Electronic toll collection - Knowledge (XXG)

311: 185:. He proposed that each car would be equipped with a transponder: "The transponder's personalized signal would be picked up when the car passed through an intersection, and then relayed to a central computer which would calculate the charge according to the intersection and the time of day and add it to the car's bill." In the 1960s and the 1970s, free flow tolling was tested with fixed transponders at the undersides of the vehicles and readers, which were located under the surface of the highway. Plans were however scrapped and it never came into actual implementation. Modern toll transponders are typically mounted under the windshield, with readers located in overhead gantries. 543: 1146:, while rarely used as the primary vehicle identification method, is more commonly used in violation enforcement. In the VES context, the number of images collected is much smaller than in the AVI context. This makes manual review, with its greater accuracy over fully automated methods, practical. However, many jurisdictions require legislative action to permit this type of enforcement, as the number plate identifies only the vehicle, not its operator, and many traffic enforcement regulations require identifying the operator in order to issue an infraction. 408:

pressure to limit the fraction of electronic lanes in order to limit the length of manual-lane lines. In the short term, the greater the fraction of automated lanes, the lower the cost of operation (once the capital costs of automating are amortized). In the long term, the greater the relative advantage that registering and turning one's vehicle into an electronic-toll one provides, the faster cars will be converted from manual-toll use to electronic-toll use, and therefore the fewer manual-toll cars will drag down average speed and thus capacity.

565: 998: 291: 762:) during peak travel seasons to facilitate distribution of congestion to midnight hours. The toll gates divide the highway into segments, each having a price value determined by distance to the next gate (interchange). A daily gate count is calculated at midnight, and the total charge is deducted in 48 hours. Each vehicle receives a further discount after the first 200 kilometers, and eTag subscribers with prepaid accounts get a further 10% reduction. Non-subscribers are billed by 40: 299: 326: 627: 404:

average speed, and in a lower time. This is at least a psychological improvement, even if the length of the lines in automated lanes is sufficient to make the no-stop-to-pay savings insignificant compared to time still lost due waiting in line to pass the toll gate. Toll plazas are typically wider than the rest of the highway; reducing the need for them makes it possible to fit toll roads into tight corridors.

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interaction with the toll agency. The disadvantage is that fully automatic recognition has a significant error rate, leading to billing errors and the cost of transaction processing (which requires locating and corresponding with the customer) can be significant. Systems that incorporate a manual review stage have much lower error rates, but require a continuing staffing expense.

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from the account rather than a violation being generated. If the license plate cannot be found in the database, then it is processed as a violation. Illinois' toll violation system has a 7-day grace period, allowing tollway users to pay missed tolls online with no penalty the 7 days following the missed toll.

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methods, one could design systems that do not know where individuals are, but can still collect and enforce tolls. From the legal standpoint, a proper privacy framework can pose strict bounds on the data retention and rights to access and utilization, especially after the tolls have been successfully

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An example of this is the vToll system on the Illinois Tollway, which requires transponder users to enter their license plate information before using the system. If the transponder fails to read, the license plate number is matched to the transponder account, and the regular toll amount is deducted

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A physical barrier, such as a gate arm, ensures that all vehicles passing through the toll booth have paid a toll. Violators are identified immediately, as the barrier will not permit the violator to proceed. However, barriers also force authorized customers, which are the vast majority of vehicles

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Police patrols at toll gates can be highly effective. In addition, in most jurisdictions, the legal framework is already in place for punishing toll evasion as a traffic infraction. However, the expense of police patrols makes their use on a continuous basis impractical, such that the probability of

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and mail statements, or can make a payment at chain convenient store at third day after vehicle travel, since a subscription to ETC is not mandated by law. Taiwan was the first country to transfer from flat-rate toll stations to a distance-based pay-as-you-go tolling system on all of its freeways. It

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In Brazil, the Sem Parar/Via-Fácil system allows customers to pass through tolls in more than 1,000 lanes in the states of São Paulo, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Sem Parar/Via-Fácil also allows users to enter and exit more than 100 parking lots. There are also

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Customer accounts may be postpaid, where toll transactions are periodically billed to the customer, or prepaid, where the customer funds a balance in the account which is then depleted as toll transactions occur. The prepaid system is more common, as the small amounts of most tolls makes pursuit of

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Even if line lengths are the same in electronic lanes as in manual ones, electronic tolls save registered cars time: eliminating the stop at a window or toll machine, between successive cars passing the collection machine, means a fixed-length stretch of their journey past it is traveled at a higher

1040:(DSRC). RFID tags have proved to have excellent accuracy, and can be read at highway speeds. The major disadvantage is the cost of equipping each vehicle with a transponder, which can be a major start-up expense, if paid by the toll agency, or a strong customer deterrent, if paid by the customer. 411:

