243:
under‐resourced families tend to lag behind in education and other fields". Household expenditure on children's education in China is different from other countries such as United States or United
Kingdom. Chinese parents attach significant importance to their children's private education investment, which includes private tutors, extracurricular classes, interest classes, and so on. Parents with higher income can provide children more training and opportunities of going to more educational institutions. However, families with less financial support are often incapable of providing these extra educational investments. Moreover, poverty affects the ability of parents to monitor their children's various need during growth and there is evidence indicating economic hardship can reduce the communication between parents and children. According to a 2011 survey, children growing under a lower income family can face more challenges from economic hardship and this makes them more likely to drop school or have emotional problems, such as a tendency for violent and crime. In China, parental income is one of the reasons that cause education inequality, and this cannot be neglected, based on its major influence on children's growth.
142:
education from non-governmental sources, and in the 1980s and 1990s, the government share of education expenditures dropped, even as total education expenditures increased. As a result, families had to pay increased tuition and fees, and schools turned to surcharges and social contributions to fund themselves. Education for children of poorer families was only attainable with state subsidies, which often did not reach the families who were most in need. Tuition and fees also increase as students move from lower to higher grade levels, so even if these poorer students were able to move through the education system, many were prevented from even completing their compulsory education by economic barriers. Additionally, this shift to a wider financial base for education also coincided with rising interprovincial inequality, significantly impairing education opportunities for children in poorly developed rural provinces.
283:
years, the poor are now able to obtain subsidies for the education of their children. This system of 9 year compulsory education has been partially successful in rural areas, with regions reporting very high primary-level enrollment and completion rates. However, grades 10-12 have not been designated as compulsory, and high secondary-level dropout rates break the 9 year compulsory education cycle even earlier. Additionally, in rural areas, the tuition for public high school is comparatively higher than that of most other developing countries, further discouraging rural households from focusing their income on upper secondary education.
188:
and had the opportunity to display a preference toward male children; this so-called “son preference” has prevailed among most
Chinese parents for centuries. However, after the One-child policy was enacted, the only-child girls were able to receive more educational opportunities because there was not as much competition for household resources as in multiple-child households. The gender inequality has improved by this One-child policy and therefore, female education opportunity has increased. The big issue on gender inequality has been improved through this policy.
314:, schools should narrow the educational quality gap and reduce the need for students to rely on tutoring institutions by optimizing teaching methods, designing teaching materials based on students' different abilities, and providing students with abundant educational resources. As schools provided "on-campus classes for both academic subjects and extra-curricular activities" and tutoring institutions were no longer permitted to be for-profit institutions, the
296:, or Chinese university examination, offered extra points for students of ethnic minority backgrounds, although this was scaled back in the 2014 reforms to the national examination policy after multiple cases of ethnicity alteration prompted national backlash. The new reforms also included provisions for provincial quotas, requiring universities to reserve a designated number of admission seats for students from outside of the university's region.
36:
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104:
The first model, based on egalitarianism, emphasizes equality across regions of varying economic wealth and development. Conversely, the second model, based on competition, emphasizes individualistic competition, rationalizing any existing educational disparities as a necessary sacrifice for national economic development.
233:
While overall enrollment rates have risen for both the Han
Chinese population and the Chinese minority population, minority enrollment rates remain lower than that of the Han majority population. Aside from enrollment rates, ethnic disparities in education have also manifested in the form of cultural
204:
Another recent problem causing regional education disparity is the migration of a large portion of China's rural population into urban areas. In many rural regions, particularly within smaller rural towns, this decrease in population also creates problems for schools. As a result, to confront drastic
158:
However, with rapid economic growth, the increase of parental income enables more children to obtain at least a basic education, and this greatly increases chances of girls going to school as well. Previously, it was common for parents to prioritize the education of sons over that of their daughters;
286:
Additionally, as a result of China's large population, college enrollment slots are still restricted in availability, with tuition so high that the costs far dwarf the income of a typical family in poverty. Recent efforts to expand college education availability, coupled with increasing emphasis on
251:
Education heavily influences social and economic mobility, with research indicating that higher levels of parental education positively influence their children's levels of education. This connection is especially significant within rural communities, with education playing a large role in breaking
187:
The One-child Policy in China plays an important role in the inequality of education. The One-child policy was implemented in China in 1979 to slow down the country's explosive population growth and was abolished in 2016. Before the one-child policy, parents were allowed to have more than one child
154:
Although recent studies have shown reductions in gender inequality within
Chinese education since the 1980s, disparities still remain across different regions of China. Studies have indicated that education in rural areas of China shows significantly greater gender disparity than education in urban
107:
The
Chinese government also focused educational policies on higher education and specialized training, leaving basic education underdeveloped throughout large parts of the country. Government funding for education was reserved for urban areas; rural communities, already at an economic disadvantage,
80:
exists on multiple levels, with significant disparities occurring along gender, geographical, and ethnic divides. More specifically, disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources nationwide, as well as the availability of education on levels, ranging from basic to higher education.
