-MS-LS/

2427: 1094: 1064: 929: 920: 607:

predicts that niche differentiation of any degree will result in coexistence.

439: 422: 3686: 3021: 2998:"Reduced plant competition among kin can be explained by Jensen's inequality" 2956: 2907: 2459: 2404: 2344: 2295: 1999:

Schoener, Thomas W. (1986). "The Ecological Niche". In Cherret, J. M. (ed.).

1547: 7009: 6963: 6691: 6135: 6105: 5905: 5860: 5835: 5772: 5762: 5737: 5729: 5674: 5374: 5359: 5344: 5294: 5269: 5010: 4811: 4723: 4605: 4537: 4509: 4416: 4230: 4219: 4215: 4183: 4149: 3808: 3625: 3262: 2335: 2247: 1453: 1084: 925: 808: 410: 244: 225: 182: 152: 3837: 3776: 3644: 3281: 3238:"Functional tradeoffs determine species coexistence via the storage effect" 3188: 3128: 3039: 2974: 2915: 2531: 2467: 2362: 2187: 2169: 2124: 1604: 1586: 1555: 972:

in the intertidal zone. The fundamental and realized geographic ranges of

38:

occupies an ecological niche: exploiting animal droppings as a food source.

4024: 3829: 1031:

was able to extend the lower edge of its realized niche in the absence of

7064: 6993: 6524: 6031: 5943: 5890: 5845: 5464: 5389: 5319: 5249: 5244: 5069: 5003: 4600: 4557: 4456: 4328: 4203: 4179: 3391: 3179: 2947: 2899: 1524:"Grinnellian and Eltonian niches and geographic distributions of species" 677: 473:

has been filled by other animals (in particular a small horse breed, the

236: 206: 63: 59: 55: 3120: 2996:

Simonsen, Anna K.; Chow, Theresa; Stinchcombe, John R. (December 2014).

2883: 2502:

Hardin, Garrett (29 April 1960). "The Competitive Exclusion Principle".

2451: 1905:"Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests" 7054: 6861: 6731: 6726: 6353: 6301: 5961: 5606: 5479: 5209: 5079: 4996: 4841: 4816: 4801: 4783: 4630: 4595: 4436: 4431: 4358: 4353: 4333: 4126: 4111: 4062: 3931: 3888: 3694: 3563: 3077: 2865: 2805: 2770: 2735: 2613: 1931: 1796: 1498: 1388: 1010:

analyzed the environmental factors that limit the range of a barnacle (

718: 632: 616: 559: 482: 248: 202: 159: 140: 71: 43: 3751: 3170: 3013: 2379:

MacDougall, Andrew S.; Gilbert, Benjamin; Levine, Jonathan M. (2009).

1575:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1569:

Van der Putten, Wim H.; Macel, Mirka; Visser, Marcel E. (2010-07-12).

5144: 4675: 4660: 4620: 4615: 4489: 4411: 4406: 4316: 3708:

Moseley, William; Perramond, Eric; Hapke, Holly; Laris, Paul (2014).

2286: 941: 276: 178: 3923: 3880: 3678: 2857: 2797: 2762: 2727: 2605: 2428:"Resource-use efficiency and plant invasion in low-resource systems" 1923: 1490: 1055:

variables. These factors may include descriptions of the organism's

976:

are represented by the dark blue and light blue bars, respectively.

582:

states that if two species with identical niches (ecological roles)

413:

in this tree exploits its host for nutrients and as a place to grow.

328:

hypervolume", where the dimensions are environmental conditions and

3308: 3069: 2689: 2640: 1788: 1172: 263:

Conceptually, the Eltonian niche introduces the idea of a species'

96:

similar to the other closely related species within the same broad

4806: 4705: 4637: 4625: 4363: 4311: 1079:, need specific habitats and surroundings to survive, such as the 982: 798: 723: 672: 590: 474: 400: 350: 303: 254: 186: 158: 29: 2270:"Linking modern coexistence theory and contemporary niche theory" 914:

Coexistence without niche differentiation: exceptions to the rule

485:

by humans often results in biological pollution by the exotic or

4685: 4670: 4610: 4286: 4175: 4131: 1879:

Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches

1686:

Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches

804: 344:(the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species), 309: 108:

can help explain island species and associated unfilled niches.

6326: 5579: 4035: 3386: 3384: 3382: 839:

However, the degree of host specificity varies strongly. Thus,

27:

Fit of a species living under specific environmental conditions

4464: 2627:

Armstrong, R.A., McGehee, R. (1980). "Competitive exclusion".

1738:

Pollock, Michael M.; Naiman, Robert J.; Erickson, Heather E.;

1445:

Determinate evolution in the color-pattern of the lady-beetles

1323:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. p. 1283:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. p. 2587: 2585: 2884:"Kin recognition in plants: a mysterious behaviour unsolved" 1023:

species and predation by a snail. By removing the competing

4348: 3995:

Walter, G.H. (May 1991). "What is resource partitioning?".

4031: 2311:"Realized niche shift during a global biological invasion" 1018:

niches and provided explanation for their distribution on

843:(Protista) infects numerous vertebrates including humans, 434:

The term "adaptive zone" was coined by the paleontologist

320:

with it, enabling it to exploit the nectar as a resource.

81:

The concept of ecological niche is central to ecological

1173:"The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies" 359:

Statistics were introduced into the Hutchinson niche by

3656: 3654: 2877: 2875: 1358:

Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49)

1315:

Mark V Lomolino; Brett R Riddle; James H Brown (2009).

1275:

Mark V Lomolino; Brett R Riddle; James H Brown (2009).

1245:

Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49)

714:

individuals will experience less competition for food.

3208:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 2559:"Niche differentiation and mechanisms of exploitation" 2268:

Letten, Andrew D.; Ke, Po-Ju; Fukami, Tadashi (2017).

639:

Current competition (The Ghost of Competition Present)

530:

The requirement niches of both consumers must overlap.

205:

independently of each other and resulted in the same

2426:

Funk, Jennifer L.; Vitousek, Peter M. (April 2007).

1472:"The niche-relationships of the California Thrasher" 1204:

Three variants of ecological niche are described by

648:

Via past extinctions (The Ghost of Competition Past)

7002: 6902: 6827: 6700: 6637: 6497: 6365: 6267: 6146: 6073: 6030: 5952: 5919: 5816: 5728: 5622: 5490: 5050: 5020: 4896: 4885: 4782: 4714: 4646: 4586: 4508: 4455: 4372: 4279: 4119: 4110: 3231: 3229: 2023:. In Evelyn Fox Keller; Elisabeth A. Lloyd (eds.). 1830:

