Ectomycorrhiza - Knowledge (XXG)

1206: 1844: 20: 619: 401: 564:. They often spread considerable distances, maintaining a large contact area with the soil. Some studies have shown a relationship between nutrient transport rates and the degree of rhizomorph organization. The rhizomorphs of different EcM types often have different organization types and exploration strategies, observed as different structure and growth within the soil. These differences also help identify the symbiotic fungus. 978: 1654: 7259: 521: 549:. These composite hyphal organs can have a wide range of structures. Some rhizomorphs are simply parallel, linear collections of hyphae. Others have more complex organization, for example the central hyphae may be larger in diameter than other hyphae, or the hyphae may grow continuously at the tip, penetrating into new areas in a way that superficially resembles 1354: 1141:, and can form symbioses with many distantly related fungi. This may have evolutionary benefits to the plant in two ways: 1) the plant's seedlings are more likely to be able to form mycorrhizas in a wide array of habitats; and 2) the plant can make use of different fungi that vary in their ability to access nutrients. 4499:

Delavaux, Camille S.; LaManna, Joseph A.; Myers, Jonathan A.; Phillips, Richard P.; Aguilar, Salomón; Allen, David; Alonso, Alfonso; Anderson-Teixeira, Kristina J.; Baker, Matthew E.; Baltzer, Jennifer L.; Bissiengou, Pulchérie; Bonfim, Mariana; Bourg, Norman A.; Brockelman, Warren Y.; Burslem, David

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and protecting the fungal cell. Fungi can export metals from the cytoplasm to the apoplast, a mechanism that also occurs in plants. Ectomycorrhizal fungi can also concentrate heavy metals in their fruiting bodies. Genetic differences between populations growing in toxic versus non-toxic habitats have

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of crop trees to new locations often requires an accompanying ectomycorrhizal partner. This is especially true of trees that have a high degree of specificity for their mycobiont, or trees that are being planted far from their native habitat among novel fungal species. This has been repeatedly shown

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Amaranthus, Michael P., et al. Soil compaction and organic matter affect conifer seedling nonmycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal root tip abundance and diversity. Forest Service research paper. No. PB—97-104301/XAB; FSRP-PNW—494. Forest Service, Portland, OR (United States). Pacific Northwest Research

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Some studies have shown that if there is too much nitrogen available due to human use of fertilizer, plants can shift their resources away from the fungal network. This can pose problems for the fungus, which may be unable to produce fruiting bodies, and over the long term can cause changes in the

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The Hartig net is formed by an ingrowth of hyphae (often originating from the inner part of the surrounding mantle) into the root of the plant host. The hyphae penetrate and grow in a transverse direction to the axis of the root, and thus form a network between the outer cells of the root axis. In

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As the hyphae of the Hartig net region become more densely packed, they press against the cell walls of the plant's root cells. Often the fungal and plant cell walls become almost indistinguishable where they meet, making it easy for nutrients to be shared. In many ectomycorrhizas the Hartig net

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Extraradical hyphae, particularly rhizomorphs, can also offer invaluable transport of water. Often these develop into specialized runners that extend far from the host roots, increasing the functional water access area. The hyphal sheath enveloping the root tips also acts as a physical barrier

697:. It has been suggested that animals are drawn to hypogeous fruiting bodies because they are rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, minerals and vitamins. However, others argue that the specific nutrients are less important than the availability of food at specific times of the year. 931:. In most terrestrial ecosystems nitrogen is in short supply and is sequestered in organic matter that is hard to break down. Fungal symbionts thus offer two advantages to plants: the greater range of their hyphae when compared with roots, and a greater ability to extract nitrogen from the 1277:

Plants can compete through attacking each other's fungal networks. Dominant native plants can inhibit EcM fungi on the roots of neighboring plants, and some invasive plants can inhibit the growth of native ectomycorrhizal fungi, especially if they become established and dominant. Invasive

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thick, with hyphae extending up to several centimeters into the surrounding soil. The hyphal network helps the plant to take up nutrients including water and minerals, often helping the host plant to survive adverse conditions. In exchange, the fungal symbiont is provided with access to

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A hyphal sheath known as the mantle, which often has more biomass than the Hartig net interface, envelops the root. The structure of the mantle is variable, ranging from a loose network of hyphae to a structured and stratified arrangement of tissue. Often, these layers resemble plant

1836:, includes provisions for studying endangered fungi and developing strategies to manage and protect them. The European Council for the Conservation of Fungi was founded in 1985 to promote research on and attention to endangered fungi. In 2018, the Council collaborated with the 1383:, eating a wide range of fungi and especially the fruiting bodies. Spores are dispersed either because the fruiting body is unearthed and broken apart, or after ingestion and subsequent excretion. Some studies even suggest that passage through an animal's gut promotes spore 3925:

Brownlee, C.; Duddridge, J. A.; Malibari, A.; Read, D. J. (1983). "The structure and function of mycelial systems of ectomycorrhizal roots with special reference to their role in forming inter-plant connections and providing pathways for assimilate and water transport".

464:. In many epidermal types elongation of cells along the epidermis occurs, increasing surface contact between fungus and root cells. Most cortical type Hartig nets do not show this elongation, suggesting different strategies for increasing surface contact among species. 1334:, and competitor number, and these factors interact with each other in a complex way. There is also some evidence for competition between EcM fungi and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. This is mostly noted in species that can host both EcM and AM fungi on their roots. 2735:

Kammerbauer, H; Agerer, R; Sandermann, H Jr (1989). "Studies on ectomycorrhiza. XXII. Mycorrhizal rhizomorphs of Thelephora terrestris and Pisolithus tinctorius in association with Norway spruce (Picea abies): formation in vivo and translocation of phosphate".

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that could inhibit Hartig net formation. However, extensive root colonization still occurs in these plants and these hallmarks of resistance seem to diminish by about day 21 after colonization, implying that EcM fungi can suppress the defense response.

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produced by the fungi act as biochemical defense mechanisms against pathogenic fungi, nematodes and bacteria that may try to infect the mycorrhizal root. Many studies also show that EcM fungi allow plants to tolerate soils with high concentrations of

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Amaranthus, Michael P. The importance and conservation of ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity in forest ecosystems: lessons from Europe and the Pacific Northwest. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1998.

791:, modify the branching angle of hyphae, and cause other changes in the fungus. Some fungal genes appear to be expressed before plant contact, suggesting that signals in the soil may induce important fungal genes at a distance from the plant. 1345:(MHBs), have been shown to stimulate EcM formation, root and shoot biomass, and fungal growth. Some argue that bacteria of this kind should be considered a third component of mycorrhizas. Other bacteria inhibit ectomycorrhizal formation. 5966: 1482:

are extremely detrimental to mycorrhizas and the surrounding ecosystem. It is possible that agriculture indirectly affects nearby ectomycorrhizal species and habitats; for example, increased fertilization decreases sporocarp production.

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Molina, Randy, Hugues Massicotte, and James M. Trappe. "Specificity phenomena in mycorrhizal symbioses: community-ecological consequences and practical implications." Mycorrhizal functioning: an integrative plant-fungal process (1992):

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Although samples of ectomycorrhizas are usually taken from the surface horizon due to higher root density, ectomycorrhizas are known to occur in deep tree roots (a depth more than 2 meters), some occurring at least as deep as 4 meters.

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taxa have been documented so far. There is, however, evidence for community shifts associated with heavy metals, with lower diversity associated with contaminated sites. On the other hand, soils naturally rich in heavy metals, such as

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disrupted by a variety of issues. Since the disappearance of mycorhizal fungi from a habitat constitutes a major soil disturbance event, their re-addition is an important part of establishing vegetation and restoring habitats.

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that is only expressed when it is in a mycorrhizal association. When the transporter is expressed, leading to increased import of sugar by the fungus, the plant host responds by increasing sugar availability. The transport of

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mechanisms to reduce heavy metal concentrations in their cells. These mechanisms include reducing heavy metal uptake, sequestering and storing heavy metals within the cell, and excretion. Heavy metal uptake can be reduced by

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Fransson, Petra MA; Taylor, Andy FS; Finlay, Roger D. (2005). "Mycelial production, spread and root colonisation by the ectomycorrhizal fungi Hebeloma crustuliniforme and Paxillus involutus under elevated atmospheric CO2".

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Conservation strategies include the maintenance of: 1) refuge plants and reservoir hosts to preserve the EcM fungal community after harvesting; 2) mature trees to provide seedlings with a diverse array of EcM fungi; and 3)

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forests: although the plant families are quite different in temperate and tropical forests, the ectomycorrhizal fungi are fairly similar. The types of EcM fungi are affected by soil types both in the field and in the lab.

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seedlings, removal of forest floor debris and soil compaction decreased EcM fungal diversity and abundance by 60%. Removal of pinegrass similarly reduced the diversity and richness of EcM fungi. Some strategies, such as

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types of fungal species present in the soil. In one study species richness declined dramatically with increasing nitrogen inputs, with over 30 species represented at low nitrogen sites and only 9 at high nitrogen sites.

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Villeneuve, Normand; Le Tacon, François; Bouchard, Daniel (1991). "Survival of inoculated Laccaria bicolor in competition with native ectomycorrhizal fungi and effects on the growth of outplanted Douglasfir seedlings".

5794: 751:, apical growth, and infection processes show changes in expression early in the pre-contact phase. Thus, a complex set of molecular changes appears to take place even before the fungus and host plant make contact. 354:

The fossil record shows that the more common arbuscular mycorrhizas formed long before other types of fungal-plant symbioses. Ectomycorrhizas may have evolved with the diversification of plants and the evolution of

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fungi. The estimates range from 7–16 to ~66 independent evolutions of EcM associations. Some studies suggest that reversals back to the ancestral free-living condition have occurred, but this is controversial.

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in the plant. These branching patterns can become so extensive that a single consolidated mantle can envelop many root tips at a time. Structures like this are called tuberculate or coralloid ectomycorrhizas.

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plantations required inoculation by EcM fungi from their native landscape. In both cases, once the EcM networks were introduced the trees were able to naturalize and then began to compete with native plants.