In some countries, some toll agencies that use similar technology have set up (or are setting up) reciprocity arrangements, which permit one to drive a vehicle on another operator's tolled road with the tolls incurred charged to the driver's toll-payment account with their home operator. An example

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Enforcement is accomplished by a combination of a camera which takes a picture of the car and a radio frequency keyed computer which searches for a drivers window/bumper mounted transponder to verify and collect payment. The system sends a notice and fine to cars that pass through without having an

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ETC 2.0 is not only capable of sending and receiving a large amount of information in both directions between the road and the vehicle, but also of providing route information. Thus, ETC 2.0 has far more advanced functions than ETC 8 (which provides only toll collection function on toll roads). The

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of repeat toll violators, where the violator could serve time in jail, if convicted. Many toll agencies also publicize a list of habitual toll violators through media outlets and newspapers. Some toll agencies offer amnesty periods, where toll violators can settle their outstanding debts without

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More complex systems use a variety of sensors. Inductive sensors embedded in the road surface can determine the gaps between vehicles, to provide basic information on the presence of a vehicle. With clever software processing of the inductive data a wide range of vehicle classes can be derived by

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regional consortium's Violation Enforcement contractor did not have access to the Transaction Processing contractor's database of customers. This, together with installation problems in the automated vehicle identification system, led to many customers receiving erroneous violation notices, and a

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Polish complementary road sign T-34 indicating electronic toll payment for using a public road. While the electronic toll collection is mandatory for the vehicles heavier than 3.5 tons and optional for passenger cars, the sign can be met on selected stretches of motorways, expressways and national

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Transaction processing deals with maintaining customer accounts, posting toll transactions and customer payments to the accounts, and handling customer inquiries. The transaction processing component of some systems is referred to as a "customer service center". In many respects, the transaction

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profilers record the shape of the vehicle, which can help distinguish trucks and trailers. In modern systems simple laser light curtains are being replaced with more technically advanced Lidar systems. These safety critical systems, used in autonomous vehicles, are less sensitive to environmental

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major freeways. All tolls are collected electronically by overhead gantries with multi-lane free flow, not at traditional toll booths. Taiwan was the first country to switch from manual tolling to all-electronic, multi-lane free-flow tolling on all of its freeways. To simulate the previous model,

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The most revolutionary application of ETC is in the urban context of congested cities, allowing to charge tolls without vehicles having to slow down. This application made feasible to concession to the private sector the construction and operation of urban freeways, as well as the introduction or

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in 1959. In the 1960s and the 1970s, the first prototype systems were tested. Norway has been a world pioneer in the widespread implementation of this technology, beginning in 1986. Italy was the first country to deploy a full electronic toll collection system in motorways at national scale in

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Automated vehicle identification (AVI) is the process of determining the identity of a vehicle subject to tolls. The majority of toll facilities record the passage of vehicles through a limited number of toll gates. At such facilities, the task is then to identify the vehicle in the gate area.

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is an increasingly popular alternative which eliminates toll booths altogether; electronic readers mounted beside or over the road read the transponders as vehicles pass at highway speeds, eliminating traffic bottlenecks created by vehicles slowing down to go through a toll booth lane. Vehicles

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As smart phone use becomes more commonplace, some toll road management companies have turned to mobile phone apps to inexpensively automate and expedite paying tolls from the lanes. One such example application is Alabama Freedom Pass mobile, used to link customer accounts at sites operated by

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In 2006, San Francisco transport authorities began a comprehensive study to evaluate the feasibility of introducing congestion pricing. The charge would be combined with other traffic reduction implementations, allowing money to be raised for public transit improvements and bike and pedestrian

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The European Union issued the EFC-directive, which attempts to standardize European toll collection systems. Systems deployed after January 1, 2007 must support at least one of the following technologies: satellite positioning, mobile communications using the GSM-GPRS standard or 5.8 GHz

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Despite these limitations, if delay at the toll gate is reduced, the tollbooth can serve more vehicles per hour. The greater the throughput of any toll lane, the fewer lanes required, so construction costs can be reduced. Specifically, the toll-collecting authorities have incentives to resist

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in the United Kingdom, use automatic number plate recognition. Here, a system of cameras captures images of vehicles passing through tolled areas, and the image of the number plate is extracted and used to identify the vehicle. This allows customers to use the facility without any advance

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but was able to make it the first standardized operating ETC system in the world as European standard in 1996. He acted as a consultant for deployment of ETC in many countries including Japan, United States, Brazil. In Japan, only the ETC System was constructed in all of the

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Electronic toll collection poses a concern to privacy because the systems record when specific motor vehicles pass toll stations. From this information, one can infer the likely location of the vehicle's owner or primary driver at specific times. Technically speaking, using