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology

1277:"The geographic range as a reflection of the niche" 335:The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist 2931:"Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective" 2024: 1964: 1448:. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. 514:the impact of a given species on its environment. 2152:Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010). 1816: 1814: 1317:"Areography: Sizes, shapes and overlap of ranges" 1177:Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences 1075:of that species. Some plants and animals, called 1006:An early study on ecological niches conducted by 287:Eltonian niches focus on biotic interactions and 3712:. West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. p. 81. 1166: 1164: 1162: 316:is complementary to the shape of the flower and 247:, while in the open grassland it is occupied by 3605:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3242:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2315:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2003:. Cambridge: Blackwell Scientific Publications. 1994: 1992: 1715:"Niche conservatism: which niche matters most?" 1465: 1463: 241: 3947:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 117–141. 3710:An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography 1270: 1268: 1259:See also Chapter 2: Concepts of niches, pp. 7 74:in which a species lives and its accompanying 6338: 5591: 4047: 3599:Scheffer, Marten; van Nes, Egbert H. (2006). 3051: 3049: 2882:Biedrzycki, M. L.; Bais, H. P. (2010-08-08). 1876:Jonathan M. Chase; Mathew A. Leibold (2003). 1683:Jonathan M. Chase; Mathew A. Leibold (2003). 936:species coexistence, thus promoting the high 811:, can feed in slightly deeper water than the 589:As an example of niche partitioning, several 8: 3901:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3858:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3797:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3584:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2823:(1st ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. 2661:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2200:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2014: 2012: 2010: 1643: 1641: 754:represents a form of predator partitioning. 2709: 2707: 1882:. University of Chicago Press. p. 11. 1654:. University of Chicago Press. p. 64. 522:Coexistence under contemporary niche theory 466:grasslands, exhibit similar modes of life. 6559:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 6345: 6331: 6323: 5598: 5584: 5576: 4893: 4116: 4054: 4040: 4032: 2544:Khan Academy. "Niches & Competition". 1971:. University of California Press. p. 1689:. University of Chicago Press. p. 7. 1360:. Princeton University Press. p. 11. 1247:. Princeton University Press. p. 82. 1067:), and geographic range. According to the 932:, though this has not been demonstrated. 680:on a pond. Niche differentiation by size: 3943:. In Grace, James; Tilman, David (eds.). 3750: 3634: 3624: 3344: 3271: 3261: 3178: 3029: 2964: 2946: 2352: 2334: 2285: 2177: 2083: 2081: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1594: 1214:. Princeton University Press. pp. 3 1179:. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 547–586. 510:that could exist between the two groups. 128:. The term was coined by the naturalist 70:A Grinnellian niche is determined by the 6457:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 6096:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 2227:Smith, Barry; Varzi, Achille C. (1999). 1959:Rory Putman; Stephen D. Wratten (1984). 1383: 1381: 963: 185:, respectively. As another example, the 6489:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 2064:. Oxford University Press. p. 69. 1200: 1198: 1196: 1158: 892:Relative significance of the mechanisms 177:found in American and African deserts, 143:in which it lives and its accompanying 6297:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 3894: 3851: 3790: 3577: 3392:http://www.cambridge.org/9780521674553 2654: 2193: 1143:Unified neutral theory of biodiversity 885:reinforcement of reproductive barriers 2374: 2372: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2090:"The competitive exclusion principle" 1708: 1706: 1517: 1515: 235:Elton classified niches according to 7: 6312:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 5550: 2031:. Harvard University Press. p. 6762:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 5560: 1342:via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature. 1305:via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature. 1241:"Species-environment relationships" 803:Shorebirds with long legs and long 6515:Ecological effects of biodiversity 4475:Evolutionary developmental biology 2215:Glossary for the Nature of Alberta 1648:Elton, Charles Sutherland (2001). 940:often seen in many of the world's 25: 5851:Generalist and specialist species 4500:Post-transcriptional modification 3980:Niche restriction and segregation 3945:Perspectives on Plant Competition 2062:The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation 1063:, trophic position (place in the 1047:, of a niche represent different 828:as an explanation for evolution. 282:affect resource density over time 230:its relations to food and enemies 6574:Occupancy–abundance relationship 5559: 5549: 5540: 5539: 5527: 4876: 3355:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00315.x 2397:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01514.x 2027:Keywords in Evolutionary Biology 2021:"Niche: Historical perspectives" 1624:. Psychology Press. p. 76. 1540:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01107.x 1354:"Major themes in niche concepts" 1097: 815:at the water's edge (lower left) 6594:Relative abundance distribution 6307:Plant defense against herbivory 6174:Competitive exclusion principle 5886:Mesopredator release hypothesis 3990:Latitude-niche width hypothesis 2381:"Plant invasions and the niche" 1138:Phylogenetic niche conservatism 1118:Marginal distribution (biology) 1069:competitive exclusion principle 786:Competition-predation trade-off 580:competitive exclusion principle 455:competitive exclusion principle 384:of the niche correspond to the 324:The Hutchinsonian niche is an " 6179:Consumer–resource interactions 2935:Plant Signaling & Behavior 2929:Witzany, Günther (July 2006). 2888:Journal of Experimental Botany 1961:"§5.2 Parameters of the niche" 1746:. Springer. pp. 117–126. 1212:The Princeton Guide to Ecology 795:Segregation versus restriction 1: 7025:Biological data visualization 6852:Environmental niche modelling 6579:Population viability analysis 4017:10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80327-3 2524:10.1126/science.131.3409.1292 2117:10.1126/science.131.3409.1292 2058:"§4.2: The ecological theory" 1043:The different dimensions, or 6510:Density-dependent inhibition 1903:Robert H. MacArthur (1958). 1752:10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_12 1621:Fundamentals of Biogeography 997:fundamental geographic range 924:resources and high rates of 598:Detection and quantification 507:Lotka-Volterra relationships 239:activities ("food habits"): 6979:Liebig's law of the minimum 6814:Resource selection function 5705:Metabolic theory of ecology 3970:Concept of ecological niche 3661:Connell, Joseph H. (1961). 