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phenomenological value. Holists maintain that certain unique properties are attributed to the abiotic or biotic entity, such as an ecosystem, and how these characteristics are not intrinsically applicable to its separate components. Analysis of just the parts are insufficient in obtaining knowledge of the entire unit. On the other spectrum, reductionists argue that these parts are independent of each other, and that knowledge of the components provide understanding of the composite entity. This approach, however, has been criticised, as the entity does not just denote just the unity of its aggregates but rather a synthesis between the whole and its parts.
124:(1859). He had first expressed ecology as an interchangeable term constituted within an area of biology and an aspect of âphysiology of relationshipsâ. In the English translation by Stauffer, Haeckel defined ecology as âthe whole science of the relationship of organism to environment including, in the broad sense, all the âconditions for existence.'â This neologism was used to distinguish studies conducted on the field, as opposed to those conducted within the laboratory. He expanded upon this definition of ecology after considering the Darwinian theory of evolution and natural selection.
307:, for example, details mass extinction as pivotal and a precursor to major radiations. Those with non-anthropocentric views interpret the death of dinosaurs as a preservation of biodiversity and principle to anthropocentric values. As ecology is closely entwined with ethics, understanding environmental approaches require understanding the world, which is the role of ecology and environmental ethics. The main issue is to also incorporate natural entities in its ethical concern, which involves conscious, sentient, living and existing beings.
357:
population decreases. However, Weiner argues that, in reality, prey population still maintains their oscillating cycles, even if the predator is removed, and is an inaccurate representation of natural phenomena. Criticism in how idealisation is inherent within modelling and application of this is methodologically deficient. They also maintain that mathematical modelling within ecology is an oversimplification of reality, and a misrepresentation or insufficient representation of the biological system.
241:
methodology is sufficient to obtain knowledge about reality. Naturalists who support this perspective view mental, biological, and social operations as physical entities. For example, considering a pebble or a human being, these existences occur concurrently within the same space and time. Applications of these scientific methods remain relevant and sufficient as it explains the spatiotemporal processes that physical entities undergo as spatiotemporal beings.
226:(1996). The first definition does not consider nature as 'artifacts of human manipulationâ, and nature, in this sense, comprises those not of artificial origins. The second definition establishes natures as those not of supernatural conceptions, which includes artefacts of human manipulation in this case. However, there is confusion of meaning as both connotations are used interchangeably in its application in different contexts by different ecologists.
336:
incorporate environmental decisions of people within a group holistically. The model helps represent the values of each members, and the weightings of respect in the matrix. The model will then deliver the final result. In the case of conflict about proceedings or how to represent certain quantities, the model may be limited in that it would be deemed not of use. Furthermore, the number of idealisations in the model are also presented.
215:
results from the âgeneration of varietyâ as a means to produce change. Certain entities that interact with their environments create evolution through survival, and it is the production of changes that shape ecological systems. This evolutionary process is central to ecology and biology. There are three main concerns that ecologists generally concur with: naturalism, scientific realism, and the comprehensive scope of ecology.
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271:'s (1956) and Vito Volterra's (1926) logistic models that are known as Lotka-Volterra equations. Empiricism establishes the need for observational and empirical testing. An obvious consequence of this paradigm is the presence and usage of pluralistic methodology, although there has yet to be a unifying model adequate for application in ecology, and neither has there yet to establish a pluralistic theory as well.
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debate, there are some central issues that philosophers of ecology consider when examining the role and purpose of what ecologists practice. For example, this field considers the 'nature of nature', the methodological and conceptual issues surrounding ecological research, and the problems associated with these studies within its contextual environment.
