Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance

170:, task shifting skill and task strategy were involved—have been conducted and analyzed. These three cognitive processes are involved and critical in tasks involving supervisory attention, which is defined as behaviour that arises through the selection and implementation of schemas. Following one night of total sleep deprivation, subjects showed no decline in task shifting or response inhibition performance. It affected the ability to use preparatory bias to increase performance speed. It is suggested that the brain’s cognitive resources make an active effort to succeed in a challenging task when subjected to sleep deprivation, and that this deficit becomes apparent in tasks involving preparatory bias. Similarly, partial sleep deprivation significantly influenced subjects simple reaction time, thus making it slower than subjects who were well rested 342: 442: 57: 326: 567: 192: 657:(ACh) may also be involved in the effects of sleep deprivation, particularly with regards to spatial memory. Muscarinic antagonists, or chemicals that block ACh, impair spatial learning when administered prior to a training task among rats. ACh levels are also found to be lower when measured following a period of sleep deprivation. ACh has also been shown to increase the activity of the PKA pathway, which is needed for memory consolidation. 620:

rested. Another study using a visual-motor procedural memory task documented similar results. Participants who were sleep deprived following the initial training showed no improvement on trials the next day, while those who received sleep showed significant positive changes. Studies such as these clearly demonstrate the disruptive influence sleep deprivation has on memory consolidation of procedural and declarative memories.

651:. Further research has revealed that the protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway is crucial to long-term memory. If PKA or protein synthesis inhibition occurs at certain moments during sleep, memory consolidation can be disrupted. In addition, mice with genetic inhibition of PKA have been shown to have long-term memory deficits. Thus, sleep deprivation may act through the inhibition of these protein synthesis pathways. 242: 221:(PCC) and medial prefrontal cortex are involved in the anticipatory allocation of spatial attention. When sleep-deprived, PCC activity decreases, impairing selective attention. Subjects were exposed to an attention-shifting task involving spatially informative, misleading and uninformative cues preceding the stimuli. When sleep-deprived, subjects showed increased activation in the left 382: 72:

of the spatial relationships between four letters, using a graph composed of six squares, immediately following the presentation of an item from a tape recorder. It was found that auditory attention of sleep-deprived individuals is affected as the total amount of sleep-deprivation increases, possibly due to lowered perceptual vigilance.

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deprived only after the initial learning. In this case, it is hypothesized that rather than preventing the memory from being consolidated, sleep deprivation interfered with the initial acquisition of the memory. Mice with pre-trial sleep deprivation also took significantly longer to learn a task than well-rested mice.

368:(closely associated with the function of the prefrontal cortex), where the information that is active needs to be updated by replacing old, now irrelevant information with new, relevant information based on the objective. Inhibition involves controlled and deliberate impedance of automatic, predominant responses. 619:

There is similar evidence for the role of sleep in procedural memory in humans. Participants in one study were trained on a procedural memory skill involving perceptual-motor skills. Those who were NREM sleep deprived performed significantly worse on subsequent trials compared to those who were fully

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Some studies shed further light on this phenomenon. One study used real-life decision making scenarios involving choosing cards from 1 of 4 decks of cards. Different cards were considered as a reward while the others were a penalty. The sleep-deprived subjects failed to alter their selection methods,

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Research has found that together, attention and sleep deprivation modulate the parahippocampal place area (PPA) activation and scene processing. Specifically, sleep deprivation was related to significant decreases in PPA activation while attending to scenes and when ignoring scenes. This is explained

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Sleep deprivation also has a documented effect on the ability to acquire new memories for subsequent consolidation. A study done on mice that were sleep deprived before learning a new skill but allowed to rest afterward displayed a similar number of errors on later trials as the mice that were sleep

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While most important decisions are made over a longer period of time involving more in-depth cognitive analysis, humans usually have limited time in which to assimilate a large amount of information into an informed decision. Lack of sleep appears to negatively affect one's ability to appreciate and

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The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance have been studied through the use of parametric visual attention tasks. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of participants' brains who were involved in ball-tracking tasks of various difficulty levels were obtained. These images were taken

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attention has been examined following sleep deprivation. In one study, researchers examined the auditory attention of twelve non-sleep-deprived subjects and twelve sleep-deprived subjects at various time intervals. Subjects were involved in an auditory attention task, which required the reproduction

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Sleep deprivation increases the number of errors made on working memory tasks. In one study, the working memory task involved illuminating a sequence of 3 or 4 coloured lights, then asking both sleep-deprived and non-sleep deprived people to memorize and repeat back the sequence. The sleep deprived

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Researchers believe that three of the most 'basic' executive functions are: shifting, updating, and inhibition. Shifting back and forth between different tasks is considered a very important mental behavior involved in executive functioning, as it involves active disengagement from the present task

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is more highly activated when accompanied by sleep deprivation—than when the subject is in a state of rested wakefulness. Contrarily, the thalamus is more highly activated during difficult tasks accompanied by rested wakefulness, but not during a state of sleep deprivation. Researchers propose that

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Deficits in cognitive performance due to continuous sleep restriction are not well understood. Studies have looked into physiological arousal of the sleep-deprived brain. Participants, whose total amount of sleep had been restricted by 33% throughout one week, were subjected to reaction time tests.