2019:James R. Griesemer (1994). 1842:10.1101/sqb.1957.022.01.039 1618:Richard J. Huggett (2004). 1206:Thomas W. Schoener (2009). 1171:Pocheville, Arnaud (2015). 767:temporal niche partitioning 763:Conditional differentiation 758:Conditional differentiation 7181: 6879:Niche apportionment models 6599:Relative species abundance 5803:Primary nutritional groups 5700:List of feeding behaviours 3769:10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.02.005 1421:Merriam-Webster Dictionary 1393:Oxford English Dictionary 960:Niche and Geographic Range 289:consumer–resource dynamics 7128: 7060:Ecosystem based fisheries 6672:Interspecific competition 6564:Minimum viable population 6422:Maximum sustainable yield 6407:Intraspecific competition 6402:Effective population size 6282:Anti-predator adaptations 5793:Photosynthetic efficiency 5521: 4986:Polymerase chain reaction 4946:Green fluorescent protein 4874: 4523:Earliest known life forms 4069: 2819:Grover, James P. (1997). 1821:Hutchinson, G.E. (1957). 1442:Johnson, Roswell (1910). 1001:realized geographic range 899:interspecific competition 752:Janzen–Connell hypothesis 662:difficult or impossible. 500:Contemporary niche theory 209:across all four islands. 7050:Ecological stoichiometry 7015:Alternative stable state 1470:Joseph Grinnell (1917). 219:Charles Sutherland Elton 6894:Ontogenetic niche shift 6757:Ideal free distribution 6667:Ecological facilitation 6417:Malthusian growth model 6387:Consumer-resource model 6244:Paradox of the plankton 6209:Energy systems language 5929:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 5896:Optimal foraging theory 5871:Heterotrophic nutrition 5038:species discovery curve 4166:Response to environment 3626:10.1073/pnas.0508024103 3297:The American Naturalist 3263:10.1073/pnas.0904512106 3058:The American Naturalist 2336:10.1073/pnas.1405766111 2248:10.1111/0029-4624.00151 2088:Garrett Hardin (1960). 2056:Dolph Schluter (2000). 1777:The American Naturalist 1713:oldenlab (2015-12-19). 1522:Soberón, Jorge (2007). 1454:10.5962/bhl.title.30902 1395:(subscription required) 1208:"§I.1 Ecological niche" 1113:Ontogenetic niche shift 887:”) (e.g., Rohde 2005b). 845:Enterobius vermicularis 690:rootless dwarf duckweed 604:Lotka–Volterra equation 151:is consistent with the 18:Ecological partitioning 7040:Ecological forecasting 6984:Marginal value theorem 6782:Landscape epidemiology 6717:Cross-boundary subsidy 6652:Biological interaction 6002:Microbial intelligence 5690:Green world hypothesis 5513:Plant morphology terms 5115:Biological engineering 4797:Biological interaction 3939:Tilman, David (1990). 2170:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 1587:10.1098/rstb.2010.0037 1148:Character displacement 1027:, Connell showed that 988: 980: 816: 813:semipalmated sandpiper 692: 479:non-indigenous species 436:George Gaylord Simpson 414: 356: 321: 260: 253: 193:are a rare example of 165: 145:behavioral adaptations 76:behavioral adaptations 39: 36:flightless dung beetle 7045:Ecological humanities 6944:Ecological energetics 6889:Niche differentiation 6752:Habitat fragmentation 6520:Ecological extinction 6467:Small population size 6219:Feed conversion ratio 6199:Ecological succession 6131:San Francisco Estuary 6045:Ecological efficiency 5987:Microbial cooperation 5200:Developmental biology 5175:Computational biology 5155:Cellular microbiology 4495:Mendelian inheritance 4407:Energy transformation 3975:Ontology of the niche 3830:10.1007/s004420050913 3002:Ecology and Evolution 2274:Ecological Monographs 1967:Principles of ecology 1128:Niche differentiation 1033:competitive exclusion 986: 967: 847:infects only humans. 802: 748:specialist herbivores 738:Predator partitioning 696:Resource partitioning 676: 564:niche differentiation 554:Niche differentiation 425:; this is termed the 404: 354: 314:purple-throated carib 307: 258: 162: 33: 7070:Evolutionary ecology 7035:Ecological footprint 7030:Ecological economics 6954:Ecological threshold 6949:Ecological indicator 6819:Source–sink dynamics 6772:Land change modeling 6767:Insular biogeography 6619:Species distribution 6358:Modelling ecosystems 6017:Microbial metabolism 5856:Intraguild predation 5645:Biogeochemical cycle 5611:Modelling ecosystems 5420:Reproductive biology 5305:Mathematical biology 5230:Evolutionary biology 5180:Conservation biology 4991:Two-hybrid screening 4961:Protein purification 4792:Biogeochemical cycle 4754:Internal environment 4402:Cellular respiration 2948:10.4161/psb.1.4.3163 2821:Resource competition 1823:"Concluding remarks" 1073:realized niche width 1012:Chthamalus stellatus 970:Chthamalus stellatus 807:, such as these two 657:Evolving differences 346:'niche partitioning' 337:G. Evelyn Hutchinson 195:convergent evolution 130:Roswell Hill Johnson 7120:Theoretical ecology 7095:Natural environment 6959:Ecosystem diversity 6929:Ecological collapse 6919:Bateman's principle 6874:Limiting similarity 6787:Landscape limnology 6609:Species homogeneity 6447:Population modeling 6442:Population dynamics 6259:Trophic state index 5205:Ecological genetics 4916:Gel electrophoresis 4906:Genetic engineering 4859:Population dynamics 4769:Reproductive system 4009:1991JThBi.150..137W 3822:1999Oecol.121..123K 3761:2005JThBi.235..521B 3617:2006PNAS..103.6230S 3254:2009PNAS..10611641A 3248:(28): 11641–11645. 3121:10.1038/nature07248 3113:2008Natur.456..235C 2678:American Naturalist 2629:American Naturalist 2565:. January 27, 2023. 2516:1960Sci...131.1292H 2510:(3409): 1292–1297. 2452:10.1038/nature05719 2444:2007Natur.446.1079F 2438:(7139): 1079–1081. 2327:2014PNAS..11110233T 2321:(28): 10233–10238. 2109:1960Sci...131.1292H 2103:(3409): 1292–1297. 1581:(1549): 2025–2034. 621:mathematical models 300:Hutchinsonian niche 149:California thrasher 106:Island biogeography 7131:Outline of ecology 7080:Industrial ecology 7075:Functional ecology 6939:Ecological deficit 6884:Niche construction 6847:Ecosystem engineer 6624:Species–area curve 6545:Introduced species 6360:: Other components 6292:Deimatic behaviour 6194:Ecological network 6126:North Pacific Gyre 6111:hydrothermal vents 6050:Ecological pyramid 5997:Microbial food web 5808:Primary production 5753:Foundation species 5534:Biology portal 5430:Structural biology 5415:Relational biology 5240:Generative biology 5235:Freshwater biology 5033:mark and recapture 4981:Restriction enzyme 4774:Respiratory system 4729:Circulatory system 4656:Epidermis (botany) 3564:10.1007/BF00044894 2900:10.1093/jxb/erq250 2385:Journal of Ecology 1740:Johnston, Carol A. 1719:Olden Research Lab 989: 981: 817: 765:(sometimes called 693: 576:niche partitioning 415: 390:standard deviation 357: 322: 261: 199:adaptive radiation 166: 87:niche construction 40: 7165:Landscape ecology 7137: 7136: 7020:Balance of nature 6777:Landscape ecology 6662:Community ecology 6604:Species diversity 6540:Indicator species 6535:Gradient analysis 6412:Logistic function 6320: 6319: 6277:Animal coloration 6254:Trophic mutualism 5992:Microbial ecology 5783:Photoheterotrophs 5768:Myco-heterotrophy 5680:Ecosystem ecology 5665:Carrying capacity 5630:Abiotic component 5573: 5572: 5435:Synthetic biology 5315:Molecular biology 5170:Cognitive biology 5046: 5045: 4872: 4871: 4563:Natural selection 4344:Organic compounds 4241:Scientific method 4231:Emergent property 4172:Hierarchy of life 4142:Energy processing 3954:978-0-323-14810-8 3719:978-1-4051-8932-3 3171:10.1111/ele.12130 3107:(7219): 235–238. 