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Colpaert, J.V. 2008. Heavy metal pollution and genetic adaptations in ectomycorrhizal fungi. In: Avery S.V., Stratford M., Van West P. (eds) Stress in yeasts and filamentous fungi. Academic, Amsterdam, pp

595:, primarily through the hyphae of the ectomycorrhiza. However, not all plants are compatible with all fungal networks, so not all plants can exploit the benefits of established ectomycorrhizal linkages. 210:

Ectomycorrhizas are further differentiated from other mycorrhizas by the formation of a dense hyphal sheath, known as the mantle, surrounding the root surface. This sheathing mantle can be up to 40

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forms outside the root cells, penetration of plant cortical cells occasionally occurs. Many species of ectomycorrhizal fungi can function either as ectomycorrhizas or in the penetrative mode typical of

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Claridge, A. W.; et al. (1999). "Mycophagy by small mammals in the coniferous forests of North America: nutritional value of sporocarps of Rhizopogon vinicolor, a common hypogeous fungus".

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The structure of the EcM network depends on the availability of nutrients. When nutrient availability is low, the investment in the underground network is high relative to above-ground growth.

1813:. It has been argued that conservation of ectomycorrhizas requires protection of species across their entire host range and habitat, to ensure that all types of EcM communities are preserved. 6046:

Blaudez, D.; Jacob, C.; Turnau, K.; Colpaert, J.V.; Ahonen-Jonnath, U.; Finlay, R.; Botton, B.; Chalot, M. (2000). "Differential responses of ectomycorrhizal fungi to heavy metals in vitro".

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Munyanziza, E.; Kehri, H. K.; Bagyaraj, D. J. (1997). "Agricultural intensification, soil biodiversity and agro-ecosystem function in the tropics: the role of mycorrhiza in crops and trees".

4938: 2773:"Nitrogen translocation between Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. seedlings inoculated with Frankia sp. and Pinus contorta Doug, ex Loud seedlings connected by a common ectomycorrhizal mycelium" 1189:, may also affect the variety of EcM fungal communities present. Other indirect factors can also play a role in the EcM fungal community, such as leaf fall and litter quality, which affect 300:

type and the distinct functions of different mycorrhizas help determine which type of symbiosis is predominant in a given area. In this theory, EcM symbioses evolved in ecosystems such as

4301:"Potential link between plant and fungal distributions in a dipterocarp rainforest: community and phylogenetic structure of tropical ectomycorrhizal fungi across a plant and soil ecotone" 6782: 4282:

Quoreshi, Ali M. "The use of mycorrhizal biotechnology in restoration of disturbed ecosystem." Mycorrhizae: Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry. Springer Netherlands, 2008. 303–320.

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EcM fungi exhibit various levels of specificity for their plant hosts, and the costs and benefits to their specialization are not well understood. For example, the suilloid group, a

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and species accumulation; and 3) tropical EcM hosts are spread out more sparsely in small isolated forest islands that may reduce the population sizes and diversity of EcM fungi.

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Kennedy, Peter (2010). "Ectomycorrhizal fungi and interspecific competition: species interactions, community structure, coexistence mechanisms, and future research directions".

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Brearley, Francis Q.; et al. (2007). "How does light and phosphorus fertilisation affect the growth and ectomycorrhizal community of two contrasting dipterocarp species?".

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culture collections of fungi, including ectomycorrhizal fungi, are maintained throughout the world as insurance against genetic loss. However, these collections are incomplete.

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Dahlberg, Anders; et al. (2001). "Post-fire legacy of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in the Swedish boreal forest in relation to fire severity and logging intensity".

3222:"Headspace solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry in the investigation of volatile organic compounds in an ectomycorrhizae synthesis system" 5817: 1060:, depending on the host. Because these associations represent a form of symbiosis in between arbuscular mycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizas, they are termed ectendomycorrhizas. 6204:

Leyval, C.; Turnau, K.; Haselwandter, K. (1997). "Effect of heavy metal pollution on mycorrhizal colonization and function: physiological, ecological and applied aspects".

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Simon, Luc; Bousquet, Jean; Lévesque, Roger C.; Lalonde, Maurice (1993). "Origin and diversification of endomycorrhizal fungi and coincidence with vascular land plants".

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and improve the ability of the roots to take up water. Thus, EcMs protect their host plants during times of drought, although they may themselves be affected over time.

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seedlings. Changes in EcM communities can have drastic effects on nutrient uptake and community composition of native trees, with far-reaching ecological ramifications.

3576:"Quantification of effects of season and nitrogen supply on tree below-ground carbon transfer to ectomycorrhizal fungi and other soil organisms in a boreal pine forest" 3468:"Identification of genes differentially expressed in extraradical mycelium and ectomycorrhizal roots during Paxillus involutus-Betula pendula ectomycorrhizal symbiosis" 7116: 5503: 7180:"The impacts of broadcast burning after clear-cutting on the diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with hybrid spruce seedlings in central British Columbia" 5355:"Effects of ectomycorrhizas and vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizas, alone or in competition, on root colonization and growth of Eucalyptus globulus and E. urophylla" 4939:"Indirect host effect on ectomycorrhizal fungi: Leaf fall and litter quality explain changes in fungal communities on the roots of co-occurring Mediterranean oaks" 363:. Arbuscular mycorrhizas may thus have been a driving force in the plant colonization of land, while ectomycorrhizas may have arisen either in response to further 1608:

and death. Some ectomycorrhizal fungi are tolerant to heavy metals, with many species having the ability to colonize contaminated soils. There are also cases of

1387:, although for most fungal species this is not necessary. By spreading the fungal spores, these animals have an indirect effect on plant community structure. 7288: 3045:

Xie, L. J.; et al. (2012). "Disease resistance signal transfer between roots of different tomato plants through common arbuscular mycorrhiza networks".

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Duddridge, JA; Malibari, A; Read, DJ (1980). "Structure and function of mycorrhizal rhizomorphs with special reference to their role in water transport".

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Wallander, H.; Ekblad, Alf; Bergh, J. (2011). "Growth and carbon sequestration by ectomycorrhizal fungi in intensively fertilized Norway spruce forests".

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As the fungus and plant become closely connected, they begin to share nutrients. This process is also controlled by symbiosis-related genes. For example,

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Luo, Zhi-Bin; et al. (2011). "The ectomycorrhizal fungus (Paxillus involutus) modulates leaf physiology of poplar towards improved salt tolerance".

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Bandou, E.; et al. (2006). "The ectomycorrhizal fungus Scleroderma bermudense alleviates salt stress in seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera L.) seedlings".

3143: 1125:; 2) the plants EcMs use as hosts might be more diverse in temperate conditions, and the structure of the soil in temperate regions may allow for higher 1110: 6906: 5216: 3195: 4367: 3270:

Menotta, M.; et al. (2004). "Differential gene expression during pre-symbiotic interaction between Tuber borchii Vittad. and Tilia americana L".

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considerable amounts of heavy metals. Once inside the cell, heavy metals can be immobilized in organo-metal complexes, made soluble, transformed into

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Bellion, M.; Courbot, M; Jacob, C.; et al. (2006). "Extracellular and cellular mechanism sustaining metal tolerance in ectomycorrhizal fungi".

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interface, and 3) the apoplast-root cell interface. It has been estimated that ectomycorrhizal fungi receive approximately 15% of the host plant's

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of genes that may help new membranes to form at the symbiotic interface. The effect of the mantle on root proliferation, root hair development and

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for this to be successful. There is evidence that communication between the partners in the early stage of ectomycorrhiza occurs in some cases via

5033: 3754: 3666: 1117:. If this is the case, it might be explained by one or more of the following hypotheses: 1) EcM fungi may have evolved at higher latitudes with 7319: 6805: 6335:

Staudenrausch, S.; Kaldorf, M.; Renker, C.; Luis, P.; Buscot, F. (2005). "Diversity of the ectomycorrhiza community at a uranium mining heap".

6153:"Altered Zn compartmentation in the root symplasm and stimulated Zn absorption into the leaf as mechanisms involved in Zn hyperaccumulation in 2814:"Rapid nitrogen transfer from ectomycorrhizal pines to adjacent ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants in a California oak woodland" 534: 5027: 2065: 2040: 583:

was added to a particular tree and later detected in nearby plants and seedlings. One study observed a bidirectional carbon transfer between

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Wiensczyk, Alan M., et al. "Ectomycorrhizae and forestry in British Columbia: A summary of current research and conservation strategies."

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Mamoun, M.; Olivier, J. M. (1993). "Competition between Tuber melanosporum and other ectomycorrhizal fungi under two irrigation regimes".

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Malcolm, Glenna M.; et al. (2008). "Acclimation to temperature and temperature sensitivity of metabolism by ectomycorrhizal fungi".

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levels increased fungal mycelium growth and increased EcM root colonization. Other EcM associations showed little response to elevated CO

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of the mycosymbiont is mostly exterior to the plant root. The fungal structure is composed primarily of three parts: 1) the intraradical

5901: 5376: 4146: 3644:"Conservation of ectomycorrhizal fungi: exploring the linkages between functional and taxonomic responses to anthropogenic N deposition" 1085:

ecosystems, primarily among the dominant woody-plant-producing families. Many of the fungal families common in temperate forests (e.g.

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Nikolova, Ivanka; Johanson, Karl J.; Dahlberg, Anders (1997). "Radiocaesium in fruitbodies and mycorrhizae in ectomycorrhizal fungi".

5096:"Suppression of ectomycorrhizae on canopy tree seedlings in Rhododendron maximum L. (Ericaceae) thickets in the southern Appalachians" 2989: 4749:

Borowicz, Victoria A.; Juliano, Steven A. (1991). "Specificity in host-fungus associations: Do mutualists differ from antagonists?".

4218: 3963:"Production of fungal and bacterial growth modulating secondary metabolites is widespread among mycorrhiza-associated streptomycetes" 332:

difficult and the discovery of fungal fossils rare. However, some exquisitely preserved specimens have been discovered in the middle

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Massicotte, H. B.; et al. (1999). "Diversity and host specificity of ectomycorrhizal fungi forest sites by five host species".