282:
Beginning in the early 1980s, grades 1-6 have been designated as compulsory education; it was not until the mid-1990s that grades 7-9 were also designated as compulsory. This regulation of earlier education was enhanced by the elimination of tuition for grades 1–9 in the early 2000s, and in recent
196:
There are a number of factors that contribute to the existing disparities between urban and rural education, with the latter lagging far behind the former as a result of economic, social, and political disparities. In China, the household registration system separates citizens into urban residence
103:
government was confronted with heavy educational disparities across the nation. In the years following the
Chinese Communist Revolution, the Chinese government attempted to address these disparities with alternating approaches, creating periods of differing emphasis on opposing educational models.
208:
As a result of the vast numbers of rural workers migrating to the cities to find employment opportunities, many children are left behind, keeping these children in rural schools that still lag far behind their urban counterparts. For rural children who do follow their parents to urban areas, the
255:
However, Guangjie Ning's contrasting analysis of existing research suggests that income inequality and education equality are mutually reinforcing factors, perpetuating a vicious cycle of their own. Therefore, by Ning's logic, in accordance with the popular perception of education as a means of
242:
The impact of education from family income mainly displays on two things, one involves the physical environment for children, and the other one is the nonphysical influence to children's growth. First of all, “under which poor households have fewer material resources and children who grow up in
112:
policies passed in 1955, placing rural families into agricultural cooperatives that distributed income on the basis of labor hours, the importance of education dropped even further within these rural communities, and they were much less likely to fund primary education for the children of their
200:
Interprovincial inequality in school funding has increased, along with increased dependence in non-budgeted funding sources. Research indicates that the disparity between provincial primary educational expenditures per student nearly doubled between 1990 and 2000. Additionally, while overall
141:
A significant shift in education finance policy occurred in 1982 with the introduction of decentralization, in which provincial governments were now individually in control of financing education within their region. The change in policy sought to capitalize on rapid income growth by funding
145:
Although basic education policies remain in control of the
Communist Party, increased open-mindedness shown by party authorities indicates the possibility of more substantial educational reform, in addition to recent reforms to the national college entrance examination. Although educational
270:
Currently, variations in education policy across different levels of schooling continue to contribute to educational inequality. Even within the same region, school attendance and tuition are regulated differently, often causing confusion for families new to the education system.
287:
scholarships and loans, may help counter rising tuition costs (and other income-related barriers to higher education). Despite tuition challenges, more and more students have been able to graduate from college, with the number of college graduates quadrupling in the past decade.
229:
accounting for around 8% of the total population. However, this small minority population accounts for almost half of China's absolute poor, highlighting the severe income inequality that exists between China's majority Han population and numerous minority groups.
205:
increases in enrollment, many schools consolidate students of multiple grade levels into multigrade classes, a practice that not only challenges teachers, but also negatively affects the quality of education that students receive.
197:
and rural residence. The underfunding of rural schools, inadequate government efforts to provide financial aid for rural students, and the current household registration system all contribute to the urban-rural educational divide.
234:
marginalization, especially with the emergence of a state-sponsored curriculum that enforces assimilation. To preserve individual cultures and languages, many ethnic groups have created multilingual school systems.
318:
had relieved the inequality phenomenon whereby poor families did not have access to adequate educational resources while rich families can obtain better academic performance through tutoring institutions. And the
125:
assigned the
Chinese population into urban and rural regions, exacerbating continuously worsening inequalities within health, employment, housing, and education. Further complicating education policy, people of
320:
146:
inequality has lessened overall, great gaps in educational attainment still exist between populations on multiple divides, affirming the need for a regional focus within reform initiatives.
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illiteracy rates have dropped since 1980, the disparity between urban and rural illiteracy rates continued to increase, with the rural illiteracy rate double that of urban areas in 2000.
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also pointed out that the higher level of educational equity could be realized through the student-oriented education method, which satisfies students’ individual growth needs.