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based on the assimilation of continuously changing or novel information. In a study of military personnel who had undergone two nights of sleep deprivation, results showed marked reductions in the ability to generate ideas about a given topic (categories test); this is known as ideational fluency.

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Intuitively, because sleep deprivation had a negative effect on handling the complexity of the simulated marketing game, it also affected innovative processes as subjects failed to adopt a more innovative (and rewarding) style of play. Innovative thinking involves the construction of new behaviors

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involves a range of executive functions that need to be combined and organized in order to respond in the most appropriate manner (i.e., respond with the most advantageous decision). There are many aspects to the process of decision making, including those discussed above. Other processes involved

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in nature (as opposed to more lateralized deficit explanations). In a study using the Choice Visual Perception Task, subjects were exposed to stimuli appearing in various locations in visual space. Results indicate that sleep deprivation results in a general decline in visual attention. It is also

225:. This region is activated when exposed to stimuli in unexpected locations. These findings suggest that sleep-deprived people may be impaired in their ability to anticipate the locations of upcoming events. Inability to avoid attending to irrelevant events may also be induced by sleep-deprivation. 359:

is "the ability to plan and coordinate a willful action in the face of alternatives, to monitor and update action as necessary and suppress distracting material by focusing attention on the task at hand". The prefrontal cortex has been identified as the most important region involved in executive

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Being able to show insight into one's performance on different tasks and correct or modify those behaviors if they are incorrect is an important part of executive functioning. The problems that could be associated with being unable to learn from a mistake or adapt to a mistake could impair many

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of 0.05%, and 24 hours of wakefulness corresponding to a BAC of 0.10%. Compounding this is the proven dissociation between objective performance and subjective alertness; people vastly underestimate the effect that sleep deprivation has on their cognitive performance, particularly during the

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levels (in the form of 5-HT) have been shown to decrease during REM and NREM sleep, leading some researchers to believe that it is also involved in memory consolidation during sleep. Mice lacking the receptor gene for 5-HT engage in more REM sleep and perform better on spatial memory tasks.

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Animal studies have partly validated these claims. For instance, one study conducted with rats showed that REM sleep deprivation after learning a new task disrupted their ability to perform the task again later. This was especially true if the task was complex (i.e., involved using unusual

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One way sleep is involved in the creation of long-term memories is through memory consolidation—the process by which a new memory is changed into a more permanent form. This is believed to be accomplished by creating connections between the medial temporal lobes and neocortical areas.

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Other examples of inability to process complex information includes a decrease in ability to assess facial expressions, an increase in resolving to the use of stereotypes and racial biases in evaluations, and an increase in taking the easier solution to solving interpersonal problems.

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continuing to choose cards from decks that were producing a high amount of penalty cards, whereas the control subjects were able to change their choosing strategy by a cost-benefit analysis based on monitoring the outcomes they were getting as they went along.

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the thalamic resources, which are normally activated during difficult tasks, are being activated in an attempt to maintain alertness during states of sleep deprivation. An increase in thalamic activation is related to a decrease in the parietal, prefrontal and

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studies have documented lower accuracy and slower reaction times among sleep deprived participants performing working memory tasks. Decreasing alertness and lack of focus triggered deficits in working memory that are accompanied by significant degradation of

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solely involved in integrating visual spatial information with postural information. Without this apparent combining of spatial information, it would be difficult or impossible to locate objects in external space (as information provided solely by the

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The process of planning would be done congruently with decision making in determining the outcome behavior. As has been shown so far, sleep deprivation has many detrimental effects on executive functions and planning is not spared. One study involved

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was included in a trial (i.e., a blowdryer blasting hot air and noise at a mouse), mice that were sleep deprived were less anxious on subsequent trials. This suggests they had not retrieved all of the memory related to the unpleasant experience.

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performed the task much faster than those in the control condition (i.e., not sleep deprived), which initially appeared to be a positive effect. A significantly different number of errors were made, with the fatigued group performing much worse.

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The game involved subjects promoting a fictional product while getting feedback on the financial effects of their decisions. They would continuously have to take into account new variables to succeed which would increase the game's complexity.

464:. In a study that involved risk taking analysis of drivers who had been driving for 12 hours straight, it was found that they were more willing to make hazardous maneuvers (and were reluctant to adopt any form of a cautious driving style). 694:. This reduced plasticity may be the root cause of impairments in both working memory among humans and spatial memory among rats. Sleep deprivation may additionally affect memory by reducing the proliferation of cells in the hippocampus. 183:

analysis. The results indicate that the frontal regions of the brain are first to be affected, whereas the parietal regions remain active until the effects of sleep deprivation become more severe, which occurred near the end of the week.