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ectomycorrhizal trees in natural conditions. Pines were difficult to establish in the southern hemisphere for this reason, and many

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inner layer of the mantle, and penetration occurs in a broad front oriented at right angles to the root axis, digesting through the

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Although widespread metal tolerance seems to be the norm for ectomycorrhizal fungi, it has been suggested that a few fungi such as

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is another typically limiting nutrient in many terrestrial ecosystems. Evidence suggests that phosphorus is transferred largely as

935:. Net transfer of nutrients to plants requires the nutrient to cross three interfaces: 1) the soil-fungus interface, 2) the fungus- 4786:"Multi-host ectomycorrhizal fungi are predominant in a Guinean tropical rainforest and shared between canopy trees and seedlings" 2245:

LePage, Ben A.; Currah, Randolph S.; Stockey, Ruth A.; Rothwell, Gar W. (1997). "Fossil ectomycorrhizae from the Middle Eocene".

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Kottke, I.; Oberwinkler, F. (1987). "The cellular structure of the Hartig net: coenocytic and transfer cell-like organization".

2193:"The relative ages of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms and their plant hosts estimated using Bayesian relaxed molecular clock analyses" 2650: 1166:

and others, shows an extreme degree of specificity, with almost all of its members forming ectomycorrhizas with members of the

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such as color, extent of branching, and degree of complexity which are used to help identify the fungus, often in tandem with

4345:"Temporal variation in temperature and rainfall differentially affects ectomycorrhizal colonization at two contrasting sites" 2891:

Amaranthus, M. P.; Perry, D. A. (1994). "The functioning of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the field: linkages in space and time".

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plants that form mycorrhizas tend to form them with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Many modern agricultural practices such as

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synthesis happen rapidly after colonization by the fungus, including the production of ectomycorrhizins. Changes include the

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Scott, Neal A.; et al. (1999). "Soil carbon storage in plantation forests and pastures: land-use change implications".

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analyses of fungal lineages suggest that EcM fungi have evolved and persisted numerous times from non-EcM ancestors such as

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Ruytinx, J.; Nguyen, H.; Van Hees, M.; De Beeck, O.; Vangronsveld, J.; Carleer, R.; Colpaert, J.V.; Adriaensen, K. (2013).

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can be partially mimicked by fungal exudates, providing a path to identifying the molecules responsible for communication.

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which can allow non-native plant species to spread in the absence of their specific EcM fungi from the native ecosystem.

4857:"Host effects on ectomycorrhizal fungal communities: insight from eight host species in mixed conifer–broadleaf forests" 1735: 1040: 263: 541:, compensating for the suppression of root hairs by increasing the effective surface area of the colonized root. These 5610:

Cork, Steven J.; Kenagy, G. J. (1989). "Nutritional value of hypogeous fungus for a forest-dwelling ground squirrel".

5005:"Invasion biology of Australian ectomycorrhizal fungi introduced with eucalypt plantations into the Iberian Peninsula" 1543:

The role of ectomycorrhizas in supporting their host plants has led to the suggestion that EcM fungi could be used in

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and multiply to form the layers that will eventually produce the mantle. Production of the fungal mantle involves the

1746:(PCBs). Chemicals that can be detoxified by EcM fungi, either alone or in association with their host plant, include 1314:. In some experiments, the timing of colonization by competing EcM fungi determined which species was dominant. Many 308:

is still limiting. Ectomycorrhizas are intermediate in their ability to take up nutrients, being more efficient than

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in many studies. However, this method is imperfect as fruiting bodies do not last long and can be hard to detect.

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Krznaric, E.; Verbruggen, N.; Wevers, J.H.L.; Carleer, R.; Vangronsveld, J.; Colpaert, J.V. (2009). "Cd-tolerant

4699: 2083:"How deep can ectomycorrhizas go? A case study on Pisolithus down to 4 meters in a Brazilian eucalypt plantation" 1743: 1516:

species. Mass planting of these species often requires an inoculum of native EcM fungi for the trees to prosper.

1271: 579:(CMNs) that allow sharing of carbon and nutrients among the connected host plants. For example, the rare isotope 7135: 7084: 4719: 3191: 3113:"A strong species–area relationship for eukaryotic soil microbes: island size matters for ectomycorrhizal fungi" 7227:

Hawksworth, David L (1991). "The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation".

5153:"The invasive plant Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) inhibits ectomycorrhizal fungi in its introduced range" 4394:"Species composition of an ectomycorrhizal fungal community along a local nutrient gradient in a boreal forest" 1781:

Increased temperatures also give a range of responses, some negative, and others positive. The EcM response to

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and metabolic inactivation at the cell wall and apoplast level. Ectomycorrhizal fungi also have the ability to

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Nara, Kazuhide (2006). "Ectomycorrhizal networks and seedling establishment during early primary succession".

1877:, have different effects on different types of EcM communities, ranging from negative to neutral or positive. 6875: 4109:"Contribution of ectomycorrhizal fungi to cadmium uptake of poplars and willows from a heavily polluted soil" 3416:"Ectomycorrhizin synthesis and polypeptide changes during the early stage of eucalypt mycorrhiza development" 3172: 7324: 5185: 3221: 1947:"Ectomycorrhizal lifestyle in fungi: global diversity, distribution, and evolution of phylogenetic lineages" 1667: 1573: 1565: 6292:) along three environmental gradients: does life in harsh environments alter plant–fungal relationships?". 5400:"Mycorrhiza helper bacteria stimulate ectomycorrhizal symbiosis of Acacia holosericea with Pisolithus alba" 4344: 3755:"Nutrient transport in mycorrhizas: structure, physiology and consequences for efficiency of the symbiosis" 2567:

Blasius, D.; et al. (1986). "Hartig net structure and formation in fully ensheathed ectomycorrhizas".

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EcM fungi have been found to have beneficial effects in several types of polluted environments, including:

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Jourand, P.; Ducousso, M.; Loulergue-Majorel, C.; Hannibal, L.; Santoni, S.; Prin, Y.; Lebrun, M. (2010).

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Klironomos, John N.; Hart, Miranda M. (2001). "Food-web dynamics: Animal nitrogen swap for plant carbon".

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As the importance of below-ground organisms to forest productivity, recovery and stability becomes clear,

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Plants that are not native to an area often require mycorrhizal symbionts to thrive. The vast majority of

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related have more similar EcM fungal communities than do taxa that are more distantly related. Similarly,

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For most types of plants and animals, species diversity increases towards the equator. This is called the

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distribution across all continents (apart from Antarctica), suggesting that the EcM symbiosis has ancient

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constituents and retention of woody debris and substrates may also be important. In one study concerning

7334: 4013: 2930: 2626:"Cytokinins as key regulators in plant–microbe–insect interactions: connecting plant growth and defence" 1900: 1817: 1359: 1186: 1126: 983: 967: 816: 665: 603: 591: 259: 177: 6239:

Southworth, D.; Tackleberry, L.E.; Massicotte, H.B. (2013). "Mycorrhizal ecology on serpentine soils".

5928:"In Vitro Selection of Boreal Ectomycorrhizal Fungi for Use in Reclamation of Saline-Alkaline Habitats" 2990:"Underground signals carried through common mycelial networks warn neighbouring plants of aphid attack" 1185:

are more likely to have hosts that are taxonomically related. The maturity of the host environment, or

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Ruotsalainen, A.L.; Markkola, A.M.; Kozlov, M.V. (2009). "Mycorrhizal colonisation of mountain birch (

5004: 3832:"Carbon allocation to ectomycorrhizal fungi correlates with belowground allocation in culture studies" 736:

and associated structures to form. Both partners (plant and fungus) must follow a precise sequence of

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have declined, due to factors including reduced tree vitality, conversion of forests to other uses,

3693:"Belowground ectomycorrhizal fungal community change over a nitrogen deposition gradient in Alaska" 1751: 1637: 1544: 1209:

Pine plantation, probably inoculated with fungal spores to allow beneficial ectomycorrhizas to form

1098: 704: 645: 633: 421: 158: 19: 4068:"Cadmium uptake and subcellular compartmentation in the ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus" 3173:"Ectomycorrhizal fungal community structure of pinyon pines growing in two environmental extremes" 785:

and other nutrients. Some host-released metabolites have been shown to stimulate fungal growth in

567:

The hyphae extending outward into the soil from an ectomycorrhiza can infect other nearby plants.

371:

became more seasonal and arid, or perhaps simply in response to nutritionally deficient habitats.

7339: 7053: 7000: 6898: 6856: 6352: 6317: 6256: 6221: 6098: 5958: 5678: 5627: 5592: 5335: 5299: 5118: 5052: 4766: 4481: 4196: 4138: 3943: 3907: 3785: 3777: 3715: 3295: 2908: 2753: 2702: 2494: 2403: 2313: 2278: 2262: 2168: 2110: 1977: 1905: 1810: 1747: 1531:

for atmospheric carbon. However, the ectomycorrhizal fungi of these species also tend to deplete

1421: 1284: 1222: 1174: 958:-like structure that facilitates interhyphal transport. The hyphae have a high concentration of 940: 808: 624: 453: 313: 278: 200: 181: 7303:

a portal concerned with the biology and ecology of ectomycorrhizal fungi and other forest fungi.

7268: 6002:"How metal-tolerant ecotypes of ectomycorrhizal fungi protect plants from heavy metal pollution" 5186:"Root tip competition among ectomycorrhizal fungi: Are priority effects a rule or an exception?" 4014:"How metal-tolerant ecotypes of ectomycorrhizal fungi protect plants from heavy metal pollution" 3692: 618: 610:

have been shown to carry signals warning plants on the network of attack by insects or disease.

6876:"Mycorrhizal dynamics under elevated CO2 and nitrogen fertilization in a warm temperate forest" 5697: 5434:

Bowen, G. D.; Theodorou, C. (1979). "Interactions between bacteria and ectomycorrhizal fungi".

3324:"Developmental cross talking in the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis: signals and communication genes" 2082: 6957: 6848: 6709: 6664: 6603: 6487: 6411: 6309: 6186: 6133: 6090: 5670: 5584: 5534: 5484: 5261: 5208: 5084:

Richardson, David M., ed. Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge University Press, 2000.