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A major advantage is the driver does not have to stop, reducing traffic delays. Electronic tolling is cheaper than a staffed toll booth, reducing transaction costs for government or private road owners. The ease of varying the amount of the toll makes it easy to implement

109:, including for high-occupancy lanes, toll lanes that bypass congestion, and city-wide congestion charges. The payment system usually requires users to sign up in advance and load money into a declining-balance account, which is debited each time they pass a toll point. 364:

in New Jersey, and at various locations in California, Florida, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Texas, cars can travel through electronic lanes at full speed. Illinois' Open Road Tolling program features 274 contiguous miles of barrier-free roadways, where I-PASS or

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Congestion pricing or urban toll schemes were implemented to enter the downtown area using ETC technology and/or cameras and video recognition technology to get the plate numbers in several cities around the world: urban tolling in Norway's three major cities:

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because interconnected 24 different Italian motorway operators allowing users to travel between different concession areas and paying only at the end of the journey. Dr. Eng. Mario Alvisi is considered the father of ETC in motorways because not only co-designed

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systems have been deployed in several European countries. With satellite-based tolling solutions, it is not necessary to install electronic readers beside or above the road in order to read transponders since all vehicles are equipped with On Board Units having

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ETC 2.0 system provides a variety of advantages to road users through information provision services, such as congestion avoidance, safe driving support, etc., and route information collected by the road side devices and greatly contribute to ITS promotion.

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Automated vehicle classification is closely related to automated vehicle identification (AVI). Most toll facilities charge different rates for different types of vehicles, making it necessary to distinguish the vehicles passing through the toll facility.

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The simplest method is to store the vehicle class in the customer record, and use the AVI data to look up the vehicle class. This is low-cost, but limits user flexibility, in such cases as the automobile owner who occasionally tows a trailer.

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In some urban settings, automated gates are in use in electronic-toll lanes, with 5 mph (8 km/h) legal limits on speed; in other settings, 20 mph (35 km/h) legal limits are not uncommon. However, in other areas such as the

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microwave technology. Furthermore, the European Commission issued the Regulation on the European Electronic Toll Service (EETS) which must be implemented by all Member States from 19 October 2021. All toll roads in Ireland must support the

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From 2015, the Norwegian government requires commercial trucks above 3.5 tons on its roads to have a transponder and a valid road toll subscription. Before this regulation, two-thirds of foreign trucks failed to pay road tolls.

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passing through, to slow to a near-stop at the toll gate, negating much of the speed and capacity benefits of electronic tolling. Furthermore, a violator can effectively block a toll collection lane for an indefinite time.

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The four components are somewhat independent, and, in fact, some toll agencies have contracted out functions separately. In some cases, this division of functions has resulted in difficulties. In one notable example, the

259:, which can also be used in parking lots and gas stations. The United States is another country with widespread use of ETC in several states, though many U.S. toll roads maintain the option of manual collection. 1131:

A violation enforcement system (VES) is useful in reducing unpaid tolls, as an unmanned toll gate otherwise represents a tempting target for toll evasion. Several methods can be used to deter toll violators.

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users continue to travel at highway speeds through toll plazas, while cash payers pull off the main roadway to pay at tollbooths. Currently over 80% of Illinois' 1.4 million daily drivers use an I-PASS.

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careful analysis of the inductive profile. Treadles permit counting the number of axles as a vehicle passes over them and, with offset-treadle installations, also detect dual-tire vehicles. Light-curtain

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need, in at least some current (barrier) systems, to confine vehicles in lanes, while interacting with the collection devices, and the dangers of high-speed collisions with the confinement structures;

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Film showing the approach to and passing of a toll station in Italy, using a Telepass OBU. Note the yellow Telepass lane signs and road markings and the sound emitted by the OBU when passing the lane.

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significant non-participation, entailing lines in manual lanes and disorderly traffic patterns as the electronic- and manual- collection cars "sort themselves out" into their respective lanes;

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to identify the vehicle, and a bill may be mailed to the address where the car's license plate number is registered, or drivers may have a certain amount of time to pay online or by phone.

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affixed to each vehicle, to be read optically at the toll booth. Optical systems proved to have poor reading reliability, especially when faced with inclement weather and dirty vehicles.

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Norwegian road sign 792.30 indicates an automatic toll station. According to the latest template on road signage in automatic toll stations, this sign shall be posted on the toll station.

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Electronic toll collection systems rely on four major components: automated vehicle identification, automated vehicle classification, transaction processing, and violation enforcement.

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of free travel and is billed NT$ 1.2 per kilometer thereafter. Buses and trailers are subject to heavy vehicle surcharges. The highway administration may alter fares (e.g. remove the

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other systems, such as via expressa, onda livre and auto expresso, that are present in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Parana and Minas Gerais.