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McCann, C., Pointing, T. (1995) The effect of alerting drugs on planning performance during sustained operations. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, North York, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved onon November 19, 2009 from

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suggested that the sleep-deprived brain is able to maintain a certain level of cognitive performance during tasks requiring divided attention—by recruiting additional cortical regions that are not normally used for such tasks.

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Alvarenga TA, Patti CL, Andersen ML, Silva RH, Calzavara MB, Lopez GB, et al. (November 2008). "Paradoxical sleep deprivation impairs acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval of a discriminative avoidance task in rats".

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who were required to complete simulated military operations under sleep deprived conditions. It showed a decrease in the subjects ability to "plan on the fly" and overall outcomes were less than those of well-rested cadets.

154:. It results in an inability to avoid attending to irrelevant information displayed during attention-related tasks. (Norton) It also decreases activation in the ventral visual area and the frontal parietal control regions. 1803:

Sagaspe P, Sanchez-Ortuno M, Charles A, Taillard J, Valtat C, Bioulac B, et al. (February 2006). "Effects of sleep deprivation on Color-Word, Emotional, and Specific Stroop interference and on self-reported anxiety".

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Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD (August 2000). "The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: a latent variable analysis".

647:. There is evidence that these altered levels of proteins could increase the excitability of the central nervous system, thus increasing the susceptibility of the brain to other neurochemical agents that can cause 400:. These behaviors would include spontaneous sequences of action on irrelevant objects in the surroundings with no clear goal in mind. This theory has helped to extend the current knowledge on executive functions. 2824:

Yang RH, Hu SJ, Wang Y, Zhang WB, Luo WJ, Chen JY (September 2008). "Paradoxical sleep deprivation impairs spatial learning and affects membrane excitability and mitochondrial protein in the hippocampus".

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Linde L, Edland A, Bergström M (May 1999). "Auditory attention and multiattribute decision-making during a 33 h sleep-deprivation period: mean performance and between-subject dispersions".

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Sleep deprivation has also been associated with decreased overall membrane excitability of neurons in the brain. Activation of these membranes is critical for the formation of memories.

505:. This test involves a change in the rules which requires a shift in strategy. In the same study discussed above, detriments were also found on this task in the sleep deprived people. 2279:

Saxvig IW, Lundervold AJ, Grønli J, Ursin R, Bjorvatn B, Portas CM (March 2008). "The effect of a REM sleep deprivation procedure on different aspects of memory function in humans".

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in response to sleep deprivation. As subjects become increasingly impaired on working memory tasks, a more specific decrease of glucose occurs in the thalamus, prefrontal cortex and

396:. This system is believed to come into play when intervention of habitual response is necessary. Damage to the prefrontal cortex will cause a breakdown in this system, resulting in 281:

to the lesioned hemisphere. They display a slowed response in shifting their focus of current attention to events and stimuli appearing contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere.

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Gais S, Köster S, Sprenger A, Bethke J, Heide W, Kimmig H (November 2008). "Sleep is required for improving reaction times after training on a procedural visuo-motor task".

127:, sources. Therefore, it is suggested that sleep deprivation affects endogenously-driven selective attention to a greater extent than exogenously-driven selected attention. 3055:

Mollicone DJ, Van Dongen HP, Dinges DF (2007). "Optimizing sleep/wake schedules in space: Sleep during chronic nocturnal sleep restriction with and without diurnal naps".

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are a broad range of impairments resulting from inadequate sleep, impacting attention, executive function and memory. An estimated 20% of adults or more have some form of

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By contrast, other studies have indicated that the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance, specifically sustained visual attention, are more global and

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fMRI scans following brief sleep deprivation (24 hours or less) show increases in thalamic activation. Verbal working memory tasks normally cause increases in left

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Risk versus reward analysis is an important part of decision making. Attempting to create a representation and response to a risky situation highly involves the

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parietal lobes. This information suggests that divided attention tasks require more attentional resources than normally required by a non-sleep-deprived person.

2998:"Prediction of Vigilant Attention and Cognitive Performance Using Self-Reported Alertness, Circadian Phase, Hours since Awakening, and Accumulated Sleep Loss" 3918: 2452:

Turner TH, Drummond SP, Salamat JS, Brown GG (November 2007). "Effects of 42 hr of total sleep deprivation on component processes of verbal working memory".

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play an essential role in modulating neuron excitability, and research has shown that sleep deprivation is involved in inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism.

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Researchers have hypothesized that sleep deprivation interferes with the normal reduction in levels of 5-HT, impairing the process of memory consolidation.

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Linden ER, Bern D, Fishbein W (April 1975). "Retrograde amnesia: prolonging the fixation phase of memory consolidation by paradoxical sleep deprivation".

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and locate it among a number of similar words, the length of time they could hold it in their working memory decreased by 38% compared to rested persons.

