Electrolysis - Knowledge (XXG)

2307:, are −0.76 V for the reduction to Zn metal and +1.10 V for the oxidation producing bromine. The conclusion from these figures is that hydrogen should be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode from the electrolysis of water—which is at variance with the experimental observation that zinc metal is deposited and bromine is produced. The explanation is that these calculated potentials only indicate the thermodynamically preferred reaction. In practice, many other factors have to be taken into account such as the kinetics of some of the reaction steps involved. These factors together mean that a higher potential is required for the reduction and oxidation of water than predicted, and these are termed 2780:

resistance to impurities, specific energy for hydrogen production at sea, risk of environmental impact, etc.), followed by the alkaline electrolyser, with the alkaline electrolyser being the most economically feasible, but more hazardous in terms of safety and environmental concerns due to the need for basic electrolyte solutions as opposed to the solid polymers used in proton-exchange membranes. Due to the methods conducted in multiple-criteria decision analysis, non-objective weights are applied to the various factors, and so multiple methods of decision analysis were performed simultaneously to examine the electrolysers in a way that minimizes the effects of bias on the performance conclusions.

2732:, at temperatures of 60–80 °C (140–176 °F), using a solid polymer electrolyte and requiring higher costs of processing to allow the solid electrolyte to touch uniformly to the electrodes. Similar to the alkaline electrolyser, the proton exchange membrane electrolyser can operate at higher pressures, reducing the energy costs required to compress the hydrogen gas afterward, but the proton exchange membrane electrolyser also benefits from rapid response times to changes in power requirements or demands and not needing maintenance, at the cost of having a faster inherent degradation rate and being the most vulnerable to impurities in the water. Solid oxide electrolysers run the reactions 2708:, and use high base solutions as electrolytes, operating at 60–90 °C (140–194 °F) and need additional separators to ensure the gas phase hydrogen and oxygen remain separate. The electrolyte can easily get contaminated, but the alkaline electrolyser can operate under pressure to improve energy consumption. The electrodes can be made of inexpensive materials and there's no requirement for an expensive catalyst in the design. Proton-exchange membrane electrolysers operate with the reactions at the anode, 68: 1904: 2444:

and engineering texts, as 144 MJ/kg (40 kWh/kg). Note that fuel cells (not electrolysers) cannot use this full amount of heat/enthalpy, which has led to some confusion when calculating efficiency values for both types of technology. In the reaction, some energy is lost as heat. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70% for alkaline electrolysers (50 kWh/kg); however, higher practical efficiencies are available with the use of

40: 1809: 1688: 1694: 1005:'s ideas on electrolysis. During preliminary experiments, Humphry Davy hypothesized that when two elements combine to form a compound, electrical energy is released. Humphry Davy would go on to create Decomposition Tables from his preliminary experiments on Electrolysis. The Decomposition Tables would give insight on the energies needed to break apart certain compounds. 1361:

anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction. Cathodes may be made of the same material, or they may be made from a more reactive one since anode wear is greater due to oxidation at the anode.

2779:

comparisons in which the highest priority was placed on economic operation costs followed equally by environmental and social criteria, it was found that the proton exchange membrane electrolyser offered the most suitable combination of values (e.g., investment cost, maintenance, and operation cost,

2619:

Additionally, the low temperature reduction of iron oxide by dissolving it in alkaline water has been reported. The temperature is much lower than traditional iron production at 114 °C. The low temperatures also tend to correlate with higher current efficiencies, with an efficiency of 95% being

1700:

In the last example, H ions (hydrogen ions) also take part in the reaction and are provided by the acid in the solution, or by the solvent itself (water, methanol, etc.). Electrolysis reactions involving H ions are fairly common in acidic solutions. In aqueous alkaline solutions, reactions involving

1060:

hydrogen fluoride to create a gaseous fluorine pure element. Before he used hydrogen fluoride, Henri Moissan used fluoride salts with electrolysis. Thus on June 28, 1886, he performed his experiment in front of the Académie des sciences to show his discovery of the new element fluorine. While trying

3328:

The Supplement (1803 edition) to Encyclopædia Britannica 3rd edition (1797), volume 1, page 225, "Mister Van Marum, by means of his great electrical machine, decomposed the calces of tin, zinc, and antimony, and resolved them into their respective metals and oxygen" and gives as a reference Journal

2029:

Using a cell containing inert platinum electrodes, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of some salts leads to the reduction of the cations (such as metal deposition with, for example, zinc salts) and oxidation of the anions (such as the evolution of bromine with bromides). However, with salts of some

1369:

The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons due to the applied potential. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by mechanical processes (e.g. by collecting

3921:

Appel, Aaron M.; Bercaw, John E.; Bocarsly, Andrew B.; Dobbek, Holger; Dubois, Daniel L.; Dupuis, Michel; Ferry, James G.; Fujita, Etsuko; Hille, Russ; Kenis, Paul J.A.; Kerfeld, Cheryl A.; Morris, Robert H.; Peden, Charles H.F.; Portis, Archie R.; Ragsdale, Stephen W.; Rauchfuss, Thomas B.; Reek,

2443:

of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency of an electrolyser is a measure of the enthalpy contained in the hydrogen (to undergo combustion with oxygen or some other later reaction), compared with the input electrical energy. Heat/enthalpy values for hydrogen are well published in science

1072:

from France both filed for American patents for the electrolysis of aluminum, with Héroult submitting his in May, and Hall, in July. Hall was able to get his patent by proving through letters to his brother and family evidence that his method was discovered before the French patent was submitted.

2611:

salts and using a platinum anode. Oxygen anions form oxygen gas and electrons at the anode. Iron cations consume electrons and form iron metal at the cathode. This method was performed a temperature of 1550 °C which presents a significant challenge to maintaining the reaction. Particularly,

2314:

For the electrolysis of a neutral (pH 7) sodium chloride solution, the reduction of sodium ion is thermodynamically very difficult and water is reduced evolving hydrogen leaving hydroxide ions in solution. At the anode the oxidation of chlorine is observed rather than the oxidation of water

1360:

depends on chemical reactivity between the electrode and electrolyte and manufacturing cost. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for

2505:

reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon. This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon

989:

created an electrostatic generator that he used to reduce tin, zinc and antimony from their salts using a process later known as electrolysis. Though he unknowingly produced electrolysis, it was not until 1800 when William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered how electrolysis works.

2774:

at the cathode.The solid oxide electrolysers require high temperatures (700–1,000 °C (1,292–1,832 °F)) to operate, generating superheated steam. They suffer from degradation when turned off, making it a more inflexible hydrogen generation technology. In a selected series of

2570:

A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ. The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as

2603:

with 22% of that being direct emissions from the blast furnace. As of 2022, steel production contributes 7–9% of global emissions. Electrolysis of iron can eliminate direct emissions and further reduce emissions if the electricity is created from green energy.

4240:

Bechgaard, K.; Carneiro, K.; Rasmussen, F. B.; Olsen, M.; Rindorf, G.; Jacobsen, C.S.; Pedersen, H.J.; Scott, J.C. (1981). "Superconductivity in an organic solid. Synthesis, structure, and conductivity of bis(tetramethyltetraselenafulvalenium) perchlorate,

1728:

change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most cases, the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form of heat. In some cases, for instance, in the electrolysis of

2455:

estimated in 2006 that 1 kg of hydrogen (roughly equivalent to 3 kg, or 4 liters, of petroleum in energy terms) could be produced by wind powered electrolysis for between US$ 5.55 in the near term and US$ 2.27 in the longer term.

2042:) oxygen is evolved at the anode. In both cases, this is due to water being reduced to form hydrogen or oxidized to form oxygen. In principle, the voltage required to electrolyze a salt solution can be derived from the 2501:, etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option. The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single 1373:

The quantity of the products is proportional to the current, and when two or more electrolytic cells are connected in series to the same power source, the products produced in the cells are proportional to their

3769:

Lee, Seunghwa; Ju, Hyungkuk; Machunda, Revocatus; Uhm, Sunghyun; Lee, Jae Kwang; Lee, Hye Jin; Lee, Jaeyoung (2015). "Sustainable production of formic acid by electrolytic reduction of gaseous carbon dioxide".