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182:. Romantic ecology, also called aesthetic or literary ecology, was a counter-movement to the increasingly anthropocentric and mechanistic ideology presented in modern Europe and America of the nineteenth century, especially during the Industrial Revolution. Some notable figures of this period include
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The process of mathematical modelling presents distinction between reality and theory, or more specifically, the application of models against the genuine phenomena these models aim to represent. Critics of the employment of mathematical models within ecology question its use and the extent of their
214:
Defining contemporary ecology requires looking at certain fundamental principles, namely principles of system and evolution. System entails understanding the processes, of which interconnected sections establish a holistic identity, not separated or predictable from their components. Evolution
96:
Ecology is considered as a relatively new scientific discipline, having been acknowledged as a formal scientific field in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Although an established definition of ecology has yet to be presented, there are some commonalities in the questions proposed by
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The holism-reductionism debate encompasses ontological, methodological and epistemic concerns. Common questions involve examining whether the means to understanding an object is through critical analyses of its constituents (reductionism) or âcontextualisationâ of its components (holism) to retain
72:
The aim of the philosophy of ecology is to clarify and critique the 'first principlesâ, which are the fundamental assumptions present in science and the natural sciences. Although there has yet to be a consensus about what presupposes philosophy of ecology, and the definition for ecology is up for
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The purpose of these models and the differences in normative models and scientific models is that the differences in their standards entail different applications. These models aid in illustrating decision making outcomes, and also aid in tackling group decisions. For example, mathematical models
205:
Finally, scientific ecology, or commonly known as ecology, addresses central concerns, such as understanding the role of the ecologists and what they study, and the types of methodology and conceptual issues that surround the development of these studies and what type of problem this may present.
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There is yet to be a defined explanation of naturalism within philosophy of ecology, however, its current usage connotes the idea that underlines a system containing a reality subsumed by nature, independent of the âsupernaturalâ world or existence. Naturalism, asserts the notion that scientific
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models is to track the predator and prey interaction and their population cycles. The usual pattern maintains that the predator population follows the prey population fluctuations. For example, as prey population increase, so does the predator, and likewise in prey population decrease, predator
331:
In ecology, complicated biological interactions require explanation, which is where the models are used to investigate hypotheses. For example, identification and explanations of certain organisms and population abundance is essential for understanding the role of ecology and biodiversity.
290:
of humans. A common belief amongst environmental philosophy is the view that biological entities are morally valuable and independent of human standards. Within this field, there is the shared assumption that environmental issues are prominently anthropogenic, and that this stems from an
197:
Political ecology, also known as axiological or values-based ecology, considers the socio-political implications surrounding the ecological landscape. Some fundamental questions political ecologists ask generally focus on the ethics between nature and society. American environmentalist
332:
Applications of equations provide an inclination towards a prediction, or a model to suggest an answer for these questions that come up. Mathematical model in particular also provide contextual supporting information regarding factors on a wider, more global scale as well.
319:. There are mainly two types of models used to explore the relationship between applications of mathematics and practice within ecology. The first are descriptive models, which details single-species population growth, for example, and multi-species models like
285:
Environmental ethics emerged in the 1970s in response to traditional anthropocentrism. It studies the moral implications between social and environmental interactions, prompted from concerns of environmental degradation, and challenged the ethical
100:
Ecology was considered as âthe science of the economy habits,â according to
Stauffer, and was proponent in understanding the external interrelations between organisms. It was recognised formally as a field of science in 1866 by German zoologist
327:
host-parasitoid model. These models explain behavioural activity through the idealisation of the intended target. The second type are normative models, which describe the current state of variables and how certain variables should behave.
202:(1886-1948), affirm that ethics should be extended to encompass the land and biotic communities as well, rather than pertaining exclusively to individuals. In this sense, political ecology can be denoted as a form of environmental ethics.
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and its views on humans being the central entity, governed by the belief that value in the non-human world is to serve human interest. Non-anthropocentrism dictates that non-human world retains value and does not serve to benefit human
138:
There is yet to be an established consensus amongst philosophers about the exact definition of ecology, however, there are commonalities in the research agendas that helps differentiate this discipline from other natural sciences.
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Application of simple or complex models are also up for debate. There is concern regarding the model results, wherein complexities of a system are not able to be replicated or adequately captured with a complicated model.
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Philosophy addresses the questions that make up ecological studies, and presents a different perspective into the history of ecology, environmental ethics in ecological science, and the application of mathematical models.
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within scientific ecology such methodologies remain necessary and relevant in their role for establishing ecological theory as a guide. Methodology employed under rationalist approaches became pronounced in the 1920s by
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A main concern in environmental ethics is anthropogenically induced mass extinction within the biosphere. The attempt to interpret it non-anthropocentrically is vital to the foundations of environmental ethics.
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relevance, prompted by an imbalance in investigative procedure and theoretical propositions. According to Weiner (1995), deterministic models have been ineffectual within ecology. The
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models, Weiner argues, have not yielded testable predictions. In cases where theoretical models within ecology produced testable predictions, they have been refuted.
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The basis in rejecting anthropocentrism is to refute the belief that non-human entities are not worthy of value.