5023: 4919: 4878: 4807: 4677: 4631: 4577: 4533: 4415: 4322: 4245: 4188: 4089: 3994: 3864: 3597: 3553: 3505: 3445: 3345: 3287: 3252: 3135: 3086: 3012: 2870: 2835: 2794: 2486: 2395: 2270: 2224: 2102: 2061: 2036: 1969: 1910: 1829: 1625: 1311: 1241: 1228:, compatible EcM fungi are often introduced to the foreign landscape to ensure the success of 1122: 1114: 744: 641: 637: 585: 509: 400: 223: 5878: 4108: 2531: 7236: 7194: 7160: 7027: 6992: 6947: 6890: 6840: 6797: 6763: 6736: 6699: 6654: 6646: 6595: 6562: 6525: 6477: 6442: 6401: 6391: 6344: 6301: 6248: 6213: 6176: 6168: 6125: 6082: 6055: 6023: 6013: 5950: 5893: 5879:"Ectomycorrhizal fungi introduced with exotic pine plantations induce soil carbon depletion" 5859: 5809: 5754: 5712: 5662: 5619: 5576: 5526: 5518: 5474: 5443: 5411: 5366: 5354: 5327: 5291: 5253: 5200: 5164: 5110: 5015: 4961: 4953: 4909: 4868: 4834: 4797: 4758: 4714: 4667: 4621: 4567: 4523: 4513: 4473: 4446: 4405: 4359: 4312: 4283: 4237: 4180: 4128: 4120: 4079: 4028: 3984: 3974: 3935: 3899: 3856: 3812: 3769: 3707: 3658: 3624: 3587: 3543: 3495: 3487: 3435: 3427: 3394: 3335: 3279: 3244: 3187: 3127: 3078: 3004: 2953: 2900: 2862: 2825: 2784: 2745: 2694: 2640: 2576: 2546: 2478: 2387: 2348: 2305: 2254: 2214: 2204: 2160: 2094: 1961: 1723: 1412: 1218: 1078: 894: 708: 690: 501: 485: 478: 340: 241: 3020: 1420:

to obtain nitrogen, some of which may then be transferred to the host plant. In one study,

7139: 7120: 5064: 4253: 1874: 1647: 1632:, involved in metal sequestration and/or stored in vacuoles in chemically inactive forms. 1629: 1319: 1182: 1082: 737: 657: 561: 336: 204: 3532:"Physiology of organic nitrogen acquisition by ectomycorrhizal fungi and ectomycorrhizas" 3069:

Johnson, Christopher N (1996). "Interactions between mammals and ectomycorrhizal fungi".

1221:

quickly and easily. However, ectomycorrhizal symbioses are often relatively specific. In

769:, growth of hyphae towards the root, and the early steps of EcM formation. These include 598:

The shared nutrient connection through CMNs has been suggested to be involved with other

7285:

Comprehensive illustrations and lists of mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants and fungi

7264: 6988: 6642: 6545:

Colpaert, J.V.; Muller, L.A.H.; Lambaerts, M.; Adriaensen, K.; Vangronsveld, J. (2004).

6387: 5946: 5855: 5658: 5522: 4433:

Brearley, Francis Q (2006). "Differences in the growth and ectomycorrhizal community of

3895: 3483: 3240: 2949: 2474: 2344: 2333:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

2156: 1708:

A number of studies have shown that certain EcM fungi can help their hosts survive high

1113:(LGD). In contrast, there is evidence that EcM fungi may be at maximum diversity in the 16:

Non-penetrative symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant

6659: 6622: 6406: 6371: 5795:"Soil and fertilizer phosphorus: Effects on plant P supply and mycorrhizal development" 5479: 5462: 3989: 3962: 3816: 3548: 3531: 3440: 3415: 3399: 3382: 2789: 2772: 2580: 2219: 2192: 1767: 1739: 1719: 1658: 1616: 1569: 1399: 1331: 1295: 1279: 1138: 1094: 920: 889: 572: 492:

development of their plant symbiont. They can also increase root branching by inducing

305: 185: 7240: 7164: 6801: 6767: 5897: 5758: 3500: 3467: 3082: 2532:"Evolutionary studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi: recent advances and future directions" 2331:

Fitter, A. H.; Moyersoen, B. (1996). "Evolutionary trends in root-microbe symbioses".

1641:

rarely been reported, indicating that metal tolerance is widespread. No metal-adapted

7313: 7031: 6996: 6952: 6935: 6684:"Zinc export results in adaptive zinc tolerance in the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete 6650: 6567: 6546: 6530: 6509: 6482: 6461: 6181: 6152: 6129: 5954: 5863: 5463:"Tansley Review No. 76 Helper bacteria: a new dimension to the mycorrhizal symbiosis" 5447: 5416: 5399: 5371: 5257: 5169: 5152: 4914: 4897: 4873: 4856: 4802: 4785: 4672: 4655: 4572: 4555: 4410: 4393: 4363: 4317: 4300: 4067: 3592: 3575: 3340: 3323: 3131: 2866: 2830: 2813: 2114: 1861: 1833: 1825: 1726: 1709: 1496: 1463: 1327: 1315: 1299: 1036: 1032: 1006: 971: 955: 846: 824: 782: 728:

must first grow towards the plant's roots. Then they must envelope and penetrate the

546: 474: 110: 41: 6740: 6621:

Adriaensen, K.; Vrålstad, T.; Noben, J.P.; Vangronsveld, J.; Colpaert, J.V. (2005).

6356: 6321: 6260: 6225: 5962: 5339: 5303: 5122: 4485: 4200: 4142: 3947: 3789: 2912: 2757: 2706: 2625: 2407: 2317: 2282: 7004: 6902: 6860: 6102: 5682: 5596: 4556:"General latitudinal gradient of biodiversity is reversed in ectomycorrhizal fungi" 3911: 3299: 2498: 2172: 1981: 1865: 1459: 1442: 1391: 1254:

Many EcM species co-invade without the help of human activity, however. The family

1145: 1028: 1010: 963: 932: 835: 831: 827: 812: 763: 556:

This part of the ectomycorrhiza, which is called the extraradical or extramatrical

526: 505: 388: 380: 325: 267: 122: 6510:"Genetic variation and heavy metal tolerance in the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete 4957: 4770: 4610:"Host specificity in ectomycorrhizal communities: what do the exceptions tell us?" 4450: 3491: 2679: 1217:

are non-specific, and so plants that interact with these mycorrhizas often become

1022:

shielding plant tissues from pathogens and predators. There is also evidence that

977: 6599: 6396: 6252: 4287: 4241: 3662: 3628: 2030: 671:

The fruit bodies of many species take on classic, well-recognized shapes such as

351:, demonstrating well-established EcM associations at least 50 million years ago. 153:

families. Research on ectomycorrhizas is increasingly important in areas such as

4084: 1869: 1786: 1653: 1633: 1605: 1532: 1528: 1501: 1475: 1384: 1289: 1102: 1086: 989: 924: 908: 881: 850: 820: 766: 759: 755: 457: 368: 360: 289:

is the oldest extant plant family in which symbiosis with EcM fungi occurs, and

166: 130: 6508:

Colpaert, J.V.; Vandenkoornhuyse, P.; Adriaensen, K.; Vangronsveld, J. (2000).

5095: 4518: 4501: 2098: 6894: 6844: 6348: 6305: 6059: 6018: 6001: 4477: 4184: 4133: 4124: 4033: 3283: 2391: 1965: 1895: 1857: 1601: 1548: 1524: 1506: 1479: 1426: 1417: 1407: 1266: 1246: 1162: 1156: 1090: 1052: 998: 952: 861: 839: 787: 778: 774: 770: 733: 686: 493: 461: 442: 417: 364: 344: 192: 188: 173: 142: 126: 118: 114: 4537: 3979: 1650:, do not seem to affect the diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities. 5019: 4437:(Dipterocarpaceae) seedlings grown in ultramafic and non-ultramafic soils". 2645: 1806: 1380: 1376: 1233: 1002: 970:) at their tips. There are signs that transporters in both fungal and plant 959: 877: 854: 748: 700: 694: 679: 675: 649: 580: 489: 282: 237: 134: 92: 81: 6961: 6852: 6713: 6668: 6607: 6491: 6415: 6313: 6137: 6094: 5674: 5588: 5538: 5488: 5265: 5212: 4923: 4882: 4811: 4681: 4635: 4626: 4609: 4581: 4419: 4326: 4249: 4192: 4093: 3998: 3868: 3601: 3509: 3449: 3349: 3291: 3256: 3139: 3090: 3016: 2874: 2839: 2798: 2490: 2399: 2352: 2274: 2228: 2209: 2106: 1973: 520: 121:. Ectomycorrhizas form on the roots of around 2% of plant species, usually 6934:

Compant, Stéphane; Marcel; Der Heijden, GA Van; Sessitsch, Angela (2010).

6217: 6190: 5580: 5114: 3557: 2931:"Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field" 2698: 6172: 2456:"Evolutionary instability of ectomycorrhizal symbioses in basidiomycetes" 1821: 1642: 1621: 1597: 1492: 1434: 1403: 1338: 1255: 1225: 1167: 1118: 936: 904: 873: 869: 804: 729: 682: 672: 661: 568: 557: 550: 420:; 2) the mantle that forms a sheath surrounding the root tip; and 3) the 356: 286: 162: 150: 146: 138: 88: 24: 7018:

Arnolds, E. E. F. (1991). "Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe".

6783:"Ectomycorrhizas—extending the capabilities of rhizosphere remediation?" 3781: 3431: 2614:

Dighton, J. "Mycorrhizae." Encyclopedia of Microbiology (2009): 153–162.

1636:

detoxification systems may also be in place, reducing the production of

1353: 1298:

were shown to inhibit the growth of three species of EcM fungi grown on

838:

are only found when the fungus and plant have achieved symbiosis; these

689:

of about 10 μm that can disperse over large distances by way of various

433:

this region fungal and root cells touch, and this is where nutrient and

6936:"Climate change effects on beneficial plant–microorganism interactions" 6704: 6683: 6086: 5631: 5331: 5295: 4966: 4762: 4502:"Mycorrhizal feedbacks influence global forest structure and diversity" 3939: 3773: 3719: 2904: 2749: 2373:"Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land plants" 2309: 2266: 1882: 1782: 1663: 1609: 1585: 1471: 1438: 1395: 1368: 1323: 1260: 1194: 1190: 1150: 928: 747:

produced only during the interaction phase, and that genes involved in

599: 409: 297: 290: 246: 231: 227: 103: 29: 6429:

Egerton-Warburton, L.; Griffin, B. (1995). "Differential responses of

6028: 5530: 5204: 4898:"Evolution and host specificity in the ectomycorrhizal genus Leccinum" 4528: 3008: 2454:

Hibbett, David S.; Gilbert, Luz-Beatriz; Donoghue, Michael J. (2000).