1752:

to oxygen produced at the anode in the electrolysis of an aqueous acidic solution such as dilute sulphuric acid. Electrolysis of ethanol with pulsed current evolves an aldehyde instead of primarily an acid.

2679:

possible that could form scales in the electrolyser cell, cutting down on lifespan and increasing the need for maintenance. The alkaline electrolysers operate with the following reactions at the anode,

1423:

When ions gain or lose electrons and become neutral, they will form compounds that separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cu deposit onto the cathode in a layer. The terms for this are

1962:, where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material. Electroplating is used in many industries for either functional or decorative purposes, as in-vehicle bodies and nickel coins. 4011: 1828:), water is reduced to hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The net process is the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of NaCl into industrially useful products sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and chlorine gas. 910:

that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential. The word "lysis" means to separate or break, so in terms, electrolysis would mean "breakdown via electricity."

4159:

Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S.; Mulder, Roger J. (2016). "Electro-catalytic conversion of ethanol in solid electrolyte cells for distributed hydrogen generation".

1016:

used electrolysis to single it out. Two years later, he streamlined the process using lithium chloride and potassium chloride with electrolysis to produce lithium and lithium hydroxide.

1019:

During the later years of Humphry Davy's research, Michael Faraday became his assistant. While studying the process of electrolysis under Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday discovered two

982:

and placed the other ends in a tube filled with water. They noticed when the wires were brought together that each wire produced bubbles. One type was hydrogen, the other was oxygen.

4213:

Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S. (2018). "Role of iron species as mediator in a PEM based carbon-water co-electrolysis for cost-effective hydrogen production".

1420:

When neutral atoms or molecules, such as those on the surface of an electrode, gain or lose electrons they become ions and may dissolve in the electrolyte and react with other ions.

625: 1529:

emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl

2562:

Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1.0 V as compared to 1.5 V for conventional water electrolysis.

598: 1493:

Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode. As the electrolyte becomes more

3611: 610: 2459:

About 4% of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is generated by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the

2636:. Direct electrolysis of seawater follows known processes, forming an electrolysis cell in which the seawater acts as the electrolyte to allow for the reaction at the 2620:

reported. While these methods are promising, they struggle to be cost competitive because of the large economies of scale keeping the price of blast furnace iron low.

1704:

Sometimes the solvents themselves (usually water) are oxidized or reduced at the electrodes. It is even possible to have electrolysis involving gases, e.g. by using a

1587:, can increase the rate of reaction and is often needed above the thermodynamic value. It is especially necessary for electrolysis reactions involving gases, such as 3181: 3109: 4116:

Ju, Hyungkuk; Badwal, Sukhvinder; Giddey, Sarbjit (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".

3609:

Siegemund, Günter; Schwertfeger, Werner; Feiring, Andrew; Smart, Bruce; Behr, Fred; Vogel, Herward; McKusick, Blaine (2000). "Fluorine Compounds, Organic".

997:

experimented with frog legs. He claimed that placing animal muscle between two dissimilar metal sheets resulted in electricity. Responding to these claims,

4613: 2357: 1868:

In the course of a typical synthesis, this reaction occurs once for each C–H bond in the precursor. The cell potential is maintained near 5–6

3975:

Qiao, Jinli; Liu, Yuyu; Hong, Feng; Zhang, Jiujun (2014). "A review of catalysts for the electroreduction of carbon dioxide to produce low-carbon fuels".

861: 630: 3539:

Over, Herbert (2012). "Surface Chemistry of Ruthenium Dioxide in Heterogeneous Catalysis and Electrocatalysis: From Fundamental to Applied Research".

2445: 1733:

into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the opposite is true and heat energy is absorbed. This heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the

1341:

supplied by the power source drives the reaction causing ions in the electrolyte to be attracted toward the respective oppositely charged electrode.

640: 4773: 1974:, an electrolytic cathode is used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece. ECM is often used as a technique for 3304: 1824:) allows the counterion Na+ to freely flow across, but prevents anions such as hydroxide (OH) and chloride from diffusing across. At the cathode ( 3199: 1045:

using electrolysis of gallium hydroxide, producing 3.4 mg of gallium. The following December, he presented his discovery of gallium to the

4560: 2055: 1012:

determined there was another element, lithium, in some of his samples; however, he could not isolate the component. It was not until 1821 that

465: 4293: 3904: 3401: 3085: 1189:, provided a mathematical explanation for them, and introduced terminology such as electrode, electrolyte, anode, cathode, anion, and cation. 480: 102: 2452: 2800: 2776: 1579:

The voltage at which electrolysis is thermodynamically preferred is the difference of the electrode potentials as calculated using the

4057: 3661: 1193: 1061:

to find elemental fluorine through electrolysis of fluoride salts, many chemists perished including Paulin Louyet and Jérôme Nicklès.

1038: 360: 2870: 1053: 92: 2381:, etc. The electrolysis of carbon dioxide gives formate or carbon monoxide, but sometimes more elaborate organic compounds such as 1379: 1186: 2815: 1446:

produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus:

275: 3217: 3628: 854: 620: 97: 3174: 3102: 4819: 4186:

Giddey, S.; Kulkarni, A.; Badwal, S.P.S. (2015). "Low emission hydrogen generation through carbon assisted electrolysis".

2633: 2284:

can be calculated for a specific concentration of ions, temperature and the number of electrons involved. For pure water (

635: 340: 4814: 4663: 4574: 4091: 3035: 2440: 2272:: for example, sodium metal is more likely to be oxidized to sodium ions than zinc metal is to be oxidized to zinc ions. 2253:: for example, zinc ions are more likely to be reduced to zinc metal than sodium ions are to be reduced to sodium metal. 2043: 1918: 1846: 1080:

In 1902 Polish engineer and inventor Stanisław Łaszczyński filed for and obtained Polish patent for the electrolysis of

500: 490: 475: 240: 107: 4684: 4628: 4598: 3058: 2845: 2795: 1907: 1720:

of the reaction plus the losses in the system. The losses can (in theory) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum

1226: 1215: 1074: 540: 230: 4804: 4717: 2810: 2790: 1802: 1117: 967: 793: 668: 565: 460: 3233: 2311:. Experimentally it is known that overpotentials depend on the design of the cell and the nature of the electrodes. 4588: 4553: 2850: 1077:

which benefited many industries because aluminum's price then dropped from four dollars to thirty cents per pound.

293: 4538: 4311:"Life Cycle Assessment of an Integrated Steel Mill Using Primary Manufacturing Data: Actual Environmental Profile" 2030:

metals (such as sodium) hydrogen is evolved at the cathode, and for salts containing some anions (such as sulfate

4824: 4809: 4352:"Prospects and challenges of the electrochemical reduction of iron oxides in alkaline media for steel production" 2595:

in the blast furnace. A study of steel making in Germany found that producing 1 ton of steel emitted 2.1 tons of

1971: 847: 808: 335: 325: 265: 260: 200: 1439:

When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming neutral, its electronic charge is altered in the process.

2629: 2596: 1549: 2054:, for the reactions at each electrode and refers to an electrode with no current flowing. An extract from the 1046: 778: 658: 345: 4399:

Wiencke, Jan; Lavelaine, Hervé; Panteix, Pierre-Jean; Petitjean, Carine; Rapin, Christophe (1 January 2018).

4656: 4012:"Green hydrogen | Which type of electrolyser should you use? Alkaline, PEM, solid oxide or the latest tech?" 1838: 1705: 783: 753: 185: 175: 170: 2896:

Oesper, Ralph; Speter, Max (1937). "The Faraday-Whewell correspondence concerning electro-chemical terms".

4081:"Wind Energy and Production of Hydrogen and Electricity – Opportunities for Renewable Hydrogen – Preprint" 3445:

Blum, W.; Vinal, G. W. (1934). "The Definition of Polarization, Overvoltage and Decomposition Potential".

1262: 1009: 605: 375: 150: 3705: 954:

meaning "dissolution". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure

4799: 4651: 4618: 4546: 4309:

Backes, Jana Gerta; Suer, Julian; Pauliks, Nils; Neugebauer, Sabrina; Traverso, Marzia (19 March 2021).