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Pais-Vieira M, Lima D, Galhardo V (March 2007). "Orbitofrontal cortex lesions disrupt risk assessment in a novel serial decision-making task for rats".

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Cote KA, Milner CE, Osip SL, Baker ML, Cuthbert BP (October 2008). "Physiological arousal and attention during a week of continuous sleep restriction".

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during early sleep stages. The observed effects on memory retention the next day were similar to those obtained from people who had received no sleep.

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Twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation has been found to affect the functional connectivity between the inferior frontal parietal region (IPS) and the

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Gambin M, Swiecicka M (November 2009). "Relation between response inhibition and symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity in children".

378:. Studies have found that as little as 36 hours of sleep deprivation can cause a performance reduction in tasks requiring these executive functions. 83:(fMRI) scans of the brains of subjects exposed to thirty-five hours of sleep deprivation indicate that sleep deprivation is related to increases in 643:

One early study into neurochemical influences on sleep and memory was conducted with cats and demonstrated that sleep deprivation increased brain

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Norman DA, Shallice T (1986). "Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior.". In Davidson RJ, Schwartz GE, Shapiro D (eds.).

39:. The consequences can negatively affect the health, cognition, energy level and mood of a person and anyone around. It increases the risk of 2496: 1649: 1616: 1095:

Jennings JR, Monk TH, van der Molen MW (September 2003). "Sleep deprivation influences some but not all processes of supervisory attention".

80: 95:. This is particularly apparent in the right hemisphere. In non-sleep-deprived people involved in verbal learning and arithmetic tasks, the 2314:

Kahol K, Leyba MJ, Deka M, Deka V, Mayes S, Smith M, et al. (February 2008). "Effect of fatigue on psychomotor and cognitive skills".

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The processes above illustrate a model of controlled versus automatic behavior that was hypothesized by Shallice et al. (1989), called the

308:(PET) analysis of the parietal lobes suggest that this region is involved in conjunction searches, but not in single-feature searches (see 3498: 937:

Drummond SP, Gillin JC, Brown GG (June 2001). "Increased cerebral response during a divided attention task following sleep deprivation".

489:. After 45–50 hours of sleep deprivation, a study found subjects took longer and required more moves to finish it than did the controls. 421:

respond to increasing complexity, as was found in performance deficits after 1 night of sleep deprivation on a simulated marketing game.

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has been implemented in the process of inhibiting a habitual response or detecting possible conflicts in responses; this is shown by the

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activation, resulting in the overall impairment of attentional networks, which are necessary for visuospatial attention performance.

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and ERP analysis reveals that activation deficits are more apparent in the non-dominant hemisphere—than in the dominant hemisphere.

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providers, 24-hour shifts were not associated with a higher frequency of negative safety outcomes when compared to shorter shifts.

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Campbell IG, Guinan MJ, Horowitz JM (August 2002). "Sleep deprivation impairs long-term potentiation in rat hippocampal slices".

3488: 139:(PPA). It does not affect the attention modulation index of the PPA. With this information, researchers have concluded that the 3923: 3531: 3462: 3221: 1692:

Szmalec A, Verbruggen F, Vandierendonck A, Kemps E (February 2011). "Control of interference during working memory updating".

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May J, Kline P (November 1987). "Measuring the effects upon cognitive abilities of sleep loss during continuous operations".

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McEwen BS (October 2006). "Sleep deprivation as a neurobiologic and physiologic stressor: Allostasis and allostatic load".

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Plihal W, Born J (September 1999). "Memory consolidation in human sleep depends on inhibition of glucocorticoid release".

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Reduced duration of sleep, as well as an increase in time spent awake, are factors that highly contribute to the risk of

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by the absence of change in the Attention Modulation Index (AMI). Face recognition is not affected by sleep deprivation.

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Koechlin E, Ody C, Kouneiher F (November 2003). "The architecture of cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex".

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Kendall AP, Kautz MA, Russo MB, Killgore WD (October 2006). "Effects of sleep deprivation on lateral visual attention".

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Research evidence suggests that sleep is involved in the acquisition, maintenance and retrieval of memories as well as

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Rauchs G, Desgranges B, Foret J, Eustache F (June 2005). "The relationships between memory systems and sleep stages".

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Harrison Y, Horne JA (May 1999). "One night of sleep loss impairs innovative thinking and flexible decision making".

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Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC: 1994

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activity. After 35 hours come noted decreases in temporal lobe activation and increases in parietal lobe activation.

119:(ERP) recordings have found that twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation decreases ERP response to signal inputs from 3478: 738: 136: 99:

and the right prefrontal cortex are active. Following sleep deprivation, there is increased activation of the left

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Harrison Y, Horne JA (June 1998). "Sleep loss impairs short and novel language tasks having a prefrontal focus".