1801:

of ectomycorrhizas is gaining attention. Many species of EcM fungi in

7282: 7076: 5666: 3903: 3248: 2482: 2164: 1802: 1593: 1581: 1292: 1229: 1170:. However, many other fungal groups exhibit a very broad host range. 800: 725: 542: 434: 413: 348: 333: 329: 196: 191:. Instead they form an entirely intercellular interface known as the 107: 85: 7198: 6446: 5813: 5716: 5623: 5504:"Plants, mycorrhizal fungi, and bacteria: a network of interactions" 4838: 3860: 3711: 2550: 2258: 1258:

often invade habitats along with specific EcM fungi from the genera

872:. Some plant cells respond by producing stress- and defense-related 636:

and produce visible fruiting bodies in a wide variety of forms. The

3366:

Egerton-Warburton, L. M.; et al. (2003). "Mycorrhizal fungi".

1864:

and support varied EcM fungal communities. Preservation of natural

1851:. What effects could this have on the ectomycorrhizas below ground? 2958: 2081:

Robin, Agnès; Pradier, Céline; Sanguin, Hervé (16 November 2019).

1842: 1652: 1512: 1372: 1352: 1204: 1074: 976: 664:. Many EcM fungi can only form fruiting bodies and complete their 653: 617: 519: 448: 399: 384: 301: 262:, and it is possible that these associations helped to facilitate 211: 100: 18: 4700:"Breaking new ground: soil communities and exotic plant invasion" 1694:

are good examples, with known ecotypes adapted to Zn, Cd and Cu.

545:

can spread out singly, or in an aggregate arrangement known as a

484:

Because the root is enveloped by the mantle it is often affected

460:

the hyphae penetrate more deeply, into the cortical cells or the

4608:

Bruns, Thomas D.; Bidartondo, Martin I.; Taylor, D. Lee (2002).

1589: 1577: 1520: 1467: 1237: 538: 500:

The mantles of different EcM pairs often display characteristic

96: 5698:"Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms: challenges and achievements" 1430:

was able to derive up to 25% of its nitrogen from springtails.

6073:

Gadd, G.M. (2004). "Microorganisms and heavy metal toxicity".

1785:

is complex since many species provide protection against root

1433:

Edible fungi are important in societies throughout the world.

1322:

can mediate competition among EcM fungi, such as temperature,

632:

Unlike most arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, EcM fungi reproduce

7294: 1398:

and fly larvae, some of which are even tolerant to the toxic

62: 54: 46: 6547:"Evolutionary adaptation to zinc toxicity in populations of 6372:"Serpentine soils do not limit mycorrhizal fungal diversity" 5184:

Kennedy, Peter G.; Peay, Kabir G.; Bruns, Thomas D. (2009).

4855:

Ishida, Takahide A.; Nara, Kazuhide; Hogetsu, Taizo (2007).

943:

and in return provide up to 86% of a host's nitrogen needs.

316:, making them useful in an intermediate nutrient situation. 6627:, a symbiotic solution for pines colonizing Cu mine spoils" 4720:

10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0477:bngsca]2.0.co;2

3192:

10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[1562:efcsop]2.0.co;2

1762:

Ectomycorrhizal communities can be affected by increased CO

1009:

capable of rapidly degrading DNA to obtain phosphorus from

1547:

projects aimed at re-establishing native plant species in

974:

are active, suggesting a bidirectional nutrient exchange.

4066:

Blaudez, Damien; Botton, Bernard; Chalot, Michel (2000).

3414:

Hilbert, Jean-Louis; Costa, Guy; Martin, Francis (1991).

1527:, are planted and promoted for their ability to act as a 1310:

Competition among EcM fungi is a well-documented case of

343:. These ectomycorrhizal fossils show clear evidence of a 23:

Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis, showing root tips with fungal

1840:

to produce the State of the World's Fungi Report, 2018.

1686:

can become adapted to high levels of Al, Zn, Cd and Cu.

424:

and related structures that spread throughout the soil.

404:

Basic morphology of a common ectomycorrhizal association

3642:

Lilleskov, E. A.; Hobbie, E. A.; Horton, T. R. (2011).

1945:

Tedersoo, Leho; May, Tom W.; Smith, Matthew E. (2010).

1445:

are known for their culinary and financial importance.

1410:

also consume fungal tissue. The ectomycorrhizal fungus

7045: 1519:

Sometimes ectomycorrhizal plantation species, such as

1718:

Many species of ectomycorrhizal fungi, including the

440:

The depth of penetration differs between species. In

293:

from this family date back to 156 million years ago.

2296:

Read, David J. (1991). "Mycorrhizas in ecosystems".

7291:

Biosafety research into genetically modified barley

1379:fruiting bodies. Many species of small mammals are 1270:. There are also ectomycorrhiza-forming fungi with 6151:Lasat, M.M.; Baker, A.J.M.; Kochian, L.V. (1998). 3383:"Regulation of gene expression in ectomycorrhizas" 1572:for living organisms. High soil concentrations of 1504:involving obligate ectomycorrhizal trees, such as 724:To form an ectomycorrhizal connection, the fungal 488:. EcM fungal partners characteristically suppress 6503: 6501: 2530:Bruns, Thomas D.; Shefferson, Richard P. (2004). 807:cells, they must continue to grow inwards to the 602:processes such as seedling establishment, forest 7046:"European Council for the Conservation of Fungi" 5995: 5993: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5353:Chen, Y. L.; Brundrett, M. C.; Dell, B. (2000). 4698:Wolfe, Benjamin E.; Klironomos, John N. (2005). 4656:"Co-invasion by Pinus and its mycorrhizal fungi" 2029:Smith, Sally E.; Read, David J. (26 July 2010). 1535:, making this use of plantations controversial. 274:(AM) originated at least 460 million years ago. 6929: 6927: 6586:: a fungal insurance for pines exposed to Cd". 6462:"Ultramafic soils from New Caledonia structure 6041: 6039: 4219:"Proteome analysis of an ectomycorrhizal fungus 2191:Hibbett, David S.; Matheny, P. Brandon (2009). 962:responsible for energy and protein production ( 184:, ectomycorrhizal fungi do not penetrate their 7104: 7102: 5776: 5774: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5277: 5275: 5239: 5237: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3166: 3164: 732:cells and infect them, allowing the symbiotic 512:are also useful but are not always available. 226:include the economically important and edible 4850: 4848: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4603: 4601: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4212: 4210: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3461: 3459: 3064: 3062: 3060: 1181:studies have shown that fungi derived from a 524:Extraradical mycelia (white) on the roots of 8: 6781:Meharg, Andrew A.; Cairney, John WG (2000). 5429: 5427: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4784:Diédhiou, Abdala Gamby; et al. (2010). 4693: 4691: 4549: 4547: 4061: 4059: 3361: 3359: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 2924: 2922: 2886: 2884: 2610: 1734:Some EcM species are capable of decomposing 703:of fruiting bodies have been used to assess 575:show that this can lead to the formation of 304:that are relatively productive but in which 5502:Bonfante, Paola; Anca, Iulia-Andra (2009). 4166: 4164: 3171:Gehring, Catherine A.; et al. (1998). 2608: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2562: 2560: 1466:systems. Most of the economically relevant 1458:Ectomycorrhizal fungi are not prominent in 1073:Ectomycorrhizal fungi are found throughout 1005:. Some mat-forming ectomycorrhizas contain 951:hyphae lack internal divisions, creating a 644:, can be thought of as an extension of the 7283:Mycorrhizal Associations: The Web Resource 2673: 2671: 933:layer of soil in which organic matter lies 7020:Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 6951: 6703: 6658: 6566: 6529: 6481: 6405: 6395: 6180: 6027: 6017: 5877:Chapela, Ignacio H.; et al. (2001). 5478: 5415: 5370: 5168: 4965: 4913: 4896:Den Bakker, Henk C.; et al. (2004). 4872: 4801: 4718: 4671: 4625: 4571: 4527: 4517: 4409: 4392:Toljander, Jonas F.; et al. (2006). 4316: 4132: 4083: 4032: 3988: 3978: 3850: 3591: 3547: 3499: 3439: 3398: 3339: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3229:Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 2957: 2829: 2788: 2771:Arnebrant, Kristina; et al. (1993). 2644: 2525: 2523: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2218: 2208: 1612:to tolerate harsh chemical environments. 1375:of their spores, particularly fungi with 668:by participating in an EcM relationship. 606:and other plant-plant interactions. Some 5151:Wolfe, Benjamin E.; et al. (2008). 4338: 4336: 3691:Lilleskov, Erik A.; et al. (2002). 3569: 3567: 3368:Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment 2929:Simard, Suzanne W.; et al. (1997). 1133:Host specificity and community responses 1069:Biogeography and environmental gradients 911:from fungus to plant is also regulated. 660:, and often incorporate a great deal of 537:extend outward from the mantle into the 258:Mycorrhizal symbioses are ubiquitous in 4554:Tedersoo, Leho; Nara, Kazuhide (2010). 3961:Schrey, Silvia D.; et al. (2012). 2366: 2364: 2362: 1926: 6912:from the original on 30 September 2021 6874:Garcia, Maria O.; et al. (2008). 6756:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 5398:Founoune, Hassna; et al. (2002). 5060: 5050: 4937:Aponte, Cristina; et al. (2010). 4012:Colpaert, Jan V.; et al. (2011). 3574:Högberg, Mona N.; et al. (2010). 3472:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 3220:Menotta, Michele; et al. (2004). 2988:Babikova, Zdenka; et al. (2013). 2680:"Exploration types of ectomycorrhizae" 2186: 2184: 2182: 2138: 2136: 1556:Resilience in challenging environments 1121:hosts, and be less able to compete in 6729:Environmental and Experimental Botany 5094:Walker, John F.; et al. (1999). 4343:Swaty, Randy L.; et al. (1998). 3530:Chalot, Michel; Brun, Annick (1998). 3322:Martin, Francis; et al. (2001). 2716:from the original on 14 November 2012 2240: 2238: 2121:from the original on 13 February 2023 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1666:that are known to be associated with 1367:Many ectomycorrhizal fungi rely upon 1357:The edible epigeous fruiting body of 1306:Competition and other plant symbionts 7: 7289:Mycorrhizas – a successful symbiosis 7110:Journal of Ecosystems and Management 5793:Grant, Cynthia; et al. (2005). 5726:from the original on 29 October 2013 5222:from the original on 16 October 2023 4654:Dickie, Ian A.; et al. (2010). 4373:from the original on 23 January 2012 4299:Peay, Kabir G.; et al. (2010). 4044:from the original on 29 October 2013 3672:from the original on 29 October 2013 3466:Morel, Mélanie; et al. (2005). 3201:from the original on 23 January 2012 3111:Peay, Kabir G.; et al. (2007). 2439:. Cambridge University Press, 1991. 1860:stands that have diverse macro- and 685:. Most of these produce microscopic 277:EcM plants and fungi exhibit a wide 7187:Canadian Journal of Forest Research 5926:Kernaghan, G.; et al. (2002). 5569:Journal of Comparative Physiology B 5523:10.1146/annurev.micro.091208.073504 5070:CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5039:from the original on 8 January 2013 4614:Integrative and Comparative Biology 4107:Sell, Joachim; et al. (2005). 3729:from the original on 8 January 2013 3381:Hilbert, J. L.; Martin, F. (1988). 1402:found in death caps. Below ground, 1390:Other fruiting bodies are eaten by 823:, as well as those responsible for 7087:from the original on 13 March 2019 5480:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04003.x 4217:Liang, Y. U.; et al. (2007). 3817:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1987.tb00919.x 3753:Smith, S. E.; et al. (1994). 3549:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00359.x 3400:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1988.tb00270.x 2790:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1993.tb03812.x 2624:Giron, David; et al. (2013). 2581:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1986.tb00487.x 1137:Most EcM hosts show low levels of 452:the Hartig net is confined to the 106:. The mycobiont is often from the 14: 7208:from the original on 4 March 2016 7056:from the original on 16 July 2019 6433:isolates to aluminium in vitro". 5972:from the original on 21 June 2015 5907:from the original on 21 June 2015 5802:Canadian Journal of Plant Science 5379:from the original on 25 July 2020 5132:from the original on 11 June 2010 5014:. Vol. 2005. pp. 3–15. 4730:from the original on 6 April 2012 4149:from the original on 16 June 2021 3149:from the original on 21 June 2015 3071:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2969:from the original on 21 June 2015 2656:from the original on 5 March 2016 2508:from the original on 21 June 2015 1662:, an ectomycorrhizal fungus with 1148:assemblage containing the genera 1111:latitudinal gradient of diversity 981:Ectomycorrhiza with Douglas fir ( 845:Major changes in polypeptide and 7297:International Mycorrhiza Society 7295:International Mycorrhiza Society 7257: 7178:Mah, Karen; et al. (2001). 6997:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01555.x 6953:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.00900.x 6651:10.1128/aem.71.11.7279-7284.2005 6568:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01037.x 6531:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00694.x 6483:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.00843.x 6130:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2005.00044.x 5955:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2002.10105.x 5864:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1999.00015.x 5696:Yun, Wang; Hall, Ian R. (2004). 5417:10.1046/j.0028-646X.2001.00284.x 5372:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00663.x 5258:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03399.x 5170:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01389.x 4915:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01090.x 4874:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02016.x 4803:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02183.x 4673:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03277.x 4573:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03134.x 4411:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01718.x 4364:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00234.x 4318:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03075.x 3593:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03274.x 3341:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00169.x 3132:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01035.x 2867:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01545.x 2831:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01648.x 2812:He, Xinhua; et al. (2006). 1916:Mycorrhizae and changing climate 1416:has been found to lure and kill 195:, consisting of highly branched 6741:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011.04.008 864:initially forms from the fully 840:symbiosis-related (SR) proteins 516:Extraradical hyphae and linkage 3047:The Journal of Applied Ecology 1847:Prescribed burn in a stand of 1770:. In some studies, elevated CO 1766:and the consequent effects of 1698:Pollution and phytoremediation 477:tissue and are referred to as 408:As suggested by the name, the 199:forming a latticework between 1: 7320:Fungal morphology and anatomy 7241:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80810-1 7165:10.1016/s0006-3207(00)00230-5 7075:Willis, Katherine J. (2018). 6802:10.1016/s0038-0717(00)00076-6 6790:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 6768:10.1016/S0265-931X(96)00038-0 5898:10.1016/s0038-0717(01)00098-0 5886:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 5759:10.1016/S0929-1393(96)00152-7 5511:Annual Review of Microbiology 5436:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 4958:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.01.014 4946:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 4451:10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.05.012 4439:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 3617:Forest Ecology and Management 3492:10.1128/aem.71.1.382-391.2005 3083:10.1016/S0169-5347(96)10053-7 2371:Wang, B.; Qiu, Y.-L. (2006). 1811:acidification of forest soils 1736:persistent organic pollutants 1097:) are also widespread in the 842:are termed ectomycorrhizins. 125:, including species from the 7077:"State of the World's Fungi" 7032:10.1016/0167-8809(91)90052-y 6600:10.1016/j.envpol.2008.12.030 6397:10.1371/journal.pone.0011757 6370:Branco, S.; Ree, R. (2010). 6253:10.1080/17550874.2013.848950 5448:10.1016/0038-0717(79)90087-7 4500:F. R. P. (19 October 2023). 4288:10.1007/978-1-4020-8770-7_13 4242:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.06.005 3663:10.1016/j.funeco.2010.09.008 3629:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.035 915:Nutrient uptake and exchange 628:, the black Périgord truffle 270:and molecular evidence that 63: 55: 47: 6241:Plant Ecology and Diversity 4085:10.1099/00221287-146-5-1109 1610:populations locally adapted 1312:soil microbial interactions 968:rough endoplasmic reticulum 622:The hypogeous sporocarp of 577:common mycorrhizal networks 117:, and more rarely from the 7356: 7081:State of the World's Fungi 6435:Canadian Journal of Botany 5705:Canadian Journal of Botany 4827:Canadian Journal of Botany 4790:Environmental Microbiology 4519:10.1038/s42003-023-05410-z 2539:Canadian Journal of Botany 2437:The ecology of mycorrhizae 2247:American Journal of Botany 2099:10.1007/s00572-019-00917-y 1343:Mycorrhiza helper bacteria 1272:cosmopolitan distributions 656:are typically composed of 296:It has been proposed that 6940:FEMS Microbiology Ecology 6895:10.1007/s11104-007-9509-9 6845:10.1007/s00572-003-0289-7 6470:FEMS Microbiology Ecology 6349:10.1007/s00374-005-0849-4 6306:10.1007/s10661-007-0152-y 6118:FEMS Microbiology Letters 6060:10.1017/s0953756200003166 6019:10.1007/s13595-010-0003-9 4478:10.1007/s11258-007-9325-6 4185:10.1007/s00572-006-0073-6 4125:10.1007/s11104-005-7084-5 4034:10.1007/s13595-010-0003-9 3536:FEMS Microbiology Reviews 3284:10.1007/s00294-004-0518-4 2678:Agerer, Reinhard (2001). 