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in 2021 was a new attempt by
Chinese regulators to reduce the inequality of educational resources allocation caused by regional inequality and economic differences during
256:
escape from poverty, children from poorer families theoretically need education the most, yet encounter greater economic barriers that prevent continuation of education.
213:
system bars them from attending urban public schools. These children often must attend private schools that charge higher tuition, even while offering subpar education.
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designation. According to
Xiaogang Wu's tabulation, based on figures from the 2000 Chinese Census, an estimated 33% of city residents were actually designated as rural-
1301:
1634:
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areas. Since 1981, the rural illiteracy rate of females has consistently been over twice that of males, despite an overall decrease in illiteracy in rural regions.
292:
462:
Zeng, Junxia; Pang, Xiaopeng; Zhang, Linxiu; Medina, Alexis; Rozelle, Scott (2014-04-01). "Gender Inequality in Education in China: A Meta-Regression Analysis".
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1197:
545:. Symposium on Inequality, Market Development, and Sources of Growth in China under Accelerating ReformTechnology, Human Capital, and Economic Development.
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with greater opportunities, the demand for female education can be easier satisfied, fueling an increase in the actual demand for female education as well.
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Lu, Y (2008). "Does "hukou" still matter? The household registration system and its impact on social stratification and mobility in China".
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Ning, Guangjie (2010-12-01). "Can educational expansion improve income inequality? Evidences from the CHNS 1997 and 2006 data".
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Lee, Ming-Hsuan (October 2011). "The One-Child Policy and Gender Equality in Education in China: Evidence from Household Data".
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were left to fund their own schools, exacerbating the already existing divide between urban and rural education. When
1053:
Burkhoff, A. (2015). One Exam Determines One's Life: The 2014 Reforms to the Chinese national College Entrance Exam.
1711:
1681:
1660:
1276:
1256:
505:
Wu, Xiaogang (2010-03-01). "Economic transition, school expansion and educational inequality in China, 1990–2000".
352:
226:
790:
Liu, Fengshu (2004-01-01). "Basic education in China's rural areas: a legal obligation or an individual choice?".
1557:
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1471:
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183:, stating: "For the sake of the country's prosperity and families' happiness, please implement family planning"
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1286:
1155:
853:
Sai, Ding (2007-05-01). "Poverty and Inequality among Chinese Minorities - By A.S. Bhalla and Shufang Qiu".
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on Further Reducing the Homework Burden and Off-Campus Training Burden of Students in Compulsory Education
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890:"Educational stratification by ethnicity in China: Enrollment and attainment in the early reform years"
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980:"Influence of Income Disparity on Child and Adolescent Education in China: A Literature Review"
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Yang, Jun; Huang, Xiao; Liu, Xin (2014-07-01). "An analysis of education inequality in China".
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HANNUM, Emily; WANG, Meiyan (2006-01-01). "Geography and educational inequality in China".
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Minority Education in China: Balancing Unity and Diversity in an Era of Critical Pluralism
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Unequal China: The political economy and cultural politics of inequality
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status are able to live and work in urban areas without changing their
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1104:"中共中央办公厅 国务院办公厅印发《关于进一步减轻义务教育阶段学生作业负担和校外培训负担的意见》 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站"
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Chinese Education Since 1949: Academic and Revolutionary Models
1686:
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Rising Inequality in China: Challenges to a Harmonious Society
29:
384:"Trends in educational gender inequality in China: 1949-1985"
1156:"Will 'double reduction' policy lead to fairer education?"
660:"Spatial inequality in education and health care in China"
1292:
Challenge Cup Competition of Science Achievement in China
321:
Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China
53:
420:
Li, Shi; Sato, Hiroshi; Sicular, Terry (2013-10-31).
509:. New Directions in Education Transitions Research.
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New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development
1072:"China promotes equality in college entrance exam"
792:International Journal of Educational Development
630:International Journal of Educational Development
1635:International Alliance of Research Universities
1620:Association of East Asian Research Universities
221:The population of China mainly consists of the
507:Research in Social Stratification and Mobility
391:Research in Social Stratification and Mobility
290:As an attempt to level the playing field, the
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706:
8:
1697:Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers
1786:Types of universities and colleges in China
978:Cai, Wangchun; Wu, Fuxiang (January 2019).
1198:
1184:
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658:ZHANG, Xiaobo; KANBUR, Ravi (2005-01-01).
1530:Self-Taught Higher Education Examinations
1404:National Education Examinations Authority
995:
905:
686:
571:Sun, Wanning; Guo, Yingjie (2013-05-07).
278:A typical high school classroom in China.