553: 347: 96: 32: 273:. Those with lesions to the posterior parietal lobe have little to no difficulty shifting attention to and from 3251: 767: 748:. They are among the highest risk group for driving while feeling tired and sleep deprivation related crashes. 539: 2912:

Stutts JC, Wilkins JW, Scott Osberg J, Vaughn BV (May 2003). "Driver risk factors for sleep-related crashes".

1275:"Sleep deprivation alters functioning within the neural network underlying the covert orienting of attention" 3791: 3572: 3381: 782: 772: 583:

is also affected by sleep deprivation. When sleep deprived participants in a study were asked to remember a

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Sleep deprivation has been shown to negatively affect picture classification speed and accuracy, as well as

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are both believed to be implicated, with current theories suggesting NREM is most particularly involved in

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A common test used to assess error correction and trouble shooting with regards to the frontal lobe is the

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Promsote W, Chumpolkulwong K, Musich T, Corley MJ, Ndhlovu LC, Sopanaporn J, et al. (November 2023).

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This is especially relevant for young adults who require around eight hours of sleep at night to overcome

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van den Berg J, Neely G (April 2006). "Performance on a simple reaction time task while sleep deprived".

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Another psychological test used to assess planning, decision making and other executive functions is the

3709: 3441: 737:, have traditionally allowed workers to sleep while on duty, between calls for service. In one study of 722: 627:

Sleep deprivation is also implicated in impaired ability to retrieve stored long-term memories. When an

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is highlighted in magenta, and has been known to interact with all areas highlighted on this neural map.

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Harrison Y, Horne JA (September 2000). "The impact of sleep deprivation on decision making: a review".

3092:"Association between poor sleep, fatigue, and safety outcomes in emergency medical services providers" 2351:"The impact of moderate sleep loss on neurophysiologic signals during working-memory task performance" 2092:

Brown ID, Tickner AH, Simmonds DC (March 1970). "Effect of prolonged driving on overtaking criteria".

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Evidence from imaging studies also demonstrates the influence of sleep deprivation on working memory.

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to this region of the brain in humans result in difficulty or inability to attend to events that are

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Shallice T, Burgess PW, Schon F, Baxter DM (December 1989). "The origins of utilization behaviour".

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Morris N, Jones DM (1990). "Memory updating in working memory: The role of the central executive".

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is insufficient). The position of the eyes, head and body must also be taken into consideration.

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Jones K, Harrison Y (December 2001). "Frontal lobe function, sleep loss and fragmented sleep".

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Patterson PD, Weaver MD, Frank RC, Warner CW, Martin-Gill C, Guyette FX, et al. (2012).

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Mander BA, Reid KJ, Davuluri VK, Small DM, Parrish TB, Mesulam MM, et al. (June 2008).

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Several theories have been put forth to explain the effect sleep deprivation has on memory.

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Tomasi D, Wang RL, Telang F, Boronikolas V, Jayne MC, Wang GJ, et al. (January 2009).

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interaction (PPI) is more involved in selective attention than the IPS and PPA.

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in the body. This was simulated in one study by elevating the concentration of

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during rested wakefulness and again after one night of sleep deprivation. The

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Electrical brain stimulation for the treatment of neurological disorders

3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3754: 3659: 3493: 3393: 3351: 3304: 1226:"Impairment of attentional networks after 1 night of sleep deprivation" 648: 517:. Subsequently, sleep deprivation has been shown to affect working and 217:

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies indicate that the

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Dinges DF (December 1995). "An overview of sleepiness and accidents".

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Braver TS, Barch DM, Gray JR, Molfese DL, Snyder A (September 2001).

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Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance

733:, the longer the more beneficial. Some industries, particularly the 713:, the severity and fatality rates of which are on the same level as 1925: 1923: 364:

and engaging in a new task. Updating is believed to be involved in

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Roehrs T, Timms V, Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos A, Roth T (October 1989).

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Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory

565: 440: 190: 55: 3182:"Adolescent sleepiness: increased risk in a high-risk population" 1030:"Sleep deprivation and its effects on object-selective attention" 288:

from the parietal lobes of monkeys have indicated that there are

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Cohen A, Rafal RD (1991). "Attention and Feature Integration".

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Many of acute sleep deprivation's effects can be countered by

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affects memory consolidation by changing the concentration of

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that correlate to executive function will be discussed below.

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The results of these tests were analyzed using quantitative

1080:

Ward J (2006). "Space, Attention and the Parietal Lobes.".

162:

Studies involving sleep deprived subjects’ performance on

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Chee MW, Tan JC, Parimal S, Zagorodnov V (January 2010).

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Hublin C, Kaprio J, Partinen M, Koskenvuo M (June 2001).

819:"Insufficient sleep--a population-based study in adults" 682:

Sleep deprivation may affect memory by interfering with

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and parietal lobe activation during tasks that combine

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information or developing novel adaptive behaviours).

21:

effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance

1932:

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes

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Trujillo LT, Kornguth S, Schnyer DM (October 2009).