2392:10.1007/s00572-005-0033-6 1966:10.1007/s00572-009-0274-x 1838:Kew Royal Botanic Gardens 1744:polychlorinated biphenyls 1682:and species in the genus 1349:Interactions with animals 1232:. This is most common in 919:Nitrogen is essential in 815:of genes responsible for 560:, functions largely as a 6006:Annals of Forest Science 4021:Annals of Forest Science 3980:10.1186/1471-2180-12-164 3805:Nordic Journal of Botany 2569:Nordic Journal of Botany 1363:, the golden chanterelle 1017:Non-nutritional benefits 754:The plant hosts release 7153:Biological Conservation 7138:16 October 2023 at the 5020:10.1007/1-4020-3870-4_2 4435:Dryobalanops lanceolata 3830:Hobbie, Erik A (2006). 2646:10.1111/1365-2435.12042 693:, ranging from wind to 176:relationships, such as 6631:Appl Environ Microbiol 4506:Communications Biology 2353:10.1098/rstb.1996.0120 2210:10.1186/1741-7007-7-13 2056:Hock, Bertold (2012). 1852: 1671: 1364: 1215:arbuscular mycorrhizas 1210: 1179:molecular phylogenetic 1058:arbuscular mycorrhizas 994: 830:and function, such as 629: 608:arbuscular mycorrhizas 531: 405: 324:Fungi are composed of 310:arbuscular mycorrhizas 272:arbuscular mycorrhizas 260:terrestrial ecosystems 222:Well known EcM fungal 84:that occurs between a 82:symbiotic relationship 33: 6977:Global Change Biology 6431:Pisolithus tinctorius 6218:10.1007/s005720050174 6000:Colpaert, J. (2011). 5581:10.1007/s003600050208 5115:10.1007/s005720050262 2699:10.1007/s005720100108 2032:Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 1901:Arbuscular mycorrhiza 1846: 1818:Northwest Forest Plan 1732:• Organic pollutants: 1676:Pisolithus tinctorius 1656: 1360:Cantharellus cibarius 1356: 1208: 1173:Host plants that are 1127:niche differentiation 1024:secondary metabolites 984:Pseudotsuga menziesii 980: 923:, being required for 855:dichotomous branching 705:community composition 658:complex carbohydrates 621: 592:Pseudotsuga menziesii 523: 403: 178:arbuscular mycorrhiza 60:, "fungus", and ῥίζα 22: 7229:Mycological Research 7119:21 June 2015 at the 6294:Environ Monit Assess 6173:10.1104/pp.118.3.875 6155:Thlaspi caerulescens 6048:Mycological Research 5747:Applied Soil Ecology 5003:Díez, Jesús (2005). 4751:Evolutionary Ecology 4627:10.1093/icb/42.2.352 4230:Mycological Research 479:pseudoparenchymatous 266:by plants. There is 155:ecosystem management 6989:2008GCBio..14.1169M 6643:2005ApEnM..71.7279A 6388:2010PLoSO...511757B 5947:1990reec.book.....J 5935:Restoration Ecology 5856:1999TellB..51..326S 5823:on 22 December 2014 5659:2001Natur.410..651K 5461:Garbaye, J (1994). 3896:1980Natur.287..834D 3484:2005ApEnM..71..382M 3432:10.1104/pp.97.3.977 3241:2004RCMS...18..206M 2950:1997Natur.388..579S 2475:2000Natur.407..506H 2345:1996RSPTB.351.1367F 2339:(1345): 1367–1375. 2157:1993Natur.363...67S 2058:Fungal Associations 1752:tetrachloroethylene 1602:metabolic processes 1187:successional status 1099:southern hemisphere 695:mycophagous animals 646:extraradical hyphae 562:transport structure 535:Extraradical hyphae 422:extraradical hyphae 314:ericoid mycorrhizas 52:, "outside", μύκης 7267:has a profile for 6705:10.1039/c3mt00061c 6087:10.1007/bf02013274 5332:10.1007/BF00014782 5296:10.1007/BF00016611 5157:Journal of Ecology 4763:10.1007/BF02214155 4259:on 29 October 2013 4134:20.500.11850/30941 3940:10.1007/BF02182684 3774:10.1007/BF00000099 2905:10.1007/BF00000102 2750:10.1007/bf00191537 2633:Functional Ecology 2435:Allen, Michael F. 2417:on 29 October 2013 2310:10.1007/BF01972080 2035:. Academic Press. 1906:Ericoid mycorrhiza 1853: 1748:2,4-dichlorophenol 1672: 1422:eastern white pine 1365: 1285:Alliaria petiolata 1230:forest plantations 1211: 1041:organic pollutants 995: 921:plant biochemistry 803:make contact with 630: 625:Tuber melanosporum 532: 506:molecular analyses 456:, whereas in most 406: 182:ericoid mycorrhiza 34: 7273: 6796:(11): 1475–1484. 6637:(11): 7279–7284. 6337:Biol Fertil Soils 6075:Microbial Ecology 6054:(11): 1366–1371. 5892:(12): 1733–1740. 5653:(6829): 651–652. 5205:10.1890/08-1291.1 5029:978-1-4020-2902-8 4445:(12): 3407–3410. 4223:under salt shock" 3890:(5785): 834–836. 3009:10.1111/ele.12115 2944:(6642): 579–582. 2469:(6803): 506–508. 2067:978-3-642-30826-0 2042:978-0-08-055934-6 1911:Orchid mycorrhiza 1830:Pacific Northwest 1201:Roles in invasion 1123:tropical climates 1047:Ectendomycorrhiza 762:that can trigger 745:organic compounds 586:Betula papyrifera 437:exchange occurs. 375:Molecular studies 312:and less so than 264:land colonization 242:destroying angels 236:) and the deadly 7347: 7271: 7261: 7260: 7245: 7244: 7224: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7213: 7207: 7184: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7148: 7142: 7129: 7123: 7106: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7092: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7061: 7042: 7036: 7035: 7015: 7009: 7008: 6983:(5): 1169–1180. 6972: 6966: 6965: 6955: 6931: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6911: 6889:(1–2): 301–310. 6880: 6871: 6865: 6864: 6827: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6810: 6804:. Archived from 6787: 6778: 6772: 6771: 6751: 6745: 6744: 6724: 6718: 6717: 6707: 6698:(9): 1225–1233. 6679: 6673: 6672: 6662: 6623:"Copper-adapted 6618: 6612: 6611: 6594:(5): 1581–1588. 6579: 6573: 6572: 6570: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6533: 6505: 6496: 6495: 6485: 6464:Pisolithus albus 6457: 6451: 6450: 6441:(8): 1229–1233. 6426: 6420: 6419: 6409: 6399: 6367: 6361: 6360: 6332: 6326: 6325: 6300:(1–4): 215–232. 6286:Betula pubescens 6281: 6275: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6201: 6195: 6194: 6184: 6161:Plant Physiology 6148: 6142: 6141: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6043: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6021: 5997: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5971: 5932: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5912: 5906: 5883: 5874: 5868: 5867: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5822: 5816:. Archived from 5799: 5790: 5784: 5778: 5763: 5762: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5725: 5711:(8): 1063–1073. 5702: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5667:10.1038/35070643 5642: 5636: 5635: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5547: 5541:. Archived from 5508: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5482: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5431: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5374: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5279: 5270: 5269: 5241: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5221: 5199:(8): 2098–2107. 5190: 5181: 5175: 5174: 5172: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5137: 5131: 5100: 5091: 5085: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5068: 5062: 5058: 5056: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5038: 5009: 5000: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4976: 4970:. Archived from 4969: 4943: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4917: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4876: 4852: 4843: 4842: 4833:(8): 1053–1076. 4822: 4816: 4815: 4805: 4796:(8): 2219–2232. 4781: 4775: 4774: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4729: 4722: 4704: 4695: 4686: 4685: 4675: 4651: 4640: 4639: 4629: 4605: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4575: 4551: 4542: 4541: 4531: 4521: 4496: 4490: 4489: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4413: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4372: 4349: 4340: 4331: 4330: 4320: 4296: 4290: 4280: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4258: 4252:. Archived from 4227: 4214: 4205: 4204: 4168: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4136: 4119:(1–2): 245–253. 4104: 4098: 4097: 4087: 4078:(5): 1109–1117. 4063: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4043: 4036: 4018: 4009: 4003: 4002: 3992: 3982: 3967:BMC Microbiology 3958: 3952: 3951: 3934:(1–3): 433–443. 3922: 3916: 3915: 3904:10.1038/287834a0 3879: 3873: 3872: 3854: 3836: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3759: 3750: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3728: 3697: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3671: 3648: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3595: 3571: 3562: 3561: 3551: 3527: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3463: 3454: 3453: 3443: 3420:Plant Physiology 3411: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3363: 3354: 3353: 3343: 3319: 3304: 3303: 3272:Current Genetics 3267: 3261: 3260: 3249:10.1002/rcm.1314 3226: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3200: 3186:(5): 1562–1572. 3177: 3168: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3148: 3117: 3108: 3095: 3094: 3066: 3055: 3054: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3025: 3019:. Archived from 2994: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2968: 2961: 2935: 2926: 2917: 2916: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2850: 2844: 2843: 2833: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2792: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2715: 2684: 2675: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2655: 2648: 2630: 2621: 2615: 2612: 2585: 2584: 2564: 2555: 2554: 2545:(8): 1122–1132. 2536: 2527: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2507: 2483:10.1038/35035065 2460: 2451: 2440: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2416: 2410:. Archived from 2377: 2368: 2357: 2356: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2242: 2233: 2232: 2222: 2212: 2188: 2177: 2176: 2165:10.1038/363067a0 2140: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2026: 2001: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1990: 1984:. Archived from 1951: 1942: 1875:prescribed burns 1820:, which governs 1716:• Radionuclides: 1648:serpentine soils 1630:metallothioneins 1604:and can lead to 1449:Plant production 1424:inoculated with 1413:Laccaria bicolor 1332:host specificity 972:plasma membranes 895:Amanita muscaria 870:apoplastic space 799:Once the fungal 341:British Columbia 306:nutrient cycling 66: 58: 50: 7355: 7354: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7310: 7309: 7307: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7270:Ectomycorrhiza 7262: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7226: 7225: 7221: 7211: 7209: 7205: 7199:10.1139/x00-158 7182: 7177: 7176: 7172: 7150: 7149: 7145: 7140:Wayback Machine 7132:Station, 1996. 7130: 7126: 7121:Wayback Machine 7107: 7100: 7090: 7088: 7074: 7073: 7069: 7059: 7057: 7044: 7043: 7039: 7017: 7016: 7012: 6974: 6973: 6969: 6933: 6932: 6925: 6915: 6913: 6909: 6878: 6873: 6872: 6868: 6829: 6828: 6824: 6814: 6812: 6811:on 21 June 2015 6808: 6785: 6780: 6779: 6775: 6753: 6752: 6748: 6726: 6725: 6721: 6686:Suillus bovinus 6681: 6680: 6676: 6620: 6619: 6615: 6581: 6580: 6576: 6555:New Phytologist 6544: 6543: 6539: 6518:New Phytologist 6507: 6506: 6499: 6459: 6458: 6454: 6447:10.1139/b95-133 6428: 6427: 6423: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6334: 6333: 6329: 6283: 6282: 6278: 6272: 6268: 6238: 6237: 6233: 6203: 6202: 6198: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6072: 6071: 6067: 6045: 6044: 6037: 5999: 5998: 5985: 5975: 5973: 5969: 5930: 5925: 5924: 5920: 5910: 5908: 5904: 5881: 5876: 5875: 5871: 5841: 5840: 5836: 5826: 5824: 5820: 5814:10.4141/p03-182 5797: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5779: 5766: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5723: 5717:10.1139/b04-051 5700: 5695: 5694: 5690: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5624:10.2307/1940209 5609: 5608: 5604: 5566: 5565: 5561: 5551: 5549: 5548:on 21 June 2015 5545: 5506: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5467:New Phytologist 5460: 5459: 5455: 5433: 5432: 5425: 5404:New Phytologist 5397: 5396: 5392: 5382: 5380: 5359:New Phytologist 5352: 5351: 5347: 5316: 5315: 5311: 5281: 5280: 5273: 5246:New Phytologist 5243: 5242: 5235: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5188: 5183: 5182: 5178: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5135: 5133: 5129: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5083: 5079: 5069: 5059: 5049: 5042: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5007: 5002: 5001: 4990: 4980: 4978: 4977:on 21 June 2015 4974: 4941: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4902:New Phytologist 4895: 4894: 4890: 4861:New Phytologist 4854: 4853: 4846: 4839:10.1139/b99-115 4824: 4823: 4819: 4783: 4782: 4778: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4731: 4727: 4702: 4697: 4696: 4689: 4660:New Phytologist 4653: 4652: 4643: 4607: 4606: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4560:New Phytologist 4553: 4552: 4545: 4498: 4497: 4493: 4463: 4462: 4458: 4432: 4431: 4427: 4398:New Phytologist 4391: 4390: 4386: 4376: 4374: 4370: 4352:New Phytologist 4347: 4342: 4341: 4334: 4305:New Phytologist 4298: 4297: 4293: 4281: 4272: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4208: 4170: 4169: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4065: 4064: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4016: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3861:10.1890/05-0755 3852:10.1.1.501.9516 3834: 3829: 3828: 3824: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3757: 3752: 3751: 3742: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3712:10.2307/2680124 3695: 3690: 3689: 3685: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3646: 3641: 3640: 3636: 3623:(6): 999–1007. 