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65:, for example, as it attempts to answer metaphysical, epistemic and moral issues surrounding
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Anthropogenic degradation of the environment dictates a necessity for environmental ethics.
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Mathematical models play a role in questioning the issues presented in ecology and
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Living entities possess an identity that expresses their relatedness.
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1472:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
1296:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
1135:Robbins, Paul, 1967- (2012).
1000:The Review of English Studies
951:10.1080/14767430.2016.1265878
913:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
702:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
3343:Normalization process theory
2900:Philosophy of social science
1872:10.1016/0304-3800(88)90070-1
1771:10.1017/cbo9780511720154.009
1680:10.1016/0304-3800(94)90056-6
1610:10.5840/enviroethics19879112
1192:Journal of Political Ecology
1122:10.13110/criticism.55.2.0299
1106:10.13110/criticism.55.2.0299
2273:Hypothetico-deductive model
2248:Deductive-nomological model
2233:Constructivist epistemology
1757:Cooper, Gregory J. (2003).
1642:, American Cancer Society,
939:Journal of Critical Realism
596:10.3390/philosophies3020016
577:Brenner, Joseph E. (2018).
520:, American Cancer Society,
4342:
2966:construction of technology
740:, North-Holland: 285â299,
368:
278:
233:
131:
89:
4252:
3653:
3553:
3498:Politicization of science
2727:
2334:Semantic view of theories
2253:Epistemological anarchism
2190:dependent and independent
1317:Ferre, Frederick (1996).
413:Circles of Sustainability
259:Rationalism vs empiricism
45:, which is a subfield of
2905:Philosophy of technology
2076:Intertheoretic reduction
2065:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
2042:Functional contextualism
1292:Sarkar, Sahotra (2016),
909:Papineau, David (2016),
698:Sarkar, Sahotra (2016),
323:predator-prey models or
3856:international relations
2561:Philosophers of science
2339:Scientific essentialism
2288:Model-dependent realism
2223:Constructive empiricism
2116:Evidence-based practice
1711:10.1057/9781137331977_4
1648:10.1038/npg.els.0003607
1515:10.5751/ES-03020-140222
1384:10.1023/A:1001716624350
1012:10.1093/res/XLV.178.260
837:10.5751/ES-05434-180312
670:Haeckel, Ernst (1866).
493:Sustainable development
236:Naturalism (philosophy)
41:is a concept under the
4183:Quantum social science
2978:Sociology of knowledge
2644:Alfred North Whitehead
2634:Charles Sanders Peirce
1825:The Journal of Ecology
1581:: CS1 maint: others (
1470:"Environmental Ethics"
1252:Leopold, Aldo (1987).
803:: CS1 maint: others (
682:10.5962/bhl.title.3953
423:Dialectical naturalism
250:Holism vs reductionism
35:
4220:Other categorizations
4073:International studies
4058:History of technology
3993:Communication studies
3876:public administration
3545:Transition management
3535:Technology assessment
3503:Regulation of science
3478:Evidence-based policy
3363:Sociotechnical system
3212:Traditional knowledge
3092:Psychology of science
3065:Mapping controversies
2971:shaping of technology
2930:Social constructivism
2895:Philosophy of science
2852:History of technology
2743:Philosophy portal
2494:Hard and soft science
2489:Faith and rationality
2358:Scientific skepticism
2138:Scientific Revolution
1921:Philosophy of science
1417:. Cham, Switzerland.
1043:The Wordsworth Circle
767:Philosophy of ecology
734:Philosophy of Ecology
676:. Berlin: G. Reimer.
433:Ecological psychology
132:Further information:
43:philosophy of science
39:Philosophy of ecology
33:
18:Ecological philosophy
4053:Historical sociology
3450:Women in engineering
3296:Financial technology
3276:Digital anthropology
3045:Criticism of science
2958:Actorânetwork theory
2920:Religion and science
2812:Economics of science
2469:Criticism of science
2344:Scientific formalism
2228:Constructive realism
2133:Scientific pluralism
2106:Problem of induction
1860:Ecological Modelling
1765:. pp. 234â275.