2576: 2394: 2046:

for the reactions at the anode and cathode. The standard electrode potential is directly related to the

1552:

and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as

1414: 1273: 1175: 1013: 703: 390: 380: 330: 320: 67: 1329:

The electrodes are immersed separated by a distance such that a current flows between them through the

4461: 4363: 4125: 3857: 3741: 3389: 2905: 2865: 2860: 2572: 1020: 938: 828: 728: 693: 445: 310: 210: 195: 130: 235: 4603: 4505:"Multicriteria analysis of seawater electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production at sea" 4029:

Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".

2835: 2506:

contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions:

2490: 2480: 2281: 1842: 1794: 1565: 1443: 1406: 1065: 788: 768: 763: 570: 555: 440: 410: 305: 4450:"Electrodeposition of Iron in Aqueous Alkaline Solution: An Alternative to Carbothermic Reduction" 4707: 4638: 4633: 4524: 4504: 4485: 4430: 4141: 4058:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis" 3826: 3787: 3591: 3517: 3279: 3155: 2830: 2825: 2340: 2007: 1992: 1334: 1284: 1098: 663: 403: 205: 165: 44: 1797:

is a large scale application of electrolysis This technology supplies most of the chlorine and

3219:

Hall Process Production and Commercialization of Aluminum - National Historic Chemical Landmark

2607:

The small-scale electrolysis of iron has been successfully reported by dissolving it in molten

4702: 4477: 4422: 4381: 4332: 4289: 3992: 3957: 3900: 3657: 3624: 3556: 3474:"Über den Einfluss der Natur des Elektrolyten und des Elektrodenmaterials auf die Ozonbildung" 3397: 3383: 3340: 3147: 3081: 2805: 2468: 2336: 2047: 1928: 1777: 1717: 1564:

Decomposition potential or decomposition voltage refers to the minimum voltage (difference in

1375: 903: 891: 723: 3844:

Machunda, Revocatus L.; Ju, Hyungkuk; Lee, Jaeyoung (2011). "Electrocatalytic reduction of CO

3431: 1280:) is optional to keep the products from diffusing to the vicinity of the opposite electrode. 4763: 4742: 4668: 4516: 4469: 4449: 4412: 4371: 4322: 4281: 4258: 4222: 4195: 4168: 4133: 4038: 3984: 3947: 3939: 3892: 3865: 3818: 3779: 3749: 3649: 3616: 3583: 3548: 3485: 3454: 3139: 3019: 2936: 2875: 2820: 1903: 1798: 1773: 1765: 1494: 1304: 1292: 1230: 1164: 1121: 998: 986: 975: 971: 955: 895: 823: 738: 698: 688: 575: 530: 513: 430: 365: 135: 59: 4065: 3366: 3127: 4593: 3362: 2502: 2498: 2277: 1988: 1769: 1580: 1433: 1386: 1182: 1031: 1027: 919: 758: 683: 678: 545: 420: 385: 280: 245: 145: 3887:

Reduction on Metal Electrodes". In C.G. Vayeanas, R. White and M.E. Gamboa-Aldeco (ed.).

1069: 798: 30:

This article is about the chemical process. For the cosmetic hair removal procedure, see

4465: 4367: 4129: 3861: 3745: 3511: 3393: 2993: 2909: 1776:

is charged, its redox reaction is run in reverse and the system can be considered as an

1536:

Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them:

4643: 4623: 4350:

Lopes, Daniela V.; Quina, Margarida J.; Frade, Jorge R.; Kovalevsky, Andrei V. (2022).

3952: 3923: 3143: 2467:. Onsite electrolysis has been utilized to capture hydrogen for hydrogen fuel-cells in 2363: 1959: 1721: 1429: 1425: 1338: 1315: 1250: 950: 933: 923: 887: 718: 713: 535: 425: 350: 300: 250: 223: 180: 155: 125: 118: 39: 4793: 4687: 4528: 4434: 4145: 3924:"Frontiers, Opportunities, and Challenges in Biochemical and Chemical Catalysis of CO 3830: 3653: 3425: 2855: 2464: 2460: 2385:. This technology is under research as a carbon-neutral route to organic compounds. 2332: 2308: 2066: 1888: 1761: 1734: 1584: 1353: 1208: 1125: 994: 879: 833: 818: 803: 743: 455: 370: 355: 270: 255: 160: 4489: 4276:

Williams, Jack M. (2007). "Highly Conducting and Superconducting Synthetic Metals".

4172: 3791: 3595: 3159: 1808: 4226: 4199: 4137: 4042: 3711: 2300: 1892: 1748:

results in products different from DC. For example, pulsing increases the ratio of

1650: 1646: 1614:. For example, it is possible to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions at the anode: 1502: 1393:) move towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions ( 1300: 1002: 979: 813: 708: 673: 615: 550: 315: 190: 2628:

A 2020 study investigated direct electrolysis of seawater, alkaline electrolysis,

1978:

or for etching metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo.

470: 3574:

Landolt, D.; Ibl, N. (1972). "Anodic Chlorate Formation on Platinized Titanium".

3473: 3043: 4778: 4768: 3896: 2957: 2840: 1975: 1330: 1277: 1269: 1254: 733: 585: 415: 77: 31: 4520: 4376: 4351: 4285: 4608: 4417: 4400: 4080: 3922:

Joost N.H.; Seefeldt, Lance C.; Thauer, Rudolf K.; Waldrop, Grover L. (2013).

3869: 2003: 450: 4481: 4426: 4385: 4336: 3620: 3489: 3151: 2941: 2924: 2292:

the electrode potential for the reduction producing hydrogen is −0.41 V,

1501:

emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing

4732: 4727: 3254: 3059:"Today in Science History - January 12 - Johan August Arfwedson and Lithium" 2676: 2665: 2613: 1948: 1944: 1932: 1911: 1745: 1607: 1553: 1410: 1357: 1311: 1258: 1219: 1160: 1144: 1057: 875: 773: 748: 560: 485: 82: 17: 3996: 3961: 3560: 3200:"ECS Classics: Hall and Héroult and the Discovery of Aluminum Electrolysis" 3080:(3rd ed.). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 251. 2295:

the electrode potential for the oxidation producing oxygen is +0.82 V.

1687: 1678:

Neutral molecules can also react at either of the electrodes. For example:

1370:

gas above an electrode or precipitating a product out of the electrolyte).

1693: 4712: 4697: 3644:

Kotrel, Stefan; BrUninger, Sigmar (2008). "Industrial Electrocatalysis".

2588: 2494: 2400: 2382: 2374: 2320: 2316: 1999: 1725: 1596: 1592: 1398: 1397:) move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process 1349: 1204: 1133: 1110: 894:. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of 525: 520: 140: 4262: 3754: 3729: 1716:

The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in

1477:

The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions:

4722: 4692: 4327: 4310: 3988: 3783: 3587: 2669: 2649: 2378: 2370: 2233:

In terms of electrolysis, this table should be interpreted as follows:

1952: 1936: 1772:

to generate an electrical potential that provides useful power. When a

1642: 1573: 1402: 1319: 1307:, then electrolysis cannot occur. A liquid electrolyte is produced by: 1296: 1197: 1171: 1156: 1042: 907: 495: 4473: 3943: 3822: 3552: 3458: 1820:), chloride (Cl) is oxidized to chlorine. The ion-selective membrane ( 1465:

The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions:

958:, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday. 4737: 2328: 2082: 1940: 1922: 1877: 1588: 1556:

and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte.

1533:

molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH.

1390: 1237: 1152: 1148: 1137: 1081: 580: 87: 3891:. Vol. 42 (42 ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 141–153. 4503:

d’Amore-Domenech, Rafael; Santiago, Óscar; Leo, Teresa J. (2020).

3730:"A Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis (Vogel, Arthur I.)" 2637: 2608: 2463:, and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via 2324: 1902: 1873: 1869: 1807: 1749: 1730: 1638: 1611: 1576:

of an electrolytic cell that is needed for electrolysis to occur.

1569: 1394: 1345: 1129: 38: 3809:

Utilization via Direct Heterogeneous Electrochemical Reduction".