3722: 3682: 3630: 3560: 3512: 3460: 3402: 3342: 3333: 3270: 3241: 2405:"Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation" 721:, with 19 hours of wakefulness corresponding to a 2172:http://cradpdf.drdc.gc.ca/PDFS/zbb55/p506693.pdf/ 1965:Gordon AM, Mendes WB, Prather AA (October 2017). 1603:. Vol. 4. New York: Plenum. pp. 1–18. 2349:Smith ME, McEvoy LK, Gevins A (November 2002). 304:application over the parietal lobes as well as 1636:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 243–276. 3215: 3141:"Sleep extension in sleepy and alert normals" 2949:"Fatigue, alcohol and performance impairment" 1082:The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience 8: 2607: 2605: 2181: 2179: 1971:Current Directions in Psychological Science 1887: 1885: 1883: 1854:Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied 1847: 1845: 1843: 3537:Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder 3339: 3222: 3208: 3200: 1729:The British Journal of Clinical Psychology 3156: 3115: 3031: 3021: 2972: 2888: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2561: 2559: 2428: 2398: 2396: 2376: 2366: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2211: 1990: 1779: 1559: 1505: 1425: 1324:The International Journal of Neuroscience 1298: 1249: 1045: 997: 834: 1406:Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health 16:Consequences of not getting enough sleep 2866: 2864: 2819: 2817: 809: 2491:. Oakville, ON: Apple Academic Press. 1075: 1073: 1023: 1021: 1019: 1017: 669:stress brought on by sleep deprivation 257:of the brain are largely involved in 81:Functional magnetic resonance imaging 7: 2487:Zohuri B, McDaniel PJ (2019-08-27). 3919:Sleeplessness and sleep deprivation 2615:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2522:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2403:Durmer JS, Dinges DF (March 2005). 2063:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.11.058 2028:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1987.tb02261.x 1679:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02349.x 1379:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00109.x 881:10.1111/j.1365-2869.1995.tb00220.x 14: 2914:Accident: Analysis and Prevention 2877:Accident: Analysis and Prevention 1084:. New York, NY: Psychology Press. 667:Another theory suggests that the 302:transcranial magnetic stimulation 3377:Obesity hypoventilation syndrome 3372:Central hypoventilation syndrome 2722:10.1097/00001756-199909090-00009 2293:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00623.x 2258:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2005.00450.x 2141:10.1046/j.1365-2869.1998.00104.x 1056:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.08.067 951:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2001.00245.x 340: 324: 312:for supplementary information). 3532:Periodic limb movement disorder 3499:Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder 3077:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.022 300:In addition, studies involving 43:, especially with technology. 2947:Dawson D, Reid K (July 1997). 2839:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.033 1291:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.04.030 394:supervisory attentional system 1: 3804:Biphasic and polyphasic sleep 3612:Nocturnal clitoral tumescence 3474:Advanced sleep phase disorder 2926:10.1016/s0001-4575(02)00007-6 2800:10.1016/j.metabol.2006.07.008 2679:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01744-6 2328:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2007.10.004 2016:British Journal of Psychology 1667:British Journal of Psychology 1195:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.06.016 372:The anterior cingulate cortex 3484:Delayed sleep phase disorder 3412:Excessive daytime sleepiness 3108:10.3109/10903127.2011.616261 3023:10.1371/journal.pone.0151770 2890:10.1016/0001-4575(95)00034-8 2580:10.1016/0031-9384(75)90004-9 746:excessive daytime sleepiness 445:Approximate Location of the 306:positron emission tomography 3617:Nocturnal penile tumescence 3489:Irregular sleep–wake rhythm 2316:American Journal of Surgery 1818:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.10.001 1609:10.1007/978-1-4757-0629-1_1 1140:Perceptual and Motor Skills 778:List of neuroscience topics 715:driving under the influence 503:Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 3940: 3479:Cyclic alternating pattern 3186:Alcohol, Drugs and Driving 3096:Prehospital Emergency Care 2745:Journal of Neurophysiology 2466:10.1037/0894-4105.21.6.787 1418:10.1016/j.bbih.2023.100683 768:Cognitive psychophysiology 137:parahippocampal place area 3914:Health effects by subject 3695:Behavioral sleep medicine 3504:Shift work sleep disorder 3452:Sleep state misperception 2757:10.1152/jn.2002.88.2.1073 2627:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.013 2568:Physiology & Behavior 2534:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.016 2246:Journal of Sleep Research 2129:Journal of Sleep Research 2106:10.1080/00140137008931137 1866:10.1037/1076-898x.6.3.236 1336:10.1080/00207450500513922 1183:Physiology & Behavior 1152:10.2466/pms.102.2.589-599 939:Journal of Sleep Research 869:Journal of Sleep Research 554:posterior parietal cortex 548:shows global decrease in 348:Anterior cingulate cortex 97:anterior cingulate cortex 33:major depressive disorder 3252:Rapid eye movement (REM) 1983:10.1177/0963721417712269 1906:10.1093/brain/112.6.1587 1741:10.1348/014466509X449765 990:10.1093/sleep/32.10.1285 540:event-related potentials 3573:Exploding head syndrome 3382:Obstructive sleep apnea 2794:(10 Suppl 2): S20–S23. 