1672:Ecological Modelling
1598:Environmental Ethics
317:conservation biology
281:Environmental ethics
275:Environmental ethics
210:Contemporary ecology
67:environmental ethics
27:Branch of philosophy
4233:Geisteswissenschaft
4227:Behavioral sciences
4153:Political sociology
4068:Information science
4013:Development studies
3291:Engineering studies
3261:Cyborg anthropology
3050:Demarcation problem
2935:Social epistemology
2536:Rhetoric of science
2474:Descriptive science
2218:Confirmation holism
2111:Scientific evidence
2071:Inductive reasoning
2000:Demarcation problem
1502:Ecology and Society
1188:"Political Ecology"
1055:10.1086/TWC24042952
824:Ecology and Society
458:Information ecology
352:The purpose of the
311:Mathematical models
192:Ralph Waldo Emerson
69:and public policy.
4288:Society portal
3775:auxiliary sciences
3571:History of science
3488:Funding of science
3358:Skunkworks project
3055:Double hermeneutic
2840:History of science
2755:Science portal
2684:Carl Gustav Hempel
2639:Wilhelm Windelband
2526:Questionable cause
2349:Scientific realism
2170:Underdetermination
2005:Empirical evidence
1995:Creative synthesis
1372:Acta Biotheoretica
1205:10.2458/v1i1.21154
453:Industrial ecology
371:Outline of ecology
184:William Wordsworth
180:scientific ecology
92:History of ecology
36:
4308:
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4148:Political economy
4143:Political ecology
3998:Community studies
3988:Cognitive science
3951:Interdisciplinary
3851:Political science
3613:
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3540:Technology policy
3271:Dematerialization
3080:black swan events
2762:
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2516:Normative science
2373:Uniformitarianism
2128:Scientific method
2022:Explanatory power
488:Spiritual ecology
478:Political ecology
473:Normative science
463:Landscape ecology
190:(1838-1914), and
176:political ecology
121:Origin of Species
16:(Redirected from
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4008:Cultural studies
3983:Business studies
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3585:
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3513:Right to science
3493:Horizon scanning
3468:Academic freedom
3368:Technical change
3229:Women in science
3224:Unity of science
3005:Strong programme
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2714:Bas van Fraassen
2669:Hans Reichenbach
2649:Bertrand Russell
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2175:Unity of science
1968:Commensurability
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418:Cultural ecology
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164:anthropocentrism
128:Defining ecology
118:and his work in
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4129:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:Philosophies
4091:
4089:
4088:Media studies
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4063:Human ecology
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3973:Anthrozoology
3971:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3898:developmental
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3871:public policy
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3845:
3842:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3822:legal systems
3820:
3818:
3817:legal history
3815:
3813:
3812:jurisprudence
3810:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3709:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3636:
3634:
3629:
3627:
3622:
3621:
3618:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3581:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3378:Technoscience
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3348:Media studies
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3286:Early adopter
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Co-production
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3243:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3105:communication
3103:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3087:Pseudoscience
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3035:Boundary-work
3033:
3031:
3030:Bibliometrics
3028:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2940:Transhumanism
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2785:
2783:
2778:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2674:Rudolf Carnap
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:Auguste Comte
2607:
2606:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Francis Bacon
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2509:Pseudoscience
2507:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2368:Structuralism
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2330:Received view
2328:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2238:Contextualism
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1796:
1782:
1780:9780511720154
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1730:
1722:
1720:9781137331977
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1666:
1663:
1659:
1657:9780470015902
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1424:9783030116361
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1313:
1310:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1258:
1257:
1248:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1230:9781138794337
1226:
1222:
1215:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1146:9781119953340
1142:
1138:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
994:
991:
986:
979:
977:
973:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
933:
931:
927:
916:
912:
905:
903:
901:
897:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
865:
862:
857:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
829:
825:
821:
814:
811:
806:
800:
792:
788:
784:
782:9780080930756
778:
774:
769:
768:
760:
757:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
724:
722:
720:
716:
705:
701:
694:
692:
688:
683:
679:
675:
674:
666:
663:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
615:
613:
611:
609:
607:
603:
597:
592:
588:
584:
580:
573:
571:
567:
562:
555:
553:
551:
549:
547:
545:
541:
537:
535:9780470015902
531:
527:
523:
519:
512:
510:
506:
499:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
448:Ecopsychology
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
405:
400:
394:
389:
386:
375:
372:
364:
362:
358:
355:
350:
348:
339:
337:
333:
329:
326:
322:
318:
310:
308:
306:
300:
298:
294:
289:
288:positionality
282:
274:
272:
270:
265:
258:
256:
249:
244:
242:
237:
229:
227:
225:
221:
216:
209:
207:
203:
201:
195:
193:
189:
186:(1770-1862),
185:
181:
177:
169:
165:
161:
158:
154:
151:
148:
145:
144:
143:
140:
135:
127:
125:
123:
122:
117:
112:
110:
109:
104:
103:Ernst Haeckel
98:
93:
85:
80:
78:
74:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
4297:
4273:
4261:
4231:
4038:Food studies
3978:Area studies
3731:mathematical
3726:econometrics
3684:Anthropology
3593:Associations
3428:criticism of
3338:Leapfrogging
3321:linear model
3207:Team science
3197:Scientocracy
3120:Neo-colonial
2870:Anthropocene
2719:Larry Laudan
2699:Imre Lakatos
2654:Otto Neurath
2629:Karl Pearson
2619:Pierre Duhem
2591:Isaac Newton
2521:Protoscience
2479:Epistemology
2353:Anti-realism
2351: /
2332: /
2323: /
2309: /
2307:Reductionism
2305: /
2278:Inductionism
2258:Evolutionism
2063:
1950:a posteriori
1949:
1945:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1828:
1824:
1784:. Retrieved
1762:
1702:
1696:
1671:
1665:
1639:
1604:(1): 21â44.