2485:

Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon (

1272:, electrodes, and an external power source. A partition (e.g. an 4747: 2486: 2362:

The electrochemical reduction or electrocatalytic conversion of

2098: 2017: 2011: 1106: 1085: 1026:

During the time of Maxwell and Faraday, concerns came about for

899: 4542: 2672: 2339:. The aqueous solutions resulting from this process is called 1288: 1102: 2591:

is very carbon intensive, in part to the direct release of CO

2299:

Comparable figures calculated in a similar way, for 1 M

1682:-benzoquinone can be reduced to hydroquinone at the cathode: 943: 927: 3805:

Whipple, Devin T.; Kenis, Paul J.A. (2010). "Prospects of CO

2925:"Oxygen Evolution Reaction—The Enigma in Water Electrolysis" 1737:

of the produced hydrogen is higher than the electric input.

1268:

The main components required to achieve electrolysis are an

3280:"De Verbno Łaszczyńscy » Stanisław Ignacy Łaszczyński" 2285: 1333:

and are connected to the power source which completes the

937:"amber", which since the 17th century was associated with 3175:"Rediscovery of the Elements- Fluorine and Henri Moissan" 978:

experiments. They attached two wires to either side of a

3255:"Bohaterski naukowiec upamiętniony na kieleckim deptaku" 1303:

compound). If the ions are not mobile, as in most solid

2994:"The History of Electrochemistry: From Volta to Edison" 2923:

Fabbri, Emiliana; Schmidt, Thomas J. (5 October 2018).

3710:(88 ed.). Chemical Rubber Company. Archived from 1525:

has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl

1385:

Each electrode attracts ions that are of the opposite

4079:

Levene, J.; Kroposki, B.; Sverdrup, G. (March 2006).

2323:

is lower than the overpotential for the oxidation of

2020:

and cleaning of old coins and other metallic objects.

4448:

Yuan, Boyan; Haarberg, Geir Martin (20 March 2009).

4401:"Electrolysis of iron in a molten oxide electrolyte" 1056:

finally felt comfortable performing electrolysis on

1001:

conducted his own tests. This would give insight to

4756: 4677: 4581: 3345:

The Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science

1178:, who obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide. 4064:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH. Archived from 2448:and catalytic technology, such as 95% efficiency. 2343:and is used as a disinfectant and cleaning agent. 4056:Zittel, Werner; Wurster, Reinhold (8 July 1996). 3688:(6 ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 3222:. Oberlin, Ohio: American Chemical Society. 1997. 2335:and dissolved chlorine gas react further to form 2025:Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis 4062:HyWeb: Knowledge – Hydrogen in the Energy Sector 3704:Vanýsek, Petr (2007). "Electrochemical Series". 3371:. Vol. 1. London: The University of London. 1409:. In chemistry, the loss of electrons is called 2675:in the seawater makes the production of alkali 1845:. One manifestation of this technology is the 1401:are effectively introduced at the cathode as a 3612:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 3385:Understanding solids: the science of materials 2493:(hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution ( 2475:Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis 2403:and oxygen in a ratio of 2 to 1 respectively. 1801:required by many industries. The cathode is a 1583:. Applying additional voltage, referred to as 1101:'s electrostatic generator was used to reduce 4554: 2315:since the overpotential for the oxidation of 1895:on an industrial scale via electrocatalysis. 1356:material are widely used. Choice of suitable 1257:which is producing chemical reactions at the 855: 8: 3513:The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis 2264:° becomes more negative, and species on the 2245:° becomes more positive, and species on the 1805:(also called a dimensionally stable anode). 3447:Transactions of the Electrochemical Society 3128:"Henri Moissan: The discoverer of fluorine" 2958:"Martinus van Marum - Scientist of the Day" 2587:The current method of producing steel from 2358:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide 1899:Electroplating and electrowinning processes 1641:of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the 1610:of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the 890:(DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous 4561: 4547: 4539: 3848:gas at Sn based gas diffusion electrode". 918:The word "electrolysis" was introduced by 862: 848: 66: 50: 4416: 4375: 4326: 3951: 3811:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 3753: 3024:. New York: Macmillan & Co., Limited. 2940: 2446:polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis 1603:Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes 898:from naturally occurring sources such as 4774:Standard electrode potential (data page) 4509:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4251:Journal of the American Chemical Society 4215:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 4188:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 3699: 3697: 3695: 2760: 2756: 2748: 2744: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2659: 2655: 2643: 2558:′ = 0.91 V (thermo-neutral voltage) 2532:′ = 0.46 V (thermo-neutral voltage) 2062: 27:Technique in chemistry and manufacturing 3103:"Rediscovery of the Elements – Gallium" 2888: 2554:′ = 0.52 V (reversible voltage) / 2528:′ = 0.21 V (reversible voltage) / 2369:can produce value-added chemicals such 611:Electromagnetism and special relativity 58: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3388:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 281–. 3368:Experimental Researches In Electricity 2056:table of standard electrode potentials 1322:(such as water) to produce mobile ions 1236:1902 – Stanisław Łaszczyński obtained 1174:was discovered by the English chemist 3582:(3). Chapman and Hall Ltd.: 201–210. 3299: 3297: 3274: 3272: 3249: 3247: 3057:Helmenstine, Todd (11 January 2018). 2979:. Harper & Row. pp. 125–127. 2630:proton-exchange membrane electrolysis 1803:mixed metal oxide clad titanium anode 949: 932: 631:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime 7: 4088:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 3198:Beck, Theodore R. (21 August 2015). 3187:from the original on 9 October 2022. 3115:from the original on 9 October 2022. 2988: 2986: 2616:is a concern at these temperatures. 2453:National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1497:due to the production of OH, less Cl 1113:from their salts using electrolysis. 4405:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 4097:from the original on 9 October 2022 3883:Hori, Y (2008). "Electrochemical CO 3646:Handbook of Heterogeneous Catalysis 3576:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 3478:Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie 2977:The Development of Modern Chemistry 2956:Ashworth, William (20 March 2015). 2801:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant 2777:multiple-criteria decision-analysis 1548:Other reactions occur, such as the 1325:An ionic compound melted by heating 4678:Materials produced by electrolysis 4280:. Vol. 26. pp. 386–394. 3889:Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry 3430:. The MacMillan Company. pp. 3341:"On certain properties of gallium" 3234:"Paul Héroult and Charles M. Hall" 3144:10.22201/fq.18708404e.2002.4.66285 3021:Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher 1884:Hydrodimerization of acrylonitrile 1768:use spontaneous, energy-releasing 1712:Energy changes during electrolysis 25: 3707:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 3339:Lecoq de Boisbaudran P-E (1875). 3126:Wisniak, Jaime (26 August 2018). 2871:Timeline of hydrogen technologies 1249:Electrolysis is the passing of a 1054:Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan 966:In the early nineteenth century, 3654:10.1002/9783527610044.hetcat0103 1812:Basic membrane cell used in the 1701:OH (hydroxide ions) are common. 1692: 1686: 1413:, while electron gain is called 985:In 1785 a Dutch scientist named 4173:10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.062 3516:. D. Van Nostrand Co. pp. 3078:A History of Science in Society 2426: 2419: 2399:Electrolysis of water produces 2389:Electrolysis of acidified water 2176: 2155: 2138: 2119: 1966:Electrochemical machining (ECM) 1194:Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1039:Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 4614:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide 4227:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.03.195 4200:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.11.033 4138:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125 4043:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151 3484:. Metzger & Wittig: 403–. 3257:(in Polish). 18 September 2019 3173:Marshall, James and Virginia. 3101:Marshall, James and Virginia. 2412: 2352:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide 1405:and removed at the anode as a 1380:Faraday's laws of electrolysis 45:Hofmann electrolysis apparatus 1: 4010:Martin, Polly (5 July 2023). 3734:Journal of Chemical Education 3180:. University of North Texas. 3108:. University of North Texas. 3036:"Lithium - periodicstats.com" 2816:Faraday's law of electrolysis 2102: 2086: 1849:, which can be described as: 636:Relativistic electromagnetism 4664:Electrochemical fluorination 4575:Standard electrode potential 3424:Thompson, M. de Kay (1911). 2044:standard electrode potential 1998:Production of fuels such as 4718:Hydrogen evolution reaction 3897:10.1007/978-0-387-49489-0_3 2811:Electrochemical engineering 2791:Alkaline water electrolysis 1645:. It is possible to reduce 1521:The more opportunity the Cl 1513:+ 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H 1389:. Positively charged ions ( 47:used in a school laboratory 4841: 4589:Betts electrolytic process 4521:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110166 4377:10.3389/fmats.2022.1010156 4286:10.1002/9780470132579.ch70 4031:Journal of Hydrogen Energy 3063:Science Notes and Projects 2851:High-pressure electrolysis 2510:Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H 2478: 2392: 2355: 1876:, the electrocatalyst, is 944: 928: 361:Liénard–Wiechert potential 29: 4418:10.1007/s10800-017-1143-5 3870:10.1016/j.cap.2011.01.003 3238:Science History Institute 2540:Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H 1972:Electrochemical machining 1073:This became known as the 886:is a technique that uses 626:Mathematical descriptions 336:Electromagnetic radiation 326:Electromagnetic induction 266:Magnetic vector potential 261:Magnetic scalar potential 3728:Hall, Norris F. (1952). 3621:10.1002/14356007.a11_349 3510:Hale, Arthur J. (1919). 3490:10.1002/zaac.19030360152 3427:Applied Electrochemistry 2942:10.1021/acscatal.8b02712 2648:and the reaction at the 2634:solid oxide electrolysis 2624:Electrolysis of seawater 2583:Electrolysis of Iron Ore 1839:organofluorine compounds 1816:of brine. At the anode ( 1550:self-ionization of water 1295:(e.g. an ion-conducting 1187:two laws of electrolysis 4599:Castner–Kellner process 3850:Current Applied Physics 3615:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 3382:Tilley, R.J.D. (2004). 3018:Thorpe, Thomas (1896). 2975:Ihde, Aaron J. (1964). 2796:Castner–Kellner process 1857:C–H + HF → R 1706:gas diffusion electrode 1560:Decomposition potential 1365:Process of electrolysis 1251:direct electric current 1227:Castner–Kellner process 888:direct electric current 176:Electrostatic induction 171:Electrostatic discharge 4582:Electrolytic processes 4356:Frontiers in Materials 3684:Atkins, Peter (1997). 