3014:10.1002/ece3.1312 3008:(23): 4454–4466. 2894:(15): 4123–4128. 1761:978-1-4613-5714-8 1534:(12): 1115–1123. 1423:. Merriam-Webster 1186:978-94-017-9014-7 1123:Fitness landscape 1008:Joseph H. Connell 870:Niche segregation 854:Niche restriction 822:natural selection 707:Galapagos Islands 568:niche segregation 419:fundamental niche 308:The shape of the 112:Grinnellian niche 94:functional traits 16:(Redirected from 7172: 7150:Ecological niche 6837:Ecological niche 6809:selection theory 6629:Umbrella species 6614:Species richness 6550:Invasive species 6530:Flagship species 6437:Population cycle 6432:Overexploitation 6397:Ecological yield 6347: 6340: 6333: 6324: 6229:Mesotrophic soil 6169:Climax community 6101:Marine food webs 6040:Biomagnification 5841:Chemoorganotroph 5695:Keystone species 5655:Biotic component 5600: 5593: 5586: 5577: 5563: 5562: 5553: 5552: 5543: 5542: 5536: 5532: 5531: 5508:Ecological terms 5160:Chemical biology 5021:Field techniques 4894: 4880: 4739:Digestive system 4734:Endocrine system 4307:Chemical element 4266:Biology journals 4162:Self-replication 4117: 4056: 4049: 4042: 4033: 4028: 3958: 3935: 3906: 3900: 3892: 3863: 3857: 3849: 3802: 3796: 3788: 3754: 3724: 3723: 3705: 3699: 3698: 3658: 3649: 3648: 3638: 3628: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3583: 3575: 3547: 3541: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3523: 3520: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3501: 3495: 3492: 3486: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3440: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3422: 3419: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3348: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3275: 3265: 3233: 3224: 3223: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3182: 3156: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3053: 3044: 3043: 3033: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2968: 2950: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2879: 2870: 2869: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2746: 2740: 2739: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2684:(870): 145–159. 2673: 2667: 2666: 2660: 2652: 2624: 2618: 2617: 2589: 2580: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2555: 2549: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2499: 2493: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2376: 2367: 2366: 2356: 2338: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2289: 2287:10.1002/ecm.1242 2265: 2252: 2251: 2233: 2223: 2217: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2199: 2191: 2181: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2140: 2139: 2133: 2127:. Archived from 2094: 2085: 2076: 2075: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2030: 2016: 2005: 2004: 1996: 1987: 1986: 1970: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1947: 1946: 1940: 1934:. Archived from 1909: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1873: 1860: 1859: 1857: 1856: 1850: 1844:. Archived from 1827: 1818: 1809: 1808: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1710: 1701: 1700: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1645: 1636: 1635: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1598: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1519: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1501:. Archived from 1476: 1467: 1458: 1457: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1413: 1407: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1396: 1385: 1376: 1375: 1349: 1343: 1340:Viewable on line 1338: 1312: 1306: 1303:Viewable on line 1301: 1272: 1263: 1258: 1236: 1230: 1229: 1202: 1191: 1190: 1168: 1107: 1102: 1101: 1100: 993:geographic range 979: 682:greater duckweed 572:niche separation 487:invasive species 361:Robert MacArthur 191:Greater Antilles 21: 7180: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7170: 7169: 7140: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7124: 7110:Systems ecology 6998: 6969:Extinction debt 6934:Ecological debt 6924:Bioluminescence 6905: 6898: 6867:marine habitats 6842:Ecological trap 6823: 6703: 6696: 6639: 6633: 6589:Rapoport's rule 6584:Priority effect 6525:Endemic species 6493: 6452:Population size 6368: 6361: 6351: 6321: 6316: 6269: 6263: 6249:Trophic cascade 6159:Bioaccumulation 6142: 6069: 6026: 5948: 5915: 5812: 5724: 5685:Ecosystem model 5618: 5604: 5574: 5569: 5526: 5525: 5517: 5503:Botanical terms 5486: 5485: 5484: 5445:Systems biology 5410:Quantum biology 5042: 5016: 4898: 4888: 4881: 4868: 4778: 4759:Muscular system 4716: 4710: 4701:Vascular tissue 4648: 4642: 4582: 4543:History of life 4504: 4485:Gene regulation 4480:Gene expression 4451: 4368: 4275: 4106: 4065: 4060: 3994: 3966: 3961: 3955: 3938: 3924:10.2307/1938970 3909: 3893: 3881:10.2307/1939512 3866: 3850: 3805: 3789: 3736: 3732: 3730:Further reading 3727: 3720: 3707: 3706: 3702: 3679:10.2307/1933500 3660: 3659: 3652: 3598: 3597: 3593: 3576: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3346:10.1.1.361.3087 3333:Ecology Letters 3329: 3328: 3324: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3235: 3234: 3227: 3220: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3165:(8): 995–1003. 3159:Ecology Letters 3154: 3149: 3148: 3144: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3055: 3054: 3047: 2995: 2994: 2990: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2881: 2880: 2873: 2858:10.2307/1931600 2843: 2842: 2838: 2831: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2798:10.2307/3546419 2783: 2782: 2778: 2763:10.2307/1938141 2748: 2747: 2743: 2728:10.2307/1937243 2713: 2712: 2705: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2653: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2606:10.2307/1941313 2591: 2590: 2583: 2574: 2570: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2543: 2539: 2501: 2500: 2496: 2487: 2483: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2378: 2377: 2370: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2267: 2266: 2255: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2213: 2209: 2192: 2158:Biology Letters 2151: 2150: 2146: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2092: 2087: 2086: 2079: 2072: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2043: 2018: 2017: 2008: 1998: 1997: 1990: 1983: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1924:10.2307/1931600 1907: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1875: 1874: 1863: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1825: 1820: 1819: 1812: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1762: 1737: 1736: 1732: 1723: 1721: 1712: 1711: 1704: 1697: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1647: 1646: 1639: 1632: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1528:Ecology Letters 1521: 1520: 1513: 1505: 1491:10.2307/4072271 1474: 1469: 1468: 1461: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1426: 1424: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1387: 