1601:
1597:
1591:
1550:
1505:
1501:
1478:, retrieved
1473:
1463:
1414:
1408:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1340:
1336:
1318:
1312:
1302:, retrieved
1297:
1255:
1247:
1220:
1214:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1136:
1130:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1049:(1): 36â40.
1046:
1042:
1036:
1003:
999:
993:
984:
942:
938:
919:, retrieved
914:
911:"Naturalism"
874:
870:
864:
827:
823:
813:
766:
759:
749:, retrieved
737:
733:
708:, retrieved
703:
672:
665:
624:
620:
586:
583:Philosophies
582:
560:
517:
359:
351:
343:
334:
330:
314:
305:Paleontology
301:
296:
284:
269:Alfred Lotka
262:
253:
239:
223:
218:Philosopher
217:
213:
204:
200:Aldo Leopold
196:
173:
141:
137:
119:
113:
106:
99:
97:ecologists.
95:
75:
71:
63:epistemology
38:
37:
4299:Wikiversity
4190:Social work
4078:Linguistics
4003:Criminology
3920:criminology
3903:personality
3861:comparative
3839:Linguistics
3832:private law
3689:archaeology
3438:theories of
3423:and society
3419:Technology
3413:transitions
3403:determinism
3398:convergence
3373:Technocracy
3155:controversy
3141:Scientific
3125:post-normal
3070:Metascience
3040:Consilience
3025:Antiscience
2890:Neo-Luddism
2885:Fuzzy logic
2709:Ian Hacking
2694:Thomas Kuhn
2679:Karl Popper
2659:C. D. Broad
2576:Roger Bacon
2504:Non-science
2446:Linguistics
2426:Archaeology
2321:Rationalism
2311:Determinism
2298:Physicalism
2263:Fallibilism
2213:Coherentism
2143:Testability
2096:Observation
2091:Objectivity
2052:alternative
1983:Correlation
1973:Consilience
1866:(1): 5â31.
1737:|work=
264:Rationalism
245:Methodology
55:metaphysics
4315:Categories
4244:Humanities
4178:historical
4111:psychology
4083:Management
3925:demography
3883:Psychology
3866:philosophy
3827:public law
3758:integrated
3576:Technology
3528:science of
3523:history of
3408:revolution
3316:disruptive
3306:Innovation
3301:Hype cycle
3246:Technology
3217:ecological
3190:skepticism
3180:misconduct
3165:enterprise
2983:scientific
2910:Positivism
2880:Empiricism
2862:Philosophy
2596:David Hume
2569:Precursors
2451:Psychology
2431:Economicsâ
2325:Empiricism
2316:Pragmatism
2303:Positivism
2293:Naturalism
2163:scientific
2047:Hypothesis
2010:Experiment
1786:2019-06-11
1560:026261149X
1525:10535/5490
1480:2019-05-28
1433:1091029069
1304:2019-05-12
1267:0195053052
921:2019-05-28
847:10535/9166
751:2019-05-28
710:2019-05-28
500:References
340:Criticisms
230:Naturalism
157:naturalism
90:See also:
81:Background
47:philosophy
4122:Planning
4101:economics
4018:Education
3915:Sociology
3893:cognitive
3844:semiotics
3795:political
3753:technical
3738:Geography
3711:Economics
3483:Factor 10
3311:diffusion
3150:consensus
3145:community
3110:education
2950:Sociology
2925:Scientism
2804:Economics
2436:Geography
2404:Chemistry
2363:Scientism
2158:ladenness
1978:Construct
1956:Causality
1880:0304-3800
1805:ignored (
1795:cite book
1739:ignored (
1729:cite book
1688:0304-3800
1618:0163-4275
1577:cite book
1534:1708-3087
1441:cite book
1392:1572-8358
1349:0391-9714
1294:"Ecology"
1239:913223356
1163:cite book
1155:769188353
1114:0011-1589
1094:Criticism
1079:165635056
1063:0043-8006
1020:0034-6551
967:218676894
959:1476-7430
856:1708-3087
799:cite book
791:730997030
700:"Ecology"
641:0033-5770
589:(2): 16.