2898:The Scientific Monthly 2577:linear chain compounds 2566:Electrocrystallization 2268:are more likely to be 2249:are more likely to be 1914: 1829: 1724:efficiency equals the 1010:Johan August Arfwedson 606:Electromagnetic tensor 48: 4619:Electrolysis of water 3040:www.periodicstats.com 2573:charge-transfer salts 2395:Electrolysis of water 1906: 1811: 1653:ions at the cathode: 1444:electrolysis of brine 1378:. These are known as 1283:The electrolyte is a 1274:ion-exchange membrane 1229:developed for making 1218:developed for making 1176:William Thomas Brande 1047:Académie des sciences 1014:William Thomas Brande 599:Covariant formulation 391:Synchrotron radiation 331:Electromagnetic pulse 321:Electromagnetic field 42: 4820:Industrial processes 4629:Hall–Héroult process 4569:Articles related to 3472:Kremann, R. (1903). 3076:Ede, Andrew (2017). 2866:Thermochemical cycle 2861:Patterson Power Cell 2846:Hall–Héroult process 1908:Hall–Héroult process 1505:(ClO) at the anode: 1216:Hall–Héroult process 1075:Hall–Héroult process 1021:laws of electrolysis 939:electrical phenomena 934:[ɛ̌ːlektron] 641:Stress–energy tensor 566:Reluctance (complex) 311:Displacement current 4815:Hydrogen production 4604:Chloralkali process 4466:2009ECSTr..16J..31Y 4368:2022FrMat...910156L 4278:Inorganic Syntheses 4263:10.1021/ja00399a065 4161:Electrochimica Acta 4130:2018ApEn..231..502J 4068:on 7 February 2007. 3862:2011CAP....11..986M 3755:10.1021/ed029p319.1 3746:1952JChEd..29..319H 3394:2004usts.book.....T 3329:de Physiques, 1785. 2910:1937SciMo..45..535O 2836:Galvanoluminescence 2726:2 H(aq) + 2 e → H 2722:(g) + 2 H(aq) + 2 e 2664:. The inclusion of 2481:Hydrogen production 2282:electrode potential 1843:electrofluorination 1833:Electrofluorination 1795:chloralkali process 1789:Chloralkali process 1566:electrode potential 1240:using electrolysis. 1211:using electrolysis. 1200:using electrolysis. 1167:using electrolysis. 1163:were discovered by 1066:Charles Martin Hall 922:in 1834, using the 556:Magnetomotive force 441:Electromotive force 411:Alternating current 346:Jefimenko equations 306:Cyclotron radiation 4805:Chemical processes 4708:Electrolysed water 4639:Kolbe electrolysis 4634:Hofmann voltameter 4328:10.3390/su13063443 3989:10.1039/C3CS60323G 3784:10.1039/C4TA03893B 3686:Physical Chemistry 3588:10.1007/BF02354977 2962:Linda Hall Library 2831:Galvanic corrosion 2826:Faraday efficiency 2341:electrolyzed water 2008:nuclear submarines 1993:potassium chlorate 1915: 1830: 1335:electrical circuit 1314:or reaction of an 1285:chemical substance 1265:of the materials. 1207:was discovered by 1099:Martinus van Marum 1052:On June 26, 1886, 1037:In November 1875, 974:sought to further 404:Electrical network 241:Gauss magnetic law 206:Static electricity 166:Electric potential 49: 43:Illustration of a 4787: 4786: 4474:10.1149/1.3114006 4295:978-0-470-13257-9 4221:(19): 9144–9152. 3944:10.1021/cr300463y 3906:978-0-387-49488-3 3823:10.1021/jz1012627 3772:J. Mater. Chem. A 3553:10.1021/cr200247n 3459:10.1149/1.3498105 3403:978-0-470-85276-7 3132:Educación Química 3087:978-1-4426-3499-2 3046:on 15 April 2021. 2935:(10): 9765–9774. 2806:Electrolytic cell 2753:at the anode and 2469:hydrogen vehicles 2441:energy efficiency 2435:° = +1.229 V 2337:hypochlorous acid 2229: 2228: 2158:+ 4 H + 4 e ⇌ 2 H 2048:Gibbs free energy 1929:Electrometallurgy 1778:electrolytic cell 1774:secondary battery 1757:Related processes 1746:Pulsating current 1718:Gibbs free energy 1442:For example, the 1376:equivalent weight 1299:, solution, or a 1118:William Nicholson 1068:from America and 968:William Nicholson 904:electrolytic cell 892:chemical reaction 872: 871: 571:Reluctance (real) 541:Gyrator–capacitor 486:Resonant cavities 376:Maxwell equations 16:(Redirected from 4832: 4825:Industrial gases 4810:Electrochemistry 4764:Electrochemistry 4743:Sodium hydroxide 4669:Wohlwill process 4563: 4556: 4549: 4540: 4533: 4532: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4454:ECS Transactions 4445: 4439: 4438: 4420: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4379: 4347: 4341: 4340: 4330: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4183: 4177: 4176: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4113: 4107: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4096: 4085: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4026: 4020: 4019: 4016:rechargenews.com 4007: 4001: 4000: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3955: 3938:(8): 6621–6658. 3932:Chemical Reviews 3918: 3912: 3910: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3717:on 24 July 2017. 3716: 3701: 3690: 3689: 3681: 3668: 3667: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3547:(6): 3356–3426. 3541:Chemical Reviews 3536: 3530: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3363:Faraday, Michael 3359: 3353: 3352: 3336: 3330: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3301: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3276: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3195: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3179: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3114: 3107: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3042:. Archived from 3032: 3026: 3025: 3015: 3009: 3008: 3006: 3004: 2990: 2981: 2980: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2893: 2876:PEM electrolysis 2821:Faraday constant 2773: 2771: 2770: 2767: 2759:O(g) + 2 e → H 2752: 2742: 2741: 2738: 2731: 2723: 2707: 2702:O(l) + 2 e → H 2695: 2663: 2658:O(l) + 2 e → H 2647: 2550: 2524: 2431: 2428: 2421: 2414: 2220: 2219: 2218: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2198: 2197: 2178: 2157: 2140: 2121: 2104: 2088: 2063: 2058:is shown below. 2041: 2040: 2039: 1919:Purifying copper 1891:is converted to 1841:are produced by 1799:sodium hydroxide 1696: 1690: 1674: 1673: 1665: 1664: 1633: 1632: 1625: 1624: 1293:electric current 1231:sodium hydroxide 1122:Anthony Carlisle 999:Alessandro Volta 987:Martin van Marum 972:Anthony Carlisle 953: 947: 946: 936: 931: 930: 864: 857: 850: 531:Electric machine 514:Magnetic circuit 476:Parallel circuit 466:Network analysis 431:Electric current 366:London equations 211:Triboelectricity 201:Potential energy 70: 60:Electromagnetism 51: 21: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4790: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4752: 4733:Potassium metal 4728:Magnesium metal 4673: 4594:Castner process 4577: 4567: 4537: 4536: 4502: 4501: 4497: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4398: 4397: 4393: 4349: 4348: 4344: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4296: 4275: 4274: 4270: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4083: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3927: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3907: 3886: 3882: 3881: 3877: 3847: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3808: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3727: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3703: 3702: 3693: 3683: 3682: 3671: 3664: 3643: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3494: 3492: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3444: 3443: 3439: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3303: 3302: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3278: 3277: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3253: 3252: 3245: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3197: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3177: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3112: 3105: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3002: 3000: 2992: 2991: 2984: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2955: 2954: 2950: 2922: 2921: 2917: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2786: 2768: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2736: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2682:2 OH(aq) → 1/ 2681: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2642:2 Cl(aq) → Cl 2641: 2626: 2600: 2594: 2585: 2568: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2503:electrochemical 2499:ethylene glycol 2497:, formic acid, 2483: 2477: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2397: 2391: 2367: 2360: 2354: 2349: 2347:Research trends 2306: 2278:Nernst equation 2217: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2210: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2191: 2189: 2175: 2161: 2154: 2137: 2118: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2033: 2031: 2027: 1989:sodium chlorate 1984: 1968: 1901: 1886: 1864: 1861:C–F + H 1860: 1856: 1835: 1791: 1786: 1784:Industrial uses 1770:redox reactions 1759: 1743: 1714: 1672: 1669: 1668: 1667: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1658: 1631: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1623: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1605: 1581:Nernst equation 1562: 1543: 1540:3 NaClO → NaClO 1532: 1528: 1524: 1516: 1512: 1500: 1488: 1484: 1472: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1434:electrorefining 1367: 1287:which contains 1247: 1183:Michael Faraday 1094: 1032:electronegative 1028:electropositive 964: 951:[lýsis] 920:Michael Faraday 916: 868: 839: 838: 654: 646: 645: 601: 591: 590: 546:Induction motor 516: 506: 505: 421:Current density 406: 396: 395: 386:Poynting vector 296: 294:Electrodynamics 286: 285: 281:Right-hand rule 246:Magnetic dipole 236:Biot–Savart law 226: 216: 215: 151:Electric dipole 146:Electric charge 121: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4838: 4836: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4792: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4646: 4644:Hoopes process 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4624:Electrowinning 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4578: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4535: 4534: 4495: 4440: 4411:(1): 115–126. 4391: 4342: 4315:Sustainability 4301: 4294: 4268: 4246: 4242: 4232: 4205: 4178: 4151: 4118:Applied Energy 4108: 4071: 4048: 4021: 4002: 3983:(2): 631–675. 