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A few toll facilities cover a very wide area, making fixed toll gates impractical. The most notable of these is a truck tolling system in (Germany). This system instead uses

587:, implemented the world's first 100% full speed electronic tolling with transponders crossing through the city's core (CBD) in a system of several concessioned urban freeways ( 2433: 2416: 89:, where vehicles must stop and the driver manually pays the toll with cash or a card. In most systems, vehicles using the system are equipped with an automated radio 802: 1447:"Directive 2004/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the interoperability of electronic road toll systems in the Community" 1153:

In the United States, a growing number of states are sharing information on toll violators, where toll agencies can report out-of-state toll violators to the

1645:. Imprint-Europe Thematic Network: Implementing Reform on Transport Pricing: Constraints and solutions: learning from best practice. Brussels. Archived from 1832: 935: 735:

enhancements. The various pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008, with final study results expected in 2009. (see

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emission standard are exempted. The program was extended through December 2011 and in January 2012 was replaced by a congestion pricing scheme called

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can also be used to pay for parking at Orlando International Airport. However, it is not compatible with other airports that use SunPass for parking.

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After tests in 1974, in 1975, Singapore became the first country in the world to implement an electronic road toll collection system known as the

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until the violator has paid all outstanding tolls, plus penalties and interest in some situations. Toll authorities are also resorting to using

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from the reader triggers the transponder, which transmits back an identifying number which registers the vehicle's use of the road, and an

149:(GNSS) receivers in order to determine the distance traveled on the tolled road network - without the use of any roadside infrastructure. 2012: 2510: 746: 568: 779:

in the northeastern United States can be used to pay at some airport, train, and festival parking lots, and has been tested for use in

1637: 1143: 1010: 146: 2431: 2414: 1985: 1363: 961: 599:. Similar schemes were previously implemented but only on bypass or outer ring urban freeways in several cities around the world: 790: 749:) In December 2013, the old toll stations were replaced by distance-based pay-as-you-go all-electronic toll collection on all of 736: 481:

A similar device in France, called Liber-T for light vehicles and TIS-PL for HGVs, is accepted on all toll roads in the country.

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As of March 2018, in Japan, a total of approximately 2.61 million vehicles are equipped with devices compliant with the ETC 2.0.

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Many ETC systems use transponders like this one to electronically debit the accounts of registered cars without their stopping.

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via cameras interconnected with the PRA (Public Register of Automobiles) via a network of more than 3.000 Km. optical fibers.

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processing function resembles banking, and several toll agencies have contracted out transaction processing to a bank.

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Institutional Aspects of Directive 2004/52/EC on the Interoperability of Electronic Road Toll Systems in the Community

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in 2001 as an upgrade to the manual zone control system implemented in 1998; London in 2003 and extended in 2007 (see

924: 454:. A toll is debited to the customer's account with their tag provider. Some toll road operators – including Sydney's 1157:(or similar agency) of the violator's home state. The state motor vehicle agency can then block the renewal of the 2525: 489: 255:). In 1995, Portugal became the first country to apply a single, universal system to all tolls in the country, the 204: 1281: 943: 928: 1060: 763: 504:-based tag called the "M-TAG". The tag is attached to the windscreen of vehicles and is automatically scanned at 230: 98: 1840: 393:

the fact that in some areas at some times, long lines form even to pass through the electronic-collection lanes;

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where a vehicle would not pass toll collection over short-distance travel, each vehicle receives 20 kilometers

701: 682: 674: 207:, was designed by Dr. Eng Pierluigi Ceseri and Dr. Eng. Mario Alvisi and included a full operational real time 412:

is the United States E-ZPass tag, which is accepted on toll roads, bridges and tunnels in fifteen states from

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Singapore was the first city in the world to implement an electronic road toll collection system known as the

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paid. For example, images of ANPR cameras may be required deletion as soon as possible for successful tolls.

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Urban Tolling in Norway—Practical Experiences, Social and Environmental Impacts and Plans for Future Systems

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Kelly, Frank (2006). "Road Pricing: Addressing congestion, pollution and the financing of Britain's road".

564: 1581: 997: 431: 1613:. PIARC Seminar on Road Pricing with emphasis on Financing, Regulation and Equity. Cancun. Archived from 1446: 1863: 720: 666: 646: 497: 455: 247:

introduced the world's first use of completely unaided full-speed electronic tolling. Norway now has 25

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A RFID MTAG used for electronic toll collection on controlled-access highways/motorways within Pakistan

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violation system whose net income, after expenses, was negative, as well as customer dissatisfaction.