27:Overview of education inequality in China
1262:Burning of books and burying of scholars
1131:"王欢：推动"双减"落地 让教育回归本真 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站"
1625:Association of Pacific Rim Universities
1604:Schools of Journalism and Communication
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598:Chen, Theodore Hsi-en (2014-05-19).
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1778:Rankings of universities in China
1732:List of universities and colleges
867:10.1111/j.1467-8411.2007.193_15.x
855:Asian-Pacific Economic Literature
116:Also beginning in the 1950s, the
47:to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s
34:
1782:Science and technology in China
1371:Double First-Class Construction
1252:Academies of Classical Learning
382:Hannum, Emily; Xie, Yu (1994).
247:Effects of education inequality
18:Educational inequality in China
1692:Common Recruitment Examination
1645:Worldwide Universities Network
1340:Chinese Academy of Engineering
954:. Hong Kong University Press.
804:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2003.09.001
642:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.03.002
426:. Cambridge University Press.
252:the vicious cycle of poverty.
1:
1707:Quanguo Waiyu Shuiping Kaoshi
1312:Education inequality in China
948:Leibold, James (2014-02-04).
343:History of Education in China
91:History of education in China
78:Education inequality in China
1033:10.1016/j.ecosys.2010.04.001
888:Hannum, Emily (2002-02-01).
679:10.1016/j.chieco.2005.02.002
555:10.1016/j.chieco.2006.04.003
464:Contemporary Economic Policy
238:Family Income Stratification
97:Chinese Communist Revolution
1330:Chinese Academy of Sciences
192:Geographical stratification
1832:
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1712:Public English Test System
1682:Putonghua Proficiency Test
1439:Private and public schools
1277:Hundred Schools of Thought
519:10.1016/j.rssm.2009.12.003
353:Gender inequality in China
299:The implementation of the
263:
88:
1816:Student politics in China
1773:
1558:National Library of China
1500:Academic grading in China
1495:National Key Universities
1213:
820:Gao, Helen (2014-09-04).
762:10.1080/02529200802091250
727:10.1007/s10834-011-9277-9
225:ethnic majority, with 55
1687:Zhíyè Hànyŭ Nénglì Cèshì
1599:Foreign-language schools
1553:Book collecting in China
1485:National Key Disciplines
750:Social Sciences in China
305:the compulsory education
260:Current education policy
60:may contain suggestions.
45:may need to be rewritten
1525:Academic ranks in China
1287:Digital divide in China
822:"China's Education Gap"
363:Double Reduction Policy
316:double reduction policy
301:double reduction policy
163:One-child policy Effect
101:Chinese Communist Party
1505:State Key Laboratories
279:
184:
1677:Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi
1399:Ministry of Education
1381:Thousand Talents Plan
1237:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
1160:www.chinadaily.com.cn
990:(163, 2019): 97–113.
907:10.1353/dem.2002.0005
667:China Economic Review
543:China Economic Review
307:period. According to
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217:Ethnic stratification
170:
150:Gender stratification
1702:College English Test
1630:Global U8 Consortium
1490:College English Test
1232:Imperial examination
1082:on September 4, 2014
333:Education inequality
1429:Secondary education
1302:1952 reorganization
1297:May Fourth Movement
1242:Scholar-bureaucrats
1806:Education in China
1462:Vocation education
1307:Simplified Chinese
1207:Education in China
1076:news.xinhuanet.com
826:The New York Times
721:(1, 2012): 41–52.
476:10.1111/coep.12006
338:Education in China
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266:Education in China
185:
95:Shortly after the
85:History after 1945
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1661:English education
1613:Int'l cooperation
1548:Archives in China
1424:Primary education
1282:Scouting in China
1272:Beijing Guozijian
1257:Chinese educators
997:10.1002/cad.20268
227:ethnic minorities
75:
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49:quality standards
16:(Redirected from
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1568:Shanghai Library
1434:Boarding schools
1216:Education system
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1594:Law schools
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1361:Project 211
1154:Wei, Song.
798:(1): 5–21.
66:August 2022
1811:Inequality
1800:Categories
1776:See also:
1750:Wu Shulian
1577:Specialist
1454:Vocational
1165:2023-04-11
1140:2023-04-11
1113:2023-04-11
1086:2015-11-02
894:Demography
839:2015-11-20
688:1813/58074
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58:talk page
1724:Rankings
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636:: 2–10.
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327:See also
310:Opinions
177:Jiujiang
1224:History
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181:Jiangxi
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1416:Basic
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