1386: 1379: 1368: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1335: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1295: 1274: 1273: 1266: 1255: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1226: 1205: 1203: 1194: 1187: 1170: 1169: 1160: 1156: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1093: 1041: 1020:intertidal zone 977: 962: 916: 894: 797: 788: 760: 744:natural enemies 740: 698: 686:lesser duckweed 668: 659: 650: 641: 629: 600: 566:(also known as 556: 524: 502: 494:niche modelling 407:parasitic plant 342:'niche breadth' 302: 215: 189:lizards of the 134:Joseph Grinnell 114: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7178: 7176: 7168: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7142: 7141: 7135: 7134: 7129: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7090:Microecosystem 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7006: 7004: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6991: 6989:Thorson's rule 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6914:Assembly rules 6910: 6908: 6900: 6899: 6897: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6833: 6831: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6799: 6797:Patch dynamics 6794: 6792:Metapopulation 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6708: 6706: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6689: 6687:Storage effect 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6643: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6569:Neutral theory 6566: 6561: 6556: 6554:Native species 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6501: 6499: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6491: 6486: 6485: 6484: 6479: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6427:Overpopulation 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6373: 6371: 6363: 6362: 6352: 6350: 6349: 6342: 6335: 6327: 6318: 6317: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6273: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6234:Nutrient cycle 6231: 6226: 6224:Feeding frenzy 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6204:Energy quality 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6164:Cascade effect 6161: 6156: 6150: 6148: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6036: 6034: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6007:Microbial loop 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5972:Lithoautotroph 5969: 5964: 5958: 5956: 5954:Microorganisms 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5925: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5911:Prey switching 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5822: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5788:Photosynthesis 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5743:Chemosynthesis 5740: 5734: 5732: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5635:Abiotic stress 5632: 5626: 5624: 5620: 5619: 5605: 5603: 5602: 5595: 5588: 5580: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5567: 5557: 5547: 5537: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5487: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5300:Marine biology 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5110:Bioinformatics 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5056: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5048: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5024: 5022: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5014: 5007: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4941:DNA microarray 4938: 4936:DNA sequencing 4933: 4928: 4926:Centrifugation 4923: 4921:Chromatography 4918: 4913: 4911:Transformation 4908: 4902: 4900: 4891: 4883: 4882: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4822:Climate change 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4788: 4786: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4764:Nervous system 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4720: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4696:Vascular plant 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4652: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4603: 4598: 4592: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4553:Microevolution 4550: 4548:Macroevolution 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4514: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4461: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4450: 4449: 4444: 4442:Photosynthesis 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4397:Cell signaling 4394: 4389: 4384: 4378: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4325: 4324: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4283: 4281: 4280:Chemical basis 4277: 4276: 4274: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4246:Taxonomic rank 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4226:Reductionistic 4223: 4169: 4134: 4129: 4123: 4121: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4104: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4087: 4082: 4073:Introduction ( 4070: 4067: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4030: 4029: 3997:J. Theor. Biol 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3965: 3964:External links 3962: 3960: 3959: 3953: 3936: 3918:(2): 555–573. 3907: 3875:(1): 174–182. 3864: 3803: 3739:J. Theor. Biol 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3718: 3700: 3673:(4): 710–723. 3650: 3611:(16): 6230–5. 3591: 3542: 3533: 3524: 3515: 3505: 3496: 3487: 3478: 3469: 3460: 3450: 3441: 3432: 3423: 3414: 3404: 3395: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3339:(2): 302–315. 3322: 3309:10.1086/285705 3303:(5): 741–771. 3287: 3225: 3218: 3194: 3142: 3091: 3070:10.1086/285603 3045: 2988: 2941:(4): 169–178. 2921: 2871: 2852:(4): 599–619. 2836: 2830:978-0412749308 2829: 2811: 2792:(3): 383–397. 2776: 2757:(5): 1371–82. 2741: 2722:(4): 1039–49. 2703: 2690:10.1086/282070 2668: 2641:10.1086/283553 2635:(2): 151–170. 2619: 2600:(1): 129–141. 2581: 2568: 2563:Ecology Center 2550: 2537: 2494: 2481: 2418: 2391:(4): 609–615. 2368: 2301: 2280:(2): 161–177. 2253: 2242:(2): 214–238. 2218: 2207: 2164:(4): 544–547. 2144: 2077: 2070: 2048: 2041: 2006: 1988: 1981: 1951: 1918:(4): 599–619. 1895: 1888: 1861: 1836:(2): 415–427. 1810: 1789:10.1086/283553 1783:(2): 151–170. 1767: 1760: 1730: 1702: 1695: 1674: 1661:978-0226206394 1660: 1651:Animal Ecology 1637: 1630: 1610: 1561: 1511: 1508:on 2016-03-10. 1485:(4): 427–433. 