478:– encourage use of such tags, and apply an additional vehicle matching fee to vehicles without a tag. 290: 1925:[Area C takes off: auto traffic decreased 40% in the center after the toll goes into force]. 1242: 1166: 1158: 471: 361: 248: 233: 126: 112:

Electronic toll lanes may operate alongside conventional toll booths so that drivers who do not have

27:"Toll tag" redirects here. For information on a specific system that uses that or similar names, see 1725: 2535: 1202: 1006: 604: 2268: 2530: 1783: 1212: 716: 642: 620: 577: 571:

Toll gate in Taiwan, which allows the motorist to pay their toll without stopping or slowing down

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To avoid the need for transponders, some systems, notably the 407 ETR (Express Toll Route) near

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and litigation for habitual toll violators with large unpaid debts, and some states can pursue

1067:. Implementation of this system turned out to be far lengthier and more costly than expected. 1778: 1232: 1222: 1162: 1052: 806: 596: 584: 443: 298: 141: 117: 1117: 475: 459: 220: 2243: 2222: 1646: 251:

operating with electronic fee collection (EFC), as the Norwegian technology is called (see

2437: 2420: 2147: 1923:"Area C è partita: calate del 40% le auto in centro dopo l'entrata in vigore del pedaggio" 1116:

uncollected debts uneconomic. Most postpaid accounts deal with this issue by requiring a

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for purposes of congestion pricing on its more urbanized roads. It was refined in 1998 as

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can be used in many gas stations, car pars on airports and shopping malls and at some

700:, a pollution pricing program in which low-emission-standard vehicles pay a user fee; 2504: 1702: 896: 857: 130: 2313: 1679: 1184: 1048: 709: 626: 533: 396:

costs and other issues raised when retrofitting existing toll collection facilities

282: 94: 66: 591:). The United Arab Emirates implemented in 2007 a similar road toll collection in 34:

Wireless system to automatically collect the usage fee or toll charged to vehicles

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being stopped is likely to be low enough as to be an insufficient deterrent .

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vehicle hazards to toll employees present in some electronic-collection areas;

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In Australia, there are a number or organizations that provide tags known as

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Roth, Gabriel (2008). "Roads in a Market Economy". In Jordi, Philipp (ed.).

1286: 1197: 853: 678: 662: 638: 608: 256: 244: 243:, Norway, in 1986, operating together with traditional tollbooths. In 1991, 70: 1949:"Transportation: Improve Travel Times, Reach a Full 'State of Good Repair'" 1514: 1394:"Peshawar-Islamabad Motorway: Motorists demand restoration of e-tag system" 325: 2496:

Overview of international CEN and ISO electronic fee collection standards

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American Roads LLC. The app communicates in real time with the facility

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was the first to propose a similar system of electronic tolling for the

1678:. UK Commission for Integrated Transport. June 21, 2006. Archived from 1063:

location information to identify when a vehicle is located on a tolled

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in Portugal can be used at many gas stations and car parks and at some

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to identify and debit customer accounts or bill a major credit card.

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approved such a plan in 2008, but it was not implemented because the

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ETC at "Costanera Norte" Freeway, crossing downtown 100% free flow,

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for purposes of congestion pricing, in 1974. Since 2005, nationwide

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incurring penalties or being subject to litigation or prosecution.

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Italy deployed a full ETC in motorways at national scale in 1989.

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device. When the vehicle passes a roadside toll reader device, a

38: 2402: 65:) is a wireless system to automatically collect the usage fee or 1958:. City of New York. May 25, 2007. pp. 72–97. Archived from 670: 658: 501: 160:

was the first to propose a system of electronic tolling for the

1585: 203:, the brand name of the ETC belonging to Autostrade S.p.A. now 1227: 907: 704:

and vehicles using conventional fuels but compliant with the

681:, tested in 2006 and made the charge permanent in 2007 (see 377:

Factors hindering full-speed electronic collection include:

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International Bridge, Tunnel and Turnpike Association IBTTA

2451:"On Locational Privacy, and How to Avoid Losing it Forever" 1491:

European Parliament; European Council (November 28, 2019).

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in Texas can be used to pay for passage and parking in the

2174:"The changes in Taiwan's freeway toll collection methods" 580:, as a policy to restrict auto travel in downtown areas. 2091:"Congestion Pricing Plan Is Dead, Assembly Speaker Says" 1733: 1445:

European Parliament; European Council (April 29, 2004).

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Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

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Blumberg, Andrew J.; Eckersley, Peter (August 2009).