2667:Trends in Neurosciences 1781:10.1093/cercor/11.9.825 1516:10.1126/science.1088545 1109:10.1111/1467-9280.02456 916:10.1080/001401399185397 783:List of neuroscientists 773:Experimental psychology 277:appearing in the space 117:event-related potential 111:Exogenous or endogenous 62:primary auditory cortex 3924:Cognitive neuroscience 3888:Sleeping while on duty 3437:Idiopathic hypersomnia 3158:10.1093/sleep/12.5.449 2204:10.1093/sleep/32.2.205 1944:10.1006/obhd.1999.2827 1634:Cognitive Neuroscience 1570:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 1463:10.1053/smrv.2001.0203 1451:Sleep Medicine Reviews 836:10.1093/sleep/24.4.392 758:Affective neuroscience 705:Traffic collision risk 688:long-term potentiation 576: 452: 389: 286:single-unit recordings 250: 201: 101:inferior frontal gyrus 65: 3710:Neuroscience of sleep 3442:Night eating syndrome 3427:Kleine–Levin syndrome 3180:Carskadon MA (1989). 2421:10.1055/s-2005-867080 2409:Seminars in Neurology 2368:10.1093/sleep/25.7.56 1642:10.4324/9780203765401 1367:Psychological Science 1242:10.1093/cercor/bhn073 1097:Psychological Science 788:Neuroscience journals 569: 444: 398:utilization behaviors 384: 357:Executive functioning 244: 194: 59: 3864:Sleep and creativity 1548:Cognitive Psychology 763:Cognitive psychology 515:memory consolidation 487:Tower of London test 462:orbitofrontal cortex 448:Orbitofrontal cortex 223:intraparietal sulcus 164:choice reaction time 35:, or indicate other 3859:Sleep and breathing 3315:Sensorimotor rhythm 3069:2007AcAau..60..354M 3014:2016PLoSO..1151770B 2965:1997Natur.388..235D 1806:Brain and Cognition 1498:2003Sci...302.1181K 1492:(5648): 1181–1185. 793:Social neuroscience 219:posterior cingulate 168:response inhibition 141:psychophysiological 27:. It may come with 3869:Sleep and learning 3622:Nocturnal emission 3522:Nightmare disorder 3387:Periodic breathing 711:traffic collisions 610:declarative memory 577: 550:glucose metabolism 453: 390: 316:Executive function 284:Studies involving 251: 202: 152:recognition memory 66: 3901: 3900: 3879:Sleep deprivation 3718: 3717: 3057:Acta Astronautica 2716:(13): 2741–2747. 2498:978-0-429-32563-2 1735:(Pt 4): 425–430. 1651:978-0-203-76540-1 1618:978-1-4757-0629-1 1330:(10): 1125–1138. 984:(10): 1285–1297. 726:circadian night. 645:protein synthesis 629:aversive stimulus 606:procedural memory 332:Prefrontal cortex 237:Neural substrates 85:prefrontal cortex 25:sleep deprivation 3931: 3874:Sleep and memory 3814:Circadian rhythm 3561:Benign phenomena 3463:Circadian rhythm 3340: 3224: 3217: 3210: 3201: 3194: 3193: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3160: 3136: 3130: 3129: 3119: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3063:(4–7): 354–361. 3052: 3046: 3045: 3035: 3025: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2976: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2909: 2903: 2902: 2892: 2868: 2859: 2858: 2821: 2812: 2811: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2751:(2): 1073–1076. 2740: 2734: 2733: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2662: 2647: 2646: 2609: 2600: 2599: 2563: 2554: 2553: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2432: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2380: 2370: 2346: 2340: 2339: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2281:Psychophysiology 2276: 2270: 2269: 2241: 2226: 2225: 2215: 2183: 2174: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2011: 2005: 2004: 1994: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1927: 1918: 1917: 1900:(6): 1587–1598. 1889: 1878: 1877: 1849: 1838: 1837: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1783: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1706:10.1037/a0020365 1689: 1683: 1682: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1563: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1509: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1446: 1440: 1439: 1429: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1362: 1356: 1355: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1302: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1253: 1221: 1215: 1214: 1178: 1172: 1171: 1135: 1129: 1128: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1077: 1068: 1067: 1049: 1025: 1012: 1011: 1001: 969: 963: 962: 934: 928: 927: 899: 893: 892: 864: 858: 855: 849: 848: 838: 814: 519:long-term memory 493:Error correction 344: 328: 269:to the lesioned 212:cingulate cortex 37:mental disorders 3939: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3928: 3904: 3903: 3902: 3897: 3792:Procrastination 3745:Four-poster bed 3714: 3678: 3672:Polysomnography 3650:Sleep induction 3626: 3597:Sleep paralysis 3556: 3508: 3467: 3464: 3456: 3398: 3357:Mouth breathing 3335:Sleep disorders 3329: 3266: 3257:Quiescent sleep 3237: 3235:sleep disorders 3228: 3198: 3197: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3008:(3): e0151770. 