1459: 1434: 1408: 1377: 1366: 1344: 1334:978-0878934867 1333: 1307: 1294:978-0878934867 1293: 1264: 1253: 1231: 1224: 1192: 1185: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1133:Overpopulation 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1109: 1108: 1105:Ecology portal 1092: 1089: 1040: 1037: 961: 958: 949:Willow warbler 921:hispine beetle 915: 912: 893: 890: 889: 888: 880: 877: 867: 866: 862: 824:introduced by 796: 793: 787: 784: 780:storage effect 771:Sonoran Desert 759: 756: 739: 736: 697: 694: 667: 664: 658: 655: 649: 646: 640: 637: 628: 625: 599: 596: 555: 552: 539: 538: 535: 531: 523: 520: 501: 498: 481:to non-native 428:realized niche 365:Richard Levins 301: 298: 214: 213:Eltonian niche 211: 113: 110: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7177: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7132: 7127: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7115:Urban ecology 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7007: 7005: 7001: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6974:Kleiber's law 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6901: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6868: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6832: 6830: 6826: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6747:Foster's rule 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6496: 6490: 6487: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6374: 6372: 6370: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6348: 6343: 6341: 6336: 6334: 6329: 6328: 6325: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6145: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6066: 6065:Trophic level 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6035: 6033: 6029: 6023: 6022:Phage ecology 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6012:Microbial mat 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5967:Bacteriophage 5965: 5963: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5955: 5951: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5934:Decomposition 5932: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5881:Mesopredators 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5826:Apex predator 5824: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5727: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5660:Biotic stress 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5601: 5596: 5594: 5589: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5578: 5566: 5558: 5556: 5548: 5546: 5538: 5535: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5520: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5380:Phylogenetics 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5275:Human biology 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5165:Chronobiology 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5140:Biotechnology 5138: 5136: 5135:Biostatistics 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5028:Belt transect 5026: 5025: 5023: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5008: 5006: 5005: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4976:Southern blot 4974: 4972: 4971:Northern blot 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4884: 4879: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4749:Immune system 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4666:Ground tissue 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4568:Phylogenetics 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4533:Genetic drift 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4507: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4339:Nucleic acids 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4302:Chemical bond 4300: 4298: 4297:Carbohydrates 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4170: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4109: 4103: 4100: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4052: 4050: 4045: 4043: 4038: 4037: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4003:(2): 137–43. 4002: 3998: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3804: 3800: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3753: 3752:q-bio/0502021 3748: 3745:(4): 521–30. 3744: 3740: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3721: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3701: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3657: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3595: 3592: 3587: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3543: 3537: 3534: 3528: 3525: 3519: 3516: 3509: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3491: 3488: 3482: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3464: 3461: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3442: 3436: 3433: 3427: 3424: 3418: 3415: 3408: 3405: 3399: 3396: 3393: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3370: 3364: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3219:9780521609852 3215: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3180:2027.42/99082 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3146: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3064:(2): 258–82. 3063: 3059: 3052: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2925: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2840: 2837: 2832: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2742: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2669: 2664: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2498: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2482: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2305: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2230: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2211: 2208: 2203: 2197: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2148: 2145: 2134:on 2017-11-17 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071:9780191588327 2067: 2063: 2059: 2052: 2049: 2044: 2042:9780674503137 2038: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2022: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2002: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1982:9780520052543 1978: 1974: 1969: 1968: 1962: 1955: 1952: 1941:on 2014-05-19 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1906: 1899: 1896: 1891: 1889:9780226101804 1885: 1881: 1880: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1851:on 2007-09-26 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1824: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1771: 1768: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1734: 1731: 1720: 1716: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1696:9780226101804 1692: 1688: 1687: 1678: 1675: 1663: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631:9780415323475 1627: 1623: 1622: 1614: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1565: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1438: 1435: 1422: 1418: 1412: 1409: 1397: 1390: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373:construction. 