1833:"Milan Introduces Congestion Charge To Cut Pollution" 817:, those systems are not accepted at these facilities. 508:

on entry and exit, meanwhile debiting the calculated

1891:"Milano: from pollution charge to congestion charge" 2405:. www.illinoistollway.com. Retrieved July 23, 2013. 1120:, effectively rendering the account a prepaid one. 1756:"Valletta traffic congestion considerably reduced" 1511:"Toll tags are made mandatory from 1 January 2015" 870:, as well as some other places within Denmark and 850:, those systems are not accepted at this facility. 767:has the longest ETC freeway mileage in the world. 399:unionized toll collectors can also be problematic. 789:in Florida can be used to pay for parking at the 715:New York City considered the implementation of a 645:scheme implemented with manual control (see also 85:. It is a faster alternative which is replacing 2013:"What's the Toll? It Depends on the Time of Day" 1262:Hensher, David A. "Electronic toll collection". 743:Taiwan Highway Electronic Toll Collection System 641:in 1974 introduced the world's first successful 236:in 2001. By 2019, 92% of drivers are using ETC. 2221:Taiwan National Freeway Bureau (June 5, 2015). 2199:Taiwan National Freeway Bureau (June 5, 2015). 2172:Taiwan National Freeway Bureau (June 5, 2015). 2039:"City Council Approves Fee to Drive Below 60th" 1584:. Roads and Transport Authority. Archived from 803:Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport 261: 2065:"Importing a Decongestant for Midtown Streets" 874:, such as for ferries, parking and car washes. 496:implemented electronic toll collection on its 294:Transponder used in Chile for some expressways 1988:. Transportation Alternatives. Archived from 689:, the capital city of Malta, since May 2007. 528:Use in urban areas and for congestion pricing 442:that can be used on toll roads. They include 8: 2148:"San Francisco Studies Fees to Ease Traffic" 1672:"Road Charging Scheme: Europe – Italy, Rome" 1560:"Principles of Efficient Congestion Pricing" 884:, as well as some ferries within Norway and 121:without transponders are either excluded or 1349:WHITE PAPER ON TRAFFIC SAFETY IN JAPAN 2018 942:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 269:white paper on traffic safety in Japan 2018 1357: 1355: 1308:. The Royal Academy of Engineering: 36–42. 1208:List of electronic toll collection systems 834:. Despite TollTag's interoperability with 29:List of electronic toll collection systems 2194: 2192: 2190: 1362:Poole, Robert W. Jr. (November 6, 2007). 962:Learn how and when to remove this message 809:. Despite SunPass' interoperability with 1956:PlaNYC 2030: A Greener, Greater New York 1537:"Nå må alle tunge kjøretøy ha bombrikke" 324: 1636:Chin Kian Keong (October 23–24, 2002). 1607:Wærsted, Kristian (April 11–13, 2005). 1323:. Europainstitut der Universität Basel. 1264:Transportation Research Part A: General 1254: 832:Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport 607:), several roads in Norway (AutoPASS), 2120:Gordon, Rachael (September 19, 2007). 2089:Confessore, Nicholas (April 7, 2008). 1864:"Congestion fee leaves Milan in a jam" 1466:European Parliament (April 30, 2004). 696:began a one-year trial program called 560:Gantry at North Bridge Road, Singapore 317:vehicle with South Korea's ETC System 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 1701:. European Commission. Archived from 1420:"Vehicles without M-Tag banned on M2" 880:can be used in toll stations part of 866:can be used in toll stations part of 54:, use transponders to bill motorists. 7: 2378:"Electronic Toll Collection Systems" 2201:"Spreading Taiwan's ETC experiences" 1831:Bertacche, Marco (January 3, 2008). 1038:Dedicated Short Range Communications 940:adding citations to reliable sources 384:problems with pursuing toll evaders; 2273:Orlando International Airport (MCO) 2011:Gross, Daniel (February 11, 2007). 1639:Road Pricing Singapore's Experience 747:Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan) 651:Singapore's Electronic Road Pricing 2470:"Privacy-Preserving Road Charging" 1144:Automatic number plate recognition 1011:automatic number plate recognition 147:Global Navigation Satellite System 25: 2146:Wollan, Malia (January 4, 2009). 2037:Cardwell, Diane (April 1, 2008). 1862:Owen, Richard (January 3, 2008). 1806:"Milan introduces traffic charge" 1028:Most current AVI systems rely on 647:Singapore's Area Licensing Scheme 374:active account or paying a toll. 302:ETC Built-in Onboard device in a 46:tollbooths, like this one on the 1779:"Toll Discounts for Going Green" 1777:Belson, Ken (January 27, 2008). 1732:. CVA Technology. Archived from 1539:(in Norwegian). October 11, 2014 1079:Automated vehicle classification 990:Automated vehicle identification 912: 791:Palm Beach International Airport 737:San Francisco congestion pricing 649:), and was refined in 1998 (see 2468:Balasch, Josep (October 2010). 589:Autopista Central and Autopista 190:Singapore Area Licensing Scheme 138:Singapore Area Licensing Scheme 52:Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania 2521:Road congestion charge schemes 2516:Radio-frequency identification 2474:Katholieke Universiteit Leuven 2455:Electronic Frontier Foundation 2382:Transportation Policy Research 2063:Belson, Ken (March 16, 2008). 