3614: 3613: 3609: 3580:New Phytologist 3573: 3572: 3565: 3529: 3528: 3517: 3465: 3464: 3457: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3387:New Phytologist 3380: 3379: 3375: 3365: 3364: 3357: 3328:New Phytologist 3321: 3320: 3307: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3224: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3204: 3202: 3198: 3175: 3170: 3169: 3162: 3152: 3150: 3146: 3120:Ecology Letters 3115: 3110: 3109: 3098: 3077:(12): 503–507. 3068: 3067: 3058: 3044: 3043: 3039: 3029: 3027: 3026:on 21 June 2015 3023: 2997:Ecology Letters 2992: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2972: 2970: 2966: 2933: 2928: 2927: 2920: 2890: 2889: 2882: 2855:New Phytologist 2852: 2851: 2847: 2818:New Phytologist 2811: 2810: 2806: 2777:New Phytologist 2770: 2769: 2765: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2682: 2677: 2676: 2669: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2628: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2588: 2566: 2565: 2558: 2551:10.1139/b04-021 2534: 2529: 2528: 2521: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2458: 2453: 2452: 2443: 2434: 2430: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2375: 2370: 2369: 2360: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2259:10.2307/2446014 2244: 2243: 2236: 2190: 2189: 2180: 2151:(6424): 67–69. 2142: 2141: 2134: 2124: 2122: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2068: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2043: 2028: 2027: 2004: 1994: 1992: 1991:on 3 March 2016 1988: 1949: 1944: 1943: 1928: 1924: 1892: 1795: 1777: 1773: 1765: 1760: 1740:organochlorides 1738:(POPs) such as 1724:hyperaccumulate 1700: 1563: 1558: 1541: 1489: 1456: 1451: 1351: 1320:abiotic factors 1308: 1203: 1183:common ancestor 1135: 1071: 1066: 1049: 1019: 917: 809:epidermal cells 797: 738:gene expression 722: 717: 616: 614:Fruiting bodies 518: 510:Fruiting bodies 486:developmentally 470: 430: 398: 377: 369:Earth's climate 337:Princeton Chert 322: 268:paleobiological 256: 224:fruiting bodies 215:carbohydrates. 80:) is a form of 74:ectomycorrhizae 70:ectomycorrhizas 27:from the genus 17: 12: 11: 5: 7353: 7351: 7343: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7325:Fungus ecology 7322: 7312: 7311: 7305: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7286: 7263: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7251:External links 7249: 7247: 7246: 7235:(6): 641–655. 7219: 7193:(2): 224–235. 7170: 7159:(2): 151–161. 7143: 7124: 7098: 7067: 7037: 7026:(2): 209–244. 7010: 6967: 6946:(2): 197–214. 6923: 6883:Plant and Soil 6866: 6822: 6773: 6762:(1): 115–125. 6746: 6735:(2): 304–311. 6719: 6674: 6625:Suillus luteus 6613: 6588:Environ Pollut 6584:Suillus luteus 6574: 6561:(2): 549–559. 6537: 6524:(2): 367–379. 6512:Suillus luteus 6497: 6476:(2): 238–249. 6452: 6421: 6362: 6343:(6): 439–446. 6327: 6276: 6266: 6247:(3): 445–455. 6231: 6212:(3): 139–153. 6196: 6167:(3): 875–883. 6143: 6124:(2): 173–181. 6108: 6081:(4): 303–317. 6065: 6035: 5983: 5918: 5869: 5850:(2): 326–335. 5834: 5785: 5764: 5737: 5688: 5637: 5618:(3): 577–586. 5602: 5575:(3): 172–178. 5559: 5494: 5473:(2): 197–210. 5453: 5442:(2): 119–126. 5423: 5390: 5365:(3): 545–555. 5345: 5320:Plant and Soil 5309: 5290:(2): 211–218. 5284:Plant and Soil 5271: 5252:(4): 895–910. 5233: 5176: 5163:(4): 777–783. 5143: 5086: 5077: 5061:|journal= 5028: 4988: 4952:(5): 788–796. 4929: 4908:(1): 201–215. 4888: 4867:(2): 430–440. 4844: 4817: 4776: 4757:(4): 385–392. 4741: 4713:(6): 477–487. 4687: 4666:(2): 475–484. 4641: 4620:(2): 352–359. 4597: 4587: 4566:(2): 351–354. 4543: 4491: 4472:(2): 237–249. 4456: 4425: 4404:(4): 873–884. 4384: 4358:(4): 733–739. 4332: 4311:(2): 529–542. 4291: 4270: 4236:(8): 939–946. 4221:Boletus edulis 4206: 4179:(8): 559–565. 4160: 4113:Plant and Soil 4099: 4055: 4004: 3953: 3928:Plant and Soil 3917: 3874: 3845:(3): 563–569. 3822: 3795: 3768:(1): 103–113. 3762:Plant and Soil 3740: 3706:(1): 104–115. 3683: 3657:(2): 174–183. 3651:Fungal Ecology 3634: 3607: 3586:(2): 485–493. 3563: 3515: 3478:(1): 382–391. 3455: 3426:(3): 977–984. 3406: 3393:(3): 339–346. 3373: 3355: 3334:(1): 145–154. 3305: 3278:(3): 158–165. 3262: 3235:(2): 206–210. 3212: 3160: 3126:(6): 470–480. 3096: 3056: 3037: 3003:(7): 835–843. 2980: 2918: 2899:(1): 133–140. 2893:Plant and Soil 2880: 2861:(1): 169–178. 2845: 2824:(1): 143–151. 2804: 2783:(2): 231–242. 2763: 2727: 2693:(2): 107–114. 2667: 2639:(3): 599–609. 2616: 2586: 2575:(6): 837–842. 2556: 2519: 2441: 2428: 2386:(5): 299–363. 2358: 2323: 2304:(4): 376–391. 2288: 2253:(3): 410–412. 2234: 2178: 2132: 2093:(6): 637–648. 2073: 2066: 2048: 2041: 2002: 1960:(4): 217–263. 1925: 1923: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1891: 1888: 1832:region of the 1794: 1791: 1775: 1771: 1768:climate change 1763: 1759: 1758:Climate change 1756: 1720:Cortinariaceae 1699: 1696: 1688:Suillus luteus 1670:concentrations 1659:Suillus luteus 1617:detoxification 1615:Fungi exhibit 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1540: 1537: 1491:In commercial 1488: 1485: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1350: 1347: 1307: 1304: 1296:isothiocyanate 1290:allelochemical 1280:garlic mustard 1202: 1199: 1134: 1131: 1115:temperate zone 1095:Thelephoraceae 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1048: 1045: 1018: 1015: 1003:orthophosphate 916: 913: 890:monosaccharide 866:differentiated 796: 793: 721: 718: 716: 713: 615: 612: 517: 514: 469: 466: 429: 426: 416:making up the 397: 394: 379:Molecular and 376: 373: 321: 318: 302:boreal forests 255: 252: 76:, abbreviated 68:, "root"; pl. 38:ectomycorrhiza 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7352: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7308: 7302: 7299: 7296: 7293: 7290: 7287: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7275: 7274: 7266: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7223: 7220: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7174: 7171: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7147: 7144: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7128: 7125: 7122: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7105: 7103: 7099: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7071: 7068: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7014: 7011: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6968: 6963: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6877: 6870: 6867: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6826: 6823: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6784: 6777: 6774: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6750: 6747: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6720: 6715: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6687: 6678: 6675: 6670: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6652: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6626: 6617: 6614: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6578: 6575: 6569: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6550: 6541: 6538: 6532: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6515: 6513: 6504: 6502: 6498: 6493: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6465: 6456: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6422: 6417: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6382:(7): e11757. 6381: 6377: 6373: 6366: 6363: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6331: 6328: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6280: 6277: 6270: 6267: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6235: 6232: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6200: 6197: 6192: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6156: 6147: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6109: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6069: 6066: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6042: 6040: 6036: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5984: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5929: 5922: 5919: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5880: 5873: 5870: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5835: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5796: 5789: 5786: 5783: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5765: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5738: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5699: 5692: 5689: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5563: 5560: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5505: 5498: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5457: 5454: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5430: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5394: 5391: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5346: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5326:(1): 95–107. 5325: 5321: 5313: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5238: 5234: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5180: 5177: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5144: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5090: 5087: 5081: 5078: 5073: 5066: 5054: 5035: 5031: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5012:Archived copy 5006: 4999: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4933: 4930: 4925: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4889: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4821: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4780: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4742: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4701: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4642: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4550: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4495: 4492: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4466:Plant Ecology 4460: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4385: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4295: 4292: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4271: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4222: 4213: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4060: 4056: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4015: 4008: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3921: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3826: 3823: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3687: 3684: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3407: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3374: 3369: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3306: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3216: 3213: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3167: 3165: 3161: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3114: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3041: 3038: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2984: 2981: 2965: 2960: 2959:10.1038/41557 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2925: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2849: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2805: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2767: 2764: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2731: 2728: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2620: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2429: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2374: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2074: 2069: 2063: 2059: 2052: 2049: 2044: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1948: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1884: 1878: 1876: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1862:microhabitats 1859: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1834:United States 1831: 1827: 1826:federal lands 1823: 1819: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1769: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1728: 1727:radionuclides 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1711: 1710:soil salinity 1707: 1703: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1638:free radicals 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1600:affect basic 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1546: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1517: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1497:transplanting 1494: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464:horticultural 1461: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1392:invertebrates 1388: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1362: 1361: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1328:soil moisture 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1305: 1303: 1301: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1287: 1286: 1281: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1207: 1200: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1175:taxonomically 1171: 1169: 1165: 1164: 1159: 1158: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1104: 1101:and tropical 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 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