1369: 1367:9780691136882 1363: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1311: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1262: 1256: 1254:9780691136882 1250: 1246: 1242: 1235: 1232: 1227: 1225:9781400833023 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1153: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1110: 1106: 1095: 1090: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1025:B. balanoides 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1002: 998: 994: 985: 975: 971: 966: 959: 957: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 933: 931: 927: 922: 913: 911: 908: 905: 900: 891: 886: 881: 878: 875: 874: 873: 871: 863: 859: 858: 857: 855: 851: 848: 846: 842: 836: 834: 833:vacant niches 829: 827: 823: 814: 810: 806: 801: 794: 792: 785: 783: 781: 776: 775:annual plants 772: 768: 764: 757: 755: 753: 749: 745: 737: 735: 731: 727: 725: 720: 715: 712: 708: 704: 703:phytoplankton 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 665: 663: 656: 654: 647: 645: 638: 636: 634: 626: 624: 622: 618: 612: 608: 605: 597: 595: 592: 587: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 553: 551: 549: 545: 536: 532: 529: 528: 527: 521: 519: 515: 511: 508: 499: 497: 495: 490: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 467: 465: 460: 456: 451: 449: 448:vacant niches 443: 441: 437: 432: 430: 429: 424: 420: 412: 408: 403: 399: 396: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 370: 366: 362: 353: 349: 347: 343: 338: 333: 331: 327: 326:n-dimensional 319: 315: 311: 306: 299: 297: 294: 293:field studies 290: 285: 283: 278: 273: 269: 266: 257: 252: 250: 246: 240: 238: 233: 231: 227: 224: 220: 212: 210: 208: 204: 203:microhabitats 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 170: 161: 157: 154: 150: 146: 142: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 118:Middle French 111: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 90: 88: 84: 79: 77: 73: 68: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 37: 32: 19: 7155:Biogeography 7100:Regime shift 7085:Macroecology 6836: 6828: 6806: 6802: 6742:Edge effects 6712:Biogeography 6657:Commensalism 6505:Biodiversity 6382:Allee effect 6121:kelp forests 6074:Example webs 5939:Detritivores 5778:Organotrophs 5758:Kinetotrophs 5710:Productivity 5425:Sociobiology 5405:Protistology 5370:Photobiology 5365:Pharmacology 5355:Parasitology 5350:Paleontology 5330:Neuroscience 5310:Microbiology 5220:Epidemiology 5190:Cytogenetics 5150:Cell biology 5130:Biosemiotics 5120:Biomechanics 5100:Biogeography 5095:Biochemistry 5090:Bacteriology 5085:Astrobiology 5009: 5002: 4995: 4966:Western blot 4956:Enzyme assay 4931:Cell culture 4846: 4832:Conservation 4717:and function 4715:Animal form 4649:and function 4422:Fermentation 4200:Organ system 4158:Reproduction 4136:Properties ( 4000: 3996: 3985:Vacant niche 3944: 3915: 3911: 3897:cite journal 3872: 3868: 3854:cite journal 3816:(1): 123–8. 3813: 3807: 3793:cite journal 3742: 3738: 3709: 3703: 3670: 3666: 3608: 3604: 3594: 3580:cite journal 3555: 3551: 3545: 3536: 3527: 3518: 3508: 3499: 3490: 3481: 3472: 3463: 3453: 3444: 3435: 3426: 3417: 3407: 3398: 3372: 3363: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3245: 3241: 3204: 3197: 3162: 3158: 3145: 3104: 3100: 3094: 3061: 3057: 3005: 3001: 2991: 2938: 2934: 2924: 2891: 2887: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2820: 2814: 2789: 2785: 2779: 2754: 2750: 2744: 2719: 2715: 2681: 2677: 2671: 2657:cite journal 2632: 2628: 2622: 2597: 2593: 2571: 2562: 2553: 2540: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2484: 2435: 2431: 2421: 2388: 2384: 2318: 2314: 2304: 2277: 2273: 2239: 2235: 2221: 2210: 2196:cite journal 2161: 2157: 2147: 2136:. Retrieved 2129:the original 2100: 2096: 2061: 2051: 2026: 2000: 1966: 1954: 1943:. Retrieved 1936:the original 1915: 1911: 1898: 1878: 1853:. Retrieved 1846:the original 1833: 1829: 1780: 1776: 1770: 1743: 1733: 1722:. Retrieved 1718: 1685: 1677: 1665:. Retrieved 1650: 1620: 1613: 1578: 1574: 1564: 1531: 1527: 1503:the original 1482: 1478: 1444: 1437: 1425:. Retrieved 1420: 1411: 1399:. Retrieved 1392: 1371: 1357: 1347: 1321:Biogeography 1320: 1310: 1298: 1281:Biogeography 1280: 1260: 1244: 1234: 1215: 1211: 1176: 1057:life history 1044: 1042: 1029:C. stellatus 1028: 1024: 1016:C. stellatus 1015: 1011: 1005: 1000: 996: 990: 974:C. stellatus 973: 969: 946: 938:biodiversity 934: 917: 909: 903: 895: 869: 868: 853: 852: 849: 844: 840: 837: 830: 818: 789: 766: 762: 761: 741: 732: 728: 716: 699: 669: 660: 651: 642: 630: 613: 609: 601: 588: 575: 571: 567: 563: 557: 540: 525: 516: 512: 503: 491: 468: 464:Great Plains 458: 452: 444: 433: 427: 418: 416: 394: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 358: 334: 323: 286: 271: 267: 264: 262: 242: 234: 229: 216: 171: 167: 138: 125: 121: 115: 91: 83:biogeography 80: 69: 47: 41: 6737:Disturbance 6640:interaction 6462:Recruitment 6392:Depensation 6184:Copiotrophs 6055:Energy flow 5977:Lithotrophy 5921:Decomposers 5901:Planktivore 5876:Insectivore 5866:Heterotroph 5831:Bacterivore 5798:Phototrophs 5748:Chemotrophs 5720:Restoration 5670:Competition 5565:WikiProject 5475:Xenobiology 5470:Virophysics 5440:Systematics 5395:Primatology 5340:Ornithology 5280:Ichthyology 5265:Herpetology 5260:Gerontology 5225:Epigenetics 5185:Cryobiology 5075:Agrostology 5065:Aerobiology 5060:Abiogenesis 4897:Laboratory 4744:Homeostasis 4647:Plant form 4470:Epigenetics 4392:Cell theory 4292:Amino acids 4271:Common name 4261:Peer review 4236:Mechanistic 2229:"The Niche" 1081:spotted owl 1077:specialists 978:(in Basque) 627:Development 7144:Categories 7105:Sexecology 6682:Parasitism 6647:Antibiosis 6482:Resistance 6477:Resilience 6367:Population 6287:Camouflage 6239:Oligotroph 6154:Ascendency 6116:intertidal 6106:cold seeps 6060:Food chain 5861:Herbivores 5836:Carnivores 5763:Mixotrophs 5738:Autotrophs 5617:components 5491:Glossaries 5460:Toxicology 5455:Teratology 5400:Proteomics 5385:Physiology 5325:Neontology 5290:Lipidology 5285:Immunology 5255:Geobiology 5215:Embryology 5195:Dendrology 5125:Biophysics 5105:Biogeology 4899:techniques 4854:Microbiome 4681:Plant stem 4573:Speciation 4518:Adaptation 4447:Prokaryote 4427:Metabolism 4387:Cell cycle 4218:> 4214:> 4210:> 4208:Population 4206:> 4202:> 4198:> 4194:> 4190:> 4186:> 4182:> 4178:> 4154:Regulation 4138:Adaptation 3513:1077-1088. 2138:2014-05-19 1945:2014-05-18 1855:2007-07-24 1724:2021-02-20 1427:30 October 1154:References 1065:food chain 1039:Parameters 953:chiffchaff 930:parasitism 904:Drosophila 841:Toxoplasma 809:dowitchers 617:ecological 544:introduced 440:food chain 405:As a hemi- 245:tawny owls 175:succulents 124:, meaning 7010:Allometry 6964:Emergence 6692:Symbiosis 6677:Mutualism 6472:Stability 6377:Abundance 6189:Dominance 6147:Processes 6136:tide pool 6032:Food webs 5906:Predation 5891:Omnivores 5818:Consumers 5773:Mycotroph 5730:Producers 5675:Ecosystem 5640:Behaviour 5375:Phycology 5360:Pathology 5345:Osteology 5335:Nutrition 5295:Mammalogy 5270:Histology 5011:in silico 4887:Research 4864:Resources 4837:Ecosystem 4827:Community 4812:Biosphere 4724:Breathing 4606:Eukaryote 4588:Diversity 4538:Gene flow 4510:Evolution 4417:Eukaryote 4329:Molecules 4220:Biosphere 4216:Ecosystem 4212:Community 4184:Organelle 4079:Evolution 3809:Oecologia 3687:1939-9170 3558:: 29–55. 3552:Vegetatio 3341:CiteSeerX 3022:2045-7758 2957:1559-2324 2908:0022-0957 2649:222329963 2460:1476-4687 2405:1365-2745 2345:0027-8424 2296:1557-7015 1805:222329963 1548:1461-0248 1085:dandelion 1045:plot axes 926:predation 411:mistletoe 330:resources 318:coevolved 272:effect on 226:ecologist 207:ecomorphs 183:euphorbia 164:exposure. 153:chaparral 98:taxonomic 64:pathogens 60:parasites 56:predators 52:resources 7065:Endolith 6994:Xerosere 6906:networks 6722:Ecocline 6268:Defense, 5944:Detritus 5846:Foraging 5715:Resource 5545:Category 5465:Virology 5450:Taxonomy 5390:Pomology 5320:Mycology 5250:Genomics 5245:Genetics 5070:Agronomy 5051:Branches 5004:in vitro 4601:Bacteria 4578:Taxonomy 4558:Mutation 4528:Function 4457:Genetics 4359:Proteins 4204:Organism 4180:Molecule 4164:), 4120:Overview 4095:Timeline 4075:Genetics 3846:20184760 3838:28307881 3785:14121298 3777:15935170 3645:16585519 3572:22861648 3458:397-436. 