1558:Vickrey, William (June 1992). 1334:Change in ETC utilization rate 1282:Toll roads take cashless route 1030:radio-frequency identification 512:from a prepaid M-TAG account. 219:introduced the concept of ETC 1: 1073:transaction processing system 799:Orlando International Airport 771:Use for non-toll transactions 1676:Road User Charging Worldwide 1155:Department of Motor Vehicles 1021:Some early AVI systems used 239:ETC was first introduced in 183:Washington Metropolitan Area 162:Washington Metropolitan Area 101:charges the user the toll. 1730:Controlled Vehicular Access 1726:"The Purpose of CVA System" 795:Tampa International Airport 729:New York congestion pricing 2552: 2511:Electronic toll collection 1929:(in Italian). May 23, 2012 1927:Corriere della Sera Milano 569:Electronic Toll Collection 531: 490:National Highway Authority 209:Classification of Vehicles 69:charged to vehicles using 59:Electronic toll collection 26: 1758:. MaltaMedia. May 6, 2007 1061:Global Positioning System 764:license plate recognition 727:did not approve it. (see 702:alternative fuel vehicles 99:electronic payment system 2286:vvb (November 6, 2018). 683:Stockholm congestion tax 675:London congestion charge 2223:"The challenges of ETC" 2126:San Francisco Chronicle 1368:The Wall Street Journal 1364:"Life in the Slow Lane" 1001:Some highways, such as 899:drive-thru restaurants. 860:drive-thru restaurants. 783:at private restaurants. 725:New York State Assembly 583:Between 2004 and 2005, 558:Electronic Road Pricing 205:Autostrade per l'Italia 194:Electronic Road Pricing 129:takes a picture of the 107:road congestion pricing 2419:June 20, 2009, at the 2244:"WHERE TO USE SUNPASS" 1159:vehicle's registration 1104:Transaction processing 1014: 631: 572: 561: 550: 435: 432:Second Severn Crossing 356: 347: 330: 322: 307: 295: 287: 272: 116:can pay at the booth. 55: 2436:July 1, 2009, at the 1724:Staff (May 1, 2007). 1562:. Columbia University 1124:Violation enforcement 1000: 721:New York City Council 667:Trondheim Toll Scheme 629: 567: 556: 545: 456:Sydney Harbour Tunnel 426: 353: 345: 328: 313: 301: 293: 285: 175:Nobel Economics Prize 154:Nobel Economics Prize 48:Pennsylvania Turnpike 42: 2314:"Ferries - AutoPASS" 1986:"Congestion Pricing" 1617:on December 17, 2007 1400:. September 10, 2016 1374:on February 10, 2008 1243:Pay-by-plate parking 1167:criminal prosecution 936:improve this section 362:Garden State Parkway 127:license plate reader 2349:on November 9, 2021 2339:"EasyGo - AutoPASS" 1843:on January 20, 2014 1682:on October 5, 2006. 1517:on October 24, 2014 1424:The Express Tribune 1398:The Express Tribune 1203:Lane control lights 1163:collection agencies 1036:on the vehicle via 2152:The New York Times 2095:The New York Times 2069:The New York Times 2043:The New York Times 2017:The New York Times 1903:on October 4, 2015 1784:The New York Times 1582:"Welcome to Salik" 1426:. December 6, 2021 1213:Congestion pricing 1015: 717:congestion pricing 643:congestion pricing 632: 578:congestion pricing 573: 562: 551: 538:Congestion pricing 436: 357: 348: 331: 323: 308: 296: 288: 56: 18:Electronic tolling 2526:Wireless locating 2384:. January 4, 2016 2288:"Hvor og hvordan" 2101:on April 11, 2008 1889:Martino, Angelo. 1652:on April 10, 2008 1588:on April 25, 2007 1499:. European Union. 1280:Copeland, Larry, 1233:Open road tolling 1223:GNSS Road Pricing 1183:and other modern 1053:Dartford Crossing 972: 971: 964: 807:Hard Rock Stadium 692:In January 2008, 474:, and Brisbane's 444:Transport for NSW 343: 231:controlled-access 142:GNSS road pricing 118:Open road tolling 16:(Redirected from 2543: 2478: 2477: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2446: 2440: 2429: 2423: 2412: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2374: 2359: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2345:. Archived from 2335: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2283: 2277: 2276: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2196: 2185: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2169: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2097:. Archived from 2086: 2080: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1992:on July 24, 2008 1981: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1964: 1953: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1919: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1902: 1896:. Archived from 1895: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1839:. Archived from 1837:The New York Sun 1828: 1822: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1774: 1768: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1736:on March 6, 2012 1721: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1705:on March 9, 2008 1699:PRoGRESS Project 1690: 1684: 1683: 1668: 1662: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1651: 1644: 1633: 1627: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1578: 1572: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1533: 1527: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1513:. Archived from 1507: 1501: 1500: 1488: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1470:. European Union 1462: 1460: 1458: 1453:. European Union 1442: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1390: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1379: 1370:. Archived from 1359: 1350: 1347: 1341: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1297: 1291: 1290:, July 28, 2008. 