2995: 2994: 2990: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2911: 2910: 2906: 2870: 2869: 2862: 2823: 2822: 2815: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2664: 2663: 2650: 2611: 2610: 2603: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2519: 2518: 2514: 2499: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2454:Neuropsychology 2451: 2450: 2446: 2402: 2401: 2394: 2348: 2347: 2343: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2278: 2277: 2273: 2243: 2242: 2229: 2185: 2184: 2177: 2168: 2164: 2126: 2125: 2121: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2013: 2012: 2008: 1964: 1963: 1959: 1929: 1928: 1921: 1891: 1890: 1881: 1851: 1850: 1841: 1802: 1801: 1797: 1768:Cerebral Cortex 1761: 1760: 1756: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1691: 1690: 1686: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1631: 1630: 1626: 1619: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1561:10.1.1.485.1953 1544: 1543: 1539: 1483: 1482: 1478: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1399: 1398: 1394: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1230:Cerebral Cortex 1223: 1222: 1218: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1137: 1136: 1132: 1094: 1093: 1089: 1079: 1078: 1071: 1047:10.1.1.493.2042 1027: 1026: 1015: 971: 970: 966: 936: 935: 931: 901: 900: 896: 866: 865: 861: 856: 852: 816: 815: 811: 806: 754: 707: 686:as measured by 684:neuroplasticity 677:glucocorticoids 673:corticosteroids 638: 593: 527: 511: 495: 474: 458: 435: 418: 409:Decision making 406: 404:Decision making 354: 353: 352: 351: 350: 345: 336: 335: 334: 329: 318: 239: 176: 166:tests—in which 160: 133: 113: 89:verbal learning 78: 54: 49: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3937: 3935: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3906: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3819:Comfort object 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3800: 3799: 3794: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3690:Sleep medicine 3686: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3675: 3674: 3664: 3663: 3662: 3657: 3647: 3642: 3636: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3507: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3470: 3468: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3408: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3396: 3391: 3390: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3359: 3354: 3348: 3346: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3276: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3248: 3246: 3239: 3238: 3229: 3227: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3204: 3196: 3195: 3172: 3151:(5): 449–457. 3131: 3082: 3047: 2988: 2939: 2920:(3): 321–331. 2904: 2883:(6): 769–775. 2860: 2827:Brain Research 2813: 2778: 2735: 2700: 2673:(4): 237–243. 2648: 2621:(4): 624–632. 2601: 2574:(4): 409–412. 2555: 2528:(4): 610–615. 2512: 2497: 2479: 2460:(6): 787–795. 2444: 2415:(1): 117–129. 2392: 2361:(7): 784–794. 2341: 2322:(2): 195–204. 2306: 2287:(2): 309–317. 2271: 2252:(2): 123–140. 2227: 2198:(2): 205–216. 2175: 2162: 2119: 2100:(2): 239–242. 2084: 2057:(1): 225–231. 2041: 2022:(4): 443–455. 2006: 1977:(5): 470–475. 1957: 1938:(2): 128–145. 1919: 1879: 1860:(3): 236–249. 1839: 1795: 1774:(9): 825–836. 1754: 1719: 1700:(1): 137–151. 1684: 1673:(2): 111–121. 1657: 1650: 1624: 1617: 1591: 1537: 1507:10.1.1.71.8826 1476: 1457:(6): 463–475. 1441: 1392: 1373:(2): 106–110. 1357: 1314: 1279:Brain Research 1265: 1236:(1): 233–240. 1216: 1189:(3): 353–364. 1173: 1146:(2): 589–599. 1130: 1103:(5): 473–479. 1087: 1069: 1040:(2): 1903–10. 1013: 964: 929: 910:(5): 696–713. 894: 859: 850: 829:(4): 392–400. 808: 807: 805: 802: 801: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 753: 750: 706: 703: 637: 634: 600:(non-REM) and 592: 589: 572:Working memory 526: 523: 510: 507: 494: 491: 473: 470: 457: 454: 434: 431: 417: 414: 405: 402: 366:working memory 346: 339: 338: 337: 330: 323: 322: 321: 320: 319: 317: 314: 255:parietal lobes 238: 235: 175: 172: 159: 156: 132: 129: 115:Studies using 112: 109: 77: 74: 53: 50: 48: 45: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3936: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3789: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3681: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3665: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3645:Sleep hygiene 3643: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3602:Sleep inertia 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3552:Sleep-talking 3550: 3548: 3547:Sleep driving 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3320:Sleep spindle 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3220: 3218: 3213: 3211: 3206: 3205: 3202: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2974:10.1038/40775 2970: 2966: 2962: 2959:(6639): 235. 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2723: 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