3317:84641233 3282:19571002 3189:23773378 3129:19005554 3086:84342279 3040:25512842 2975:19521482 2916:20696656 2698:26401739 2532:14399717 2468:17460672 2413:49234920 2363:24982155 2188:20106856 2125:14399717 1605:20513711 1556:17850335 1091:See also 719:warblers 678:Duckweed 548:invasive 483:habitats 374:position 369:Gaussian 312:of this 265:response 249:kestrels 237:foraging 217:In 1927 7160:Habitat 7055:Ecopath 6862:Habitat 6732:Ecotype 6727:Ecotone 6704:ecology 6702:Spatial 6638:Species 6498:Species 6369:ecology 6354:Ecology 6302:Mimicry 6270:counter 6214:f-ratio 5962:Archaea 5650:Biomass 5623:General 5615:Trophic 5607:Ecology 5555:Commons 5498:Biology 5480:Zoology 5210:Ecology 5080:Anatomy 4997:in vivo 4889:methods 4842:Habitat 4817:Climate 4802:Biomass 4784:Ecology 4631:Protist 4596:Archaea 4490:Genomes 4437:Mitosis 4432:Meiosis 4354:Polymer 4334:Monomer 4322:Quantum 4156:, 4152:, 4148:, 4144:, 4140:, 4127:Science 4112:Biology 4090:History 4085:Outline 4063:Biology 4025:1890851 4005:Bibcode 3932:1938970 3912:Ecology 3889:1939512 3869:Ecology 3818:Bibcode 3757:Bibcode 3695:1933500 3667:Ecology 3636:1458860 3613:Bibcode 3273:2710622 3250:Bibcode 3210:141–164 3137:4342701 3109:Bibcode 3078:2462643 3031:4264895 2983:5036781 2966:2634023 2866:1931600 2846:Ecology 2806:3546419 2771:1938141 2751:Ecology 2736:1937243 2716:Ecology 2614:1941313 2594:Ecology 2512:Bibcode 2504:Science 2476:4430919 2440:Bibcode 2354:4104887 2323:Bibcode 2179:2936204 2105:Bibcode 2097:Science 1932:1931600 1912:Ecology 1797:2460592 1667:May 14, 1596:2880132 1499:4072271 1479:The Auk 1417:"Niche" 1389:"Niche" 1061:habitat 1053:abiotic 773:, some 711:finches 633:extinct 584:compete 560:ecology 423:adapted 277:beavers 223:British 141:habitat 126:to nest 72:habitat 44:ecology 6086:Rivers 5982:Marine 5145:Botany 4951:vector 4807:Biomes 4676:Phloem 4661:Flower 4621:Fungus 4616:Animal 4412:Enzyme 4317:Matter 4312:Lipids 4251:Theory 4192:Tissue 4146:Growth 4023: 3951: 3930: 3887: 3844: 3836: 3783: 3775: 3716: 3693: 3685: 3643: 3633: 3570: 3343: 3315: 3280: 3270: 3216: 3187: 3135: 3127: 3101:Nature 3084: 3076: 3038: 3028: 3020: 2981: 2973: 2963: 2955: 2914: 2906: 2864: 2827: 2804: 2769: 2734: 2696: 2647: 2612: 2530: 2474: 2466: 2458: 2432:Nature 2411: 2403: 2361: 2351: 2343: 2294: 2186: 2176: 2123: 2068: 2039: 1979: 1930: 1886: 1803: 1795: 1758: 1693: 1658: 1628: 1603: 1593: 1554: 1546: 1497: 1401:8 June 1364: 1331: 1291: 1251: 1222: 1183: 1049:biotic 942:biomes 861:1983). 826:Darwin 542:(i.e. 471:tarpan 409:, the 179:cactus 122:nicher 7003:Other 6904:Other 6857:Guild 6829:Niche 6081:Lakes 4847:niche 4706:Xylem 4691:Shoot 4638:Virus 4626:Plant 4374:Cells 4364:Water 4287:Atoms 4196:Organ 4150:Order 4102:Index 3928:JSTOR 3885:JSTOR 3842:S2CID 3781:S2CID 3747:arXiv 3691:JSTOR 3568:S2CID 3313:S2CID 3155:(PDF) 3133:S2CID 3082:S2CID 3074:JSTOR 2979:S2CID 2862:JSTOR 2802:JSTOR 2786:Oikos 2767:JSTOR 2732:JSTOR 2694:S2CID 2645:S2CID 2610:JSTOR 2472:S2CID 2409:S2CID 2232:(PDF) 2132:(PDF) 2093:(PDF) 1939:(PDF) 1928:JSTOR 1908:(PDF) 1849:(PDF) 1826:(PDF) 1801:S2CID 1793:JSTOR 1506:(PDF) 1495:JSTOR 1475:(PDF) 805:bills 724:anole 666:Types 591:anole 475:konik 378:width 187:anole 120:word 48:niche 6091:Soil 4686:Root 4671:Leaf 4611:Alga 4188:Cell 4176:Atom 4132:Life 4021:PMID 3949:ISBN 3903:link 3860:link 3834:PMID 3799:link 3773:PMID 3714:ISBN 3683:ISSN 3641:PMID 3586:link 3412:N.J. 3278:PMID 3214:ISBN 3185:PMID 3125:PMID 3036:PMID 3018:ISSN 2971:PMID 2953:ISSN 2912:PMID 2904:ISSN 2825:ISBN 2663:link 2528:PMID 2464:PMID 2456:ISSN 2401:ISSN 2359:PMID 2341:ISSN 2292:ISSN 2236:Noûs 2202:link 2184:PMID 2121:PMID 2066:ISBN 2037:ISBN 1977:ISBN 1884:ISBN 1756:ISBN 1691:ISBN 1669:2014 1656:ISBN 1626:ISBN 1601:PMID 1552:PMID 1544:ISSN 1429:2014 1403:2013 1362:ISBN 1329:ISBN 1289:ISBN 1249:ISBN 1220:ISBN 1181:ISBN 1051:and 991:The 951:and 928:and 688:and 602:The 574:and 546:and 459:some 395:does 386:mean 382:form 380:and 363:and 310:bill 270:and 221:, a 181:and 132:but 102:kiwi 62:and 46:, a 34:The 4465:DNA 4382:ATP 4256:Law 4013:doi 4001:150 3920:doi 3877:doi 3826:doi 3814:121 3765:doi 3743:235 3675:doi 3631:PMC 3621:doi 3609:103 3560:doi 3351:doi 3305:doi 3301:144 3268:PMC 3258:doi 3246:106 3175:hdl 3167:doi 3117:doi 3105:456 3066:doi 3062:143 3026:PMC 3010:doi 2961:PMC 2943:doi 2896:doi 2854:doi 2794:doi 2759:doi 2724:doi 2686:doi 2637:doi 2633:115 2602:doi 2520:doi 2508:131 2448:doi 2436:446 2393:doi 2349:PMC 2331:doi 2319:111 2282:doi 2244:doi 2174:PMC 2166:doi 2113:doi 2101:131 2033:239 1973:107 1920:doi 1838:doi 1785:doi 1781:115 1748:doi 1591:PMC 1583:doi 1579:365 1536:doi 1487:doi 1450:doi 1325:579 558:In 450:). 232:." 42:In 7146:: 6552:/ 6356:: 5613:: 5609:: 4349:pH 4077:, 4019:. 4011:. 3999:. 3926:. 3916:63 3914:. 3899:}} 3895:{{ 3883:. 3873:74 3871:. 3856:}} 3852:{{ 3840:. 3832:. 3824:. 3812:. 3795:}} 3791:{{ 3779:. 3771:. 3763:. 3755:. 3741:. 3689:. 3681:. 3671:42 3669:. 3665:. 3653:^ 3639:. 3629:. 3619:. 3607:. 3603:. 3582:}} 3578:{{ 3566:. 3556:58 3554:. 3381:^ 3349:. 3335:. 3311:. 3299:. 3276:. 3266:. 3256:. 3244:. 3240:. 3228:^ 3212:. 3183:. 3173:. 3163:16 3161:. 3157:. 3131:. 3123:. 3115:. 3103:. 3080:. 3072:. 3060:. 3048:^ 3034:. 3024:. 3016:. 3004:. 3000:. 2977:. 2969:. 2959:. 2951:. 2937:. 2933:. 2910:. 2902:. 2892:61 2890:. 2886:. 2874:^ 2860:. 2850:39 2848:. 2800:. 2790:84 2788:. 2765:. 2755:76 2753:. 2730:. 2720:63 2718:. 2706:^ 2692:. 2682:93 2680:. 2659:}} 2655:{{ 2643:. 2631:. 2608:. 2598:66 2596:. 2584:^ 2561:. 2526:. 2518:. 2506:. 2470:. 2462:. 2454:. 2446:. 2434:. 2430:. 2407:. 2399:. 2389:97 2387:. 2383:. 2371:^ 2357:. 2347:. 2339:. 2329:. 2317:. 2313:. 2290:. 2278:87 2276:. 2272:. 2256:^ 2240:33 2238:. 2234:. 2198:}} 2194:{{ 2182:. 2172:. 2160:. 2156:. 2119:. 2111:. 2099:. 2095:. 2080:^ 2060:. 2035:. 2009:^ 1991:^ 1975:. 1963:. 1926:. 1916:39 1914:. 1910:. 1864:^ 1834:22 1832:. 1828:. 1813:^ 1799:. 1791:. 1779:. 1754:. 1717:. 1705:^ 1640:^ 1599:. 1589:. 1577:. 1573:. 1550:. 1542:. 1532:10 1530:. 1526:. 1514:^ 1493:. 1483:34 1481:. 1477:. 1462:^ 1419:. 1391:. 1380:^ 1370:. 1356:. 1327:. 1319:. 1297:. 1287:. 1285:73 1279:. 1267:^ 1261:ff 1243:. 1218:. 1216:ff 1195:^ 1161:^ 1087:. 1059:, 944:. 872:: 856:: 782:. 709:, 684:, 570:, 562:, 496:. 489:. 457:, 388:, 376:, 284:. 268:to 197:, 89:. 58:, 6807:K 6805:/ 6803:r 6346:e 6339:t 6332:v 5599:e 5592:t 5585:v 4222:) 4174:( 4168:) 4160:( 4081:) 4055:e 4048:t 4041:v 4027:. 4015:: 4007:: 3957:. 3934:. 3922:: 3905:) 3891:. 3879:: 3862:) 3848:. 3828:: 3820:: 3801:) 3787:. 3767:: 3759:: 3749:: 3722:. 3697:. 3677:: 3647:. 3623:: 3615:: 3588:) 3574:. 3562:: 3357:. 3353:: 3337:5 3319:. 3307:: 3284:. 3260:: 3252:: 3222:. 3191:. 3177:: 3169:: 3139:. 3119:: 3111:: 3088:. 3068:: 3042:. 3012:: 3006:4 2985:. 2945:: 2939:1 2918:. 2898:: 2868:. 2856:: 2833:. 2808:. 2796:: 2773:. 2761:: 2738:. 2726:: 2700:. 2688:: 2665:) 2651:. 2639:: 2616:. 2604:: 2579:. 2548:. 2534:. 2522:: 2514:: 2492:. 2478:. 2450:: 2442:: 2415:. 2395:: 2365:. 2333:: 2325:: 2298:. 2284:: 2250:. 2246:: 2204:) 2190:. 2168:: 2162:6 2141:. 2115:: 2107:: 2074:. 2045:. 1985:. 1948:. 1922:: 1892:. 1858:. 1840:: 1807:. 1787:: 1764:. 1750:: 1727:. 1699:. 1671:. 1634:. 1607:. 1585:: 1558:. 1538:: 1489:: 1456:. 1452:: 1431:. 1405:. 1337:. 1257:. 1228:. 1189:. 883:“ 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.