3977:Chem. Soc. Rev 3967: 3925: 3913: 3905: 3884: 3875: 3845: 3836: 3806: 3797: 3761: 3720: 3691: 3669: 3663:978-3527312412 3662: 3636: 3629: 3601: 3566: 3531: 3502: 3464: 3437: 3416: 3402: 3374: 3354: 3331: 3321: 3293: 3268: 3243: 3240:. 1 June 2016. 3225: 3209: 3190: 3165: 3118: 3093: 3086: 3068: 3049: 3027: 3010: 2982: 2967: 2948: 2915: 2904:(6): 535–546. 2887: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2706:(g) + 2 OH(aq) 2625: 2622: 2598: 2592: 2584: 2581: 2567: 2564: 2560: 2559: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2533: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2479:Main article: 2476: 2473: 2437: 2436: 2423: 2416: 2408: 2393:Main article: 2390: 2387: 2365: 2356:Main article: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2333:hydroxide ions 2309:overpotentials 2304: 2297: 2296: 2293: 2274: 2273: 2254: 2231: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2224: 2221: 2215: 2203: 2194: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2173: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2142: 2135: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2116: 2111: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2079: 2078: 2075: 2069: 2036: 2026: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2015: 1996: 1987:Production of 1983: 1980: 1967: 1964: 1960:Electroplating 1957: 1956: 1926: 1910:for producing 1900: 1897: 1885: 1882: 1866: 1865: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1847:Simons process 1834: 1831: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1782: 1762:Galvanic cells 1758: 1755: 1742: 1739: 1713: 1710: 1698: 1697: 1691:+ 2 e + 2 H → 1676: 1675: 1670: 1661: 1636: 1635: 1630: 1622: 1604: 1601: 1561: 1558: 1546: 1545: 1541: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1498: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1463: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1454:O → 2 NaOH + H 1451: 1430:electrowinning 1426:electroplating 1366: 1363: 1344:Electrodes of 1339:direct current 1327: 1326: 1323: 1316:ionic compound 1246: 1243: 1242: 1241: 1234: 1223: 1212: 1201: 1190: 1185:published his 1179: 1168: 1141: 1128:), decomposed 1114: 1093: 1090: 963: 960: 915: 912: 870: 869: 867: 866: 859: 852: 844: 841: 840: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 655: 652: 651: 648: 647: 644: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 621:Four-potential 618: 613: 608: 602: 597: 596: 593: 592: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 536:Electric motor 533: 528: 523: 517: 512: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 498: 493: 491:Series circuit 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 461:Kirchhoff laws 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 426:Direct current 423: 418: 413: 407: 402: 401: 398: 397: 394: 393: 388: 383: 381:Maxwell tensor 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 351:Larmor formula 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 301:Bremsstrahlung 297: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 251:Magnetic field 248: 243: 238: 233: 227: 224:Magnetostatics 222: 221: 218: 217: 214: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 156:Electric field 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 126:Charge density 122: 119:Electrostatics 117: 116: 113: 112: 111: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 72: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 54:Articles about 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4837: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4723:Lithium metal 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4693:Calcium metal 4691: 4689: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4564: 4559: 4557: 4552: 4550: 4545: 4544: 4541: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4496: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4441: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4346: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4302: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4272: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4236: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4182: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4109: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4049: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4025: 4022: 4017: 4013: 4006: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3917: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3879: 3876: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3840: 3837: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3801: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3708: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3640: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3605: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3506: 3503: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3441: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3420: 3417: 3405: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3378: 3375: 3370: 3369: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3332: 3325: 3322: 3310: 3306: 3305:"Wyborcza.pl" 3300: 3298: 3294: 3281: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3220: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3194: 3191: 3183: 3176: 3169: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3119: 3111: 3104: 3097: 3094: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3028: 3023: 3022: 3014: 3011: 2999: 2995: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2929:ACS Catalysis 2926: 2919: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2889: 2882: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2856:Overpotential 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2724:and cathode, 2696:and cathode, 2678: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2662:(g) + 2OH(aq) 2651: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2615: 2610: 2605: 2602: 2590: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2565: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2539: 2538: 2537: 2531: 2527: 2509: 2508: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2482: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2465:hydrocracking 2462: 2461:Haber process 2457: 2454: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2434: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2402: 2396: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2359: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2312: 2310: 2302: 2294: 2291: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2235: 2234: 2225: 2222: 2188: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2179:+ 2 e ⇌ 2 Cl 2171: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2150: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2141:+ 2 e ⇌ 2 Br 2133: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2115:2 H + 2 e ⇌ H 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2067:Half-reaction 2065: 2064: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2024: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1921:from refined 1920: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1889:Acrylonitrile 1883: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1788: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1747: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1735:heating value 1732: 1727: 1723: 1722:thermodynamic 1719: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1702: 1695: 1689: 1685: 1684: 1683: 1681: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1585:overpotential 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1534: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1504: 1496: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1449: 1448: 1447: 1445: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1354:semiconductor 1351: 1347: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1263:decomposition 1260: 1256: 1252: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1209:Henri Moissan 1206: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1126:Johann Ritter 1123: 1119: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1091: 1089: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 995:Luigi Galvani 991: 988: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 961: 959: 957: 952: 948: 940: 935: 925: 921: 913: 911: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 880:manufacturing 877: 865: 860: 858: 853: 851: 846: 845: 843: 842: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 656: 650: 649: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 603: 600: 595: 594: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 515: 510: 509: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 456:Joule heating 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 408: 405: 400: 399: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 371:Lorentz force 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 298: 295: 290: 289: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 271:Magnetization 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 256:Magnetic flux 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 228: 225: 220: 219: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 161:Electric flux 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 123: 120: 115: 114: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 98:Computational 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 75: 74: 73: 69: 65: 64: 61: 57: 53: 52: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 4800:Electrolysis 4738:Sodium metal 4688:(extraction) 4648:Dow process 4571:electrolysis 4570: 4512: 4508: 4498: 4457: 4453: 4443: 4408: 4404: 4394: 4359: 4355: 4345: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4277: 4271: 4254: 4250: 4235: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4191: 4187: 4181: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4099:. Retrieved 4087: 4074: 4066:the original 4061: 4051: 4037:(12): 4901. 