188:John Muir
167:interest.
4263:Category
4131:regional
4126:land use
3961:business
3930:internet
3888:abnormal
3790:military
3780:economic
3770:cultural
3743:physical
3704:physical
3694:cultural
3603:Scholars
3598:Journals
3588:Category
3562:Portals
3443:transfer
3433:dynamics
3383:feminist
3185:priority
3170:literacy
3130:rhetoric
3096:Science
3060:Logology
2731:Category
2383:Vitalism
2206:Theories
2180:Variable
2101:Paradigm
1988:function
1946:A priori
1935:Analysis
1928:Concepts
1569:42061015
1400:82921067
1357:23334136
1276:16405709
1198:: 1â12.
1071:24042952
657:84079279
443:Ecosophy
365:See also
295:argument
59:ontology
4326:Ecology
4275:Commons
4106:history
4096:science
4031:studies
3765:History
3677:Primary
3663:History
3658:Outline
3566:Science
3248:studies
3160:dissent
3100:citizen
3017:studies
3015:Science
2962:Social
2827:History
2441:History
2409:Physics
2399:Biology
2197:more...
2185:control
2081:Inquiry
1845:2261159
891:3566073
649:2816117
134:Ecology
86:History
51:ecology
3966:public
3908:social
3800:social
3699:social
3460:Policy
3393:change
3326:system
3175:method
3115:normal
2153:choice
2148:Theory
2086:Nature
2015:design
1878:
1843:
1777:
1717:
1686:
1654:
1616:
1567:
1557:
1532:
1431:
1421:
1398:
1390:
1355:
1347:
1274:
1264:
1237:
1227:
1153:
1143:
1120:
1112:
1077:
1069:
1061:
1028:518198
1026:
1018:
965:
957:
889:
854:
789:
779:
655:
647:
639:
532:
178:, and
61:, and
4136:urban
3940:urban
3935:rural
3785:human
3748:human
3668:Index
1841:JSTOR
1508:(2).
1396:S2CID
1353:JSTOR
1118:JSTOR
1075:S2CID
1067:JSTOR
1024:JSTOR
963:S2CID
887:JSTOR
871:Oikos
830:(3).
775:â40.
653:S2CID
645:JSTOR
4204:List
3331:user
3234:STEM
3135:wars
2057:null
2027:Fact
1948:and
1876:ISSN
1807:help
1775:ISBN
1741:help
1715:ISBN
1684:ISSN
1652:ISBN
1614:ISSN
1583:link
1565:OCLC
1555:ISBN
1530:ISSN
1455:link
1451:link
1447:link
1429:OCLC
1419:ISBN
1388:ISSN
1345:ISSN
1272:OCLC
1262:ISBN
1235:OCLC
1225:ISBN
1173:link
1169:link
1151:OCLC
1141:ISBN
1110:ISSN
1059:ISSN
1016:ISSN
955:ISSN
852:ISSN
805:link
787:OCLC
777:ISBN
637:ISSN
530:ISBN
3807:Law
1868:doi
1833:doi
1767:doi
1707:doi
1676:doi
1644:doi
1640:eLS
1606:doi
1520:hdl
1510:doi
1380:doi
1200:doi
1102:doi
1051:doi
1008:doi
947:doi
879:doi
842:hdl
832:doi
742:doi
678:doi
629:doi
591:doi
522:doi
518:eLS
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