4034: 4030: 4024: 4015: 4005: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3935: 3931: 3916: 3888: 3878: 3853: 3849: 3839: 3817:(24): 3451. 3814: 3810: 3800: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3737: 3733: 3723: 3712:the original 3706: 3685: 3645: 3639: 3610: 3604: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3544: 3540: 3534: 3524:12 September 3522:. Retrieved 3512: 3505: 3495:12 September 3493:. Retrieved 3481: 3477: 3467: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3426: 3419: 3407:. Retrieved 3384: 3377: 3367: 3357: 3348: 3344: 3334: 3324: 3312:. Retrieved 3308: 3284:. Retrieved 3259:. Retrieved 3237: 3228: 3218: 3212: 3206:. Interface. 3203: 3193: 3168: 3135: 3131: 3121: 3096: 3077: 3071: 3062: 3052: 3044:the original 3039: 3030: 3020: 3013: 3001:. Retrieved 2997: 2976: 2970: 2961: 2951: 2932: 2928: 2918: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2627: 2618: 2606: 2586: 2569: 2561: 2555: 2551: 2535: 2529: 2525: 2484: 2458: 2450: 2438: 2432: 2398: 2361: 2313: 2301:zinc bromide 2298: 2275: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2232: 2125: 2114: 2071: 2051: 2028: 2018:Rust removal 1969: 1958: 1893:adiponitrile 1887: 1867: 1836: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1814:electrolysis 1813: 1792: 1760: 1744: 1715: 1703: 1699: 1679: 1677: 1666:+ e → Fe(CN) 1651:ferrocyanide 1647:ferricyanide 1637: 1606: 1578: 1563: 1547: 1535: 1520: 1503:hypochlorite 1492: 1476: 1464: 1450:2 NaCl + 2 H 1441: 1438: 1422: 1419: 1384: 1372: 1368: 1343: 1328: 1301:ionic liquid 1291:and carries 1282: 1267: 1248: 1165:Humphry Davy 1079: 1070:Paul Héroult 1063: 1051: 1036: 1034:activities. 1025: 1018: 1007: 1003:Humphry Davy 992: 984: 980:voltaic pile 965: 942: 917: 884:electrolysis 883: 873: 616:Four-current 551:Linear motor 436:Electrolysis 435: 316:Eddy current 276:Permeability 196:Polarization 191:Permittivity 36: 18:Electrolyzer 4779:Electrology 4769:Gas cracker 4321:(6): 3443. 4257:(9): 2440. 4167:: 744–757. 4124:: 502–533. 3778:(6): 3029. 3309:wyborcza.pl 3282:(in Polish) 2841:Gas cracker 2714:O(l) → 1/ 2544:O) → CO + H 2260:the table, 2241:the table, 1485:O + 2 e → H 1331:electrolyte 1278:salt bridge 1270:electrolyte 1255:electrolyte 1253:through an 1196:discovered 1041:discovered 586:Transformer 416:Capacitance 341:Faraday law 136:Coulomb law 78:Electricity 32:Electrology 4794:Categories 4609:Downs cell 4515:: 110166. 4460:(36): 31. 4101:20 October 3856:(4): 986. 3740:(6): 319. 3630:3527306730 3409:22 October 3138:(4): 267. 3003:11 October 2883:References 2743:(g) → 1/ 2694:O(l) + 2 e 2677:hydroxides 2288: 7): 2276:Using the 2209:+ 2 e ⇌ 2 2101:+ 2 e ⇌ Zn 2004:spacecraft 1741:Variations 1568:) between 1259:electrodes 1124:(and also 1049:in Paris. 653:Scientists 501:Waveguides 481:Resistance 451:Inductance 231:Ampère law 4685:Aluminium 4657:Magnesium 4529:224843343 4482:1938-5862 4435:102871146 4427:1572-8838 4386:2296-8016 4337:2071-1050 4194:: 70–74. 4146:117669840 3928:Fixation" 3831:101946630 3152:1870-8404 2751:(g) + 2 e 2666:magnesium 2614:corrosion 1976:deburring 1949:magnesium 1945:potassium 1933:aluminium 1912:aluminium 1880:-plated. 1766:batteries 1639:Reduction 1626:(aq) → Fe 1608:Oxidation 1554:diffusion 1469:2 Cl → Cl 1415:reduction 1411:oxidation 1399:electrons 1358:electrode 1312:Solvation 1289:free ions 1220:aluminium 1161:magnesium 1145:Potassium 1058:anhydrous 914:Etymology 902:using an 876:chemistry 809:Steinmetz 739:Kirchhoff 724:Jefimenko 719:Hopkinson 704:Helmholtz 699:Heaviside 561:Permeance 446:Impedance 186:Insulator 181:Gauss law 131:Conductor 108:Phenomena 103:Textbooks 83:Magnetism 4757:See also 4713:Fluorine 4698:Chlorine 4490:96771590 4092:Archived 3997:24186433 3962:23767781 3792:98110035 3596:95515683 3561:22423981 3365:(1849). 3182:Archived 3160:92299077 3110:Archived 2784:See also 2646:(g) + 2e 2589:iron ore 2495:glycerol 2491:alcohols 2401:hydrogen 2383:ethylene 2375:ethylene 2321:chlorine 2317:chloride 2270:oxidized 2085:+ e ⇌ Na 2012:vehicles 2000:hydrogen 1726:enthalpy 1649:ions to 1634:(aq) + e 1597:chlorine 1593:hydrogen 1544:+ 2 NaCl 1403:reactant 1350:graphite 1245:Overview 1205:Fluorine 1151:(1807), 1147:(1807), 1134:hydrogen 1111:antimony 1092:Timeline 1064:In 1886 1008:In 1817 993:In 1791 956:elements 929:ἤλεκτρον 896:elements 834:Wiechert 789:Poynting 679:Einstein 526:DC motor 521:AC motor 356:Lenz law 141:Electret 4652:Bromine 4462:Bibcode 4364:Bibcode 4241:(TMTSF) 4126:Bibcode 3953:3895110 3858:Bibcode 3742:Bibcode 3453:: 359. 3390:Bibcode 2906:Bibcode 2763:(g) + O 2690:(g) + H 2670:calcium 2650:cathode 2514:O) → CO 2379:ethanol 2371:methane 2256:Moving 2251:reduced 2237:Moving 2144:+1.0873 2107:−0.7618 1953:calcium 1937:lithium 1872:. The 1643:cathode 1574:cathode 1407:product 1391:cations 1320:solvent 1318:with a 1297:polymer 1225:1890 – 1214:1886 – 1203:1886 – 1198:gallium 1192:1875 – 1181:1834 – 1172:Lithium 1170:1821 – 1157:calcium 1143:1808 – 1116:1800 – 1097:1785 – 1043:gallium 976:Volta's 962:History 908:voltage 819:Thomson 794:Ritchie 784:Poisson 769:Neumann 764:Maxwell 759:Lorentz 754:Liénard 684:Faraday 669:Coulomb 496:Voltage 471:Ohm law 93:History 4703:Copper 4527: 4488: 4480: 4433: 4425: 4384: 4335: 4292: 4144: 3995: 3960: 3950: 3903: 3829: 3790: 3660: 3627: 3594: 3559: 3400: 3351:: 294. 3314:3 June 3286:3 June 3261:3 June 3158: 3150: 3084: 2632:, and 2612:anode 2549: 2523: 2430: 2331:. The 2329:oxygen 2303:, ZnBr 2074:° (V) 1941:sodium 1923:copper 1878:nickel 1657:Fe(CN) 1589:oxygen 1489:+ 2 OH 1432:, and 1395:anions 1387:charge 1238:copper 1153:barium 1149:sodium 1138:oxygen 1109:, and 1082:copper 941:, and 926:words 906:. The 804:Singer 799:Savart 779:Ørsted 744:Larmor 734:Kelvin 689:Fizeau 659:Ampère 581:Stator 88:Optics 4525:S2CID 4486:S2CID 4431:S2CID 4142:S2CID 4095:(PDF) 4084:(PDF) 3827:S2CID 3788:S2CID 3715:(PDF) 3592:S2CID 3185:(PDF) 3178:(PDF) 3156:S2CID 3113:(PDF) 3106:(PDF) 2638:anode 2609:oxide 2415:→ 2 H 2325:water 2266:right 2223:+2.07 2182:+1.36 2165:+1.23 2091:−2.71 2077:Ref. 1982:Other 1874:anode 1837:Many 1750:ozone 1731:steam 1612:anode 1570:anode 1495:basic 1473:+ 2 e 1346:metal 1305:salts 1276:or a 1132:into 1130:water 945:λύσις 924:Greek 829:Weber 824:Volta 814:Tesla 729:Joule 714:Hertz 709:Henry 694:Gauss 576:Rotor 4748:Zinc 4478:ISSN 4423:ISSN 4382:ISSN 4333:ISSN 4290:ISBN 4103:2008 3993:PMID 3958:PMID 3901:ISBN 3658:ISBN 3625:ISBN 3557:PMID 3526:2019 3520:, 73 3497:2019 3434:-88. 3411:2011 3398:ISBN 3316:2024 3288:2024 3263:2024 3148:ISSN 3082:ISBN 3005:2019 2673:ions 2668:and 2575:and 2518:+ 2H 2487:coal 2451:The 2439:The 2280:the 2247:left 2239:down 2139:(aq) 2010:and 2002:for 1991:and 1793:The 1764:and 1572:and 1458:+ Cl 1352:and 1337:. A 1261:and 1159:and 1136:and 1120:and 1107:zinc 1086:zinc 1084:and 1030:and 970:and 900:ores 878:and 749:Lenz 674:Davy 664:Biot 4517:doi 4513:133 4470:doi 4413:doi 4372:doi 4323:doi 4282:doi 4259:doi 4255:103 4249:". 4245:ClO 4223:doi 4196:doi 4169:doi 4165:212 4134:doi 4122:231 4039:doi 3985:doi 3948:PMC 3940:doi 3936:113 3893:doi 3866:doi 3819:doi 3780:doi 3750:doi 3650:doi 3617:doi 3584:doi 3549:doi 3545:112 3486:doi 3455:doi 3204:ECS 3140:doi 2998:ECS 2937:doi 2772:(g) 2730:(g) 2698:2 H 2654:2 H 2536:or 2489:), 2427:(g) 2422:+ O 2420:(g) 2413:(l) 2407:2 H 2327:to 2319:to 2177:(g) 2156:(g) 2126:≡ 0 2120:(g) 2103:(s) 2087:(s) 2050:, Δ 1970:In 1931:of 1595:or 1481:2 H 1103:tin 874:In 774:Ohm 4796:: 4573:/ 4523:. 4511:. 4507:. 4484:. 4476:. 4468:. 4458:16 4456:. 4452:. 4429:. 4421:. 4409:48 4407:. 4403:. 4380:. 4370:. 4362:. 4358:. 4354:. 4331:. 4319:13 4317:. 4313:. 4288:. 4253:. 4219:43 4217:. 4192:40 4190:. 4163:. 4140:. 4132:. 4120:. 4090:. 4086:. 4060:. 4035:38 4033:. 4014:. 3991:. 3981:43 3979:. 3956:. 3946:. 3934:. 3930:. 3899:. 3864:. 3854:11 3852:. 3825:. 3813:. 3786:. 3774:. 3748:. 3738:29 3736:. 3732:. 3694:^ 3672:^ 3656:. 3648:. 3623:. 3590:. 3578:. 3555:. 3543:. 3518:16 3482:36 3480:. 3476:. 3451:66 3449:. 3432:84 3396:. 3349:32 3347:. 3343:. 3307:. 3296:^ 3271:^ 3246:^ 3236:. 3202:. 3154:. 3146:. 3136:13 3134:. 3130:. 3061:. 3038:. 2996:. 2985:^ 2960:. 2931:. 2927:. 2902:45 2900:. 2652:, 2640:, 2597:CO 2579:. 2471:. 2377:, 2373:, 2364:CO 2286:pH 2258:up 2211:SO 2172:Cl 2162:O 2134:Br 2099:Zn 2083:Na 2032:SO 2006:, 1951:, 1947:, 1943:, 1939:, 1935:, 1780:. 1708:. 1618:Fe 1599:. 1591:, 1509:Cl 1436:. 1428:, 1417:. 1382:. 1348:, 1155:, 1105:, 1088:. 1023:. 882:, 4562:e 4555:t 4548:v 4531:. 4519:: 4492:. 4472:: 4464:: 4437:. 4415:: 4388:. 4374:: 4366:: 4360:9 4339:. 4325:: 4298:. 4284:: 4265:. 4261:: 4247:4 4243:2 4229:. 4225:: 4202:. 4198:: 4175:. 4171:: 4148:. 4136:: 4128:: 4105:. 4045:. 4041:: 4018:. 3999:. 3987:: 3964:. 3942:: 3926:2 3911:. 3909:. 3895:: 3885:2 3872:. 3868:: 3860:: 3846:2 3833:. 3821:: 3815:1 3807:2 3794:. 3782:: 3776:3 3758:. 3752:: 3744:: 3666:. 3652:: 3633:. 3619:: 3598:. 3586:: 3580:2 3563:. 3551:: 3528:. 3499:. 3488:: 3461:. 3457:: 3413:. 3392:: 3318:. 3290:. 3265:. 3162:. 3142:: 3090:. 3065:. 3007:. 2964:. 2945:. 2939:: 2933:8 2912:. 2908:: 2769:2 2766:− 2761:2 2757:2 2755:H 2749:2 2747:O 2745:2 2740:2 2737:− 2734:O 2728:2 2720:2 2718:O 2716:2 2712:2 2710:H 2704:2 2700:2 2692:2 2688:2 2686:O 2684:2 2660:2 2656:2 2644:2 2601:e 2599:2 2593:2 2556:E 2552:E 2546:2 2542:2 2530:E 2526:E 2520:2 2516:2 2512:2 2433:E 2424:2 2417:2 2411:O 2409:2 2366:2 2305:2 2262:E 2243:E 2216:4 2204:8 2199:O 2195:2 2190:S 2174:2 2160:2 2153:2 2151:O 2136:2 2117:2 2072:E 2052:G 2037:4 2014:. 1995:. 1955:. 1925:. 1870:V 1863:2 1859:3 1855:3 1853:R 1826:C 1822:B 1818:A 1680:p 1671:6 1662:6 1542:3 1531:2 1527:2 1523:2 1517:O 1515:2 1511:2 1499:2 1487:2 1483:2 1471:2 1460:2 1456:2 1452:2 1233:. 1222:. 1140:. 863:e 856:t 849:v 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index