1278: 1272: 1271: 1259: 1118:security deposit 967: 960: 956: 953: 947: 916: 908: 498:motorway network 476:Gateway Motorway 460:Lane Cove Tunnel 344: 306:vehicle in Japan 270: 221:Interoperability 21: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2542: 2541: 2540: 2501: 2500: 2487: 2482: 2481: 2467: 2466: 2462: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2438:Wayback Machine 2430: 2426: 2421:Wayback Machine 2413: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2387: 2385: 2376: 2375: 2362: 2352: 2350: 2343:www.autopass.no 2337: 2336: 2332: 2322: 2320: 2318:www.autopass.no 2312: 2311: 2307: 2297: 2295: 2285: 2284: 2280: 2267: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2250: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2215: 2205: 2203: 2198: 2197: 2188: 2178: 2176: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2119: 2118: 2114: 2104: 2102: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2073: 2071: 2062: 2061: 2057: 2047: 2045: 2036: 2035: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2010: 2009: 2005: 1995: 1993: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1968: 1966: 1965:on July 3, 2007 1962: 1951: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1932: 1930: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1873: 1871: 1861: 1860: 1856: 1846: 1844: 1830: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1813: 1812:. March 2, 2008 1804: 1803: 1799: 1789: 1787: 1776: 1775: 1771: 1761: 1759: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1739: 1737: 1723: 1722: 1718: 1708: 1706: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1670: 1669: 1665: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1642: 1635: 1634: 1630: 1620: 1618: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1591: 1589: 1580: 1579: 1575: 1565: 1563: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1542: 1540: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1520: 1518: 1509: 1508: 1504: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1473: 1471: 1465: 1456: 1454: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1429: 1427: 1418: 1417: 1413: 1403: 1401: 1392: 1391: 1387: 1377: 1375: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1348: 1344: 1332: 1328: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1299: 1298: 1294: 1279: 1275: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1194: 1176: 1126: 1106: 1081: 992: 968: 957: 951: 948: 933: 917: 906: 773: 585:Santiago, Chile 576:improvement of 548:Santiago, Chile 540: 530: 520:tag standard. 333: 280: 271: 268: 179:William Vickrey 171: 158:William Vickrey 35: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 2549: 2547: 2539: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2503: 2502: 2499: 2498: 2493: 2486: 2485:External links 2483: 2480: 2479: 2460: 2441: 2424: 2407: 2395: 2360: 2330: 2305: 2278: 2260: 2235: 2213: 2186: 2164: 2138: 2112: 2081: 2055: 2029: 2003: 1976: 1940: 1914: 1881: 1854: 1823: 1797: 1769: 1747: 1716: 1695:"Rome (Italy)" 1685: 1663: 1628: 1599: 1573: 1550: 1528: 1502: 1483: 1481: 1480: 1437: 1411: 1385: 1351: 1342: 1326: 1311: 1292: 1273: 1253: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1193: 1190: 1175: 1172: 1125: 1122: 1105: 1102: 1080: 1077: 1047:and the A282 ( 991: 988: 970: 969: 920: 918: 911: 905: 902: 901: 900: 889: 875: 861: 851: 824: 818: 784: 772: 769: 619:also in 2000 ( 529: 526: 466:, Melbourne's 446:'s E-Toll and 401: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 382: 279: 276: 266: 170: 167: 33: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2548: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2442: 2439: 2435: 2432: 2428: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2396: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2334: 2331: 2319: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2261: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2224: 2217: 2214: 2202: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2175: 2168: 2165: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2139: 2127: 2123: 2116: 2113: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2085: 2082: 2070: 2066: 2059: 2056: 2044: 2040: 2033: 2030: 2018: 2014: 2007: 2004: 1991: 1987: 1980: 1977: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1944: 1941: 1928: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1899: 1892: 1885: 1882: 1869: 1865: 1858: 1855: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1827: 1824: 1811: 1807: 1801: 1798: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1773: 1770: 1757: 1751: 1748: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1720: 1717: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1664: 1648: 1641: 1640: 1632: 1629: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1603: 1600: 1587: 1583: 1577: 1574: 1561: 1554: 1551: 1538: 1532: 1529: 1516: 1512: 1506: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1487: 1484: 1469: 1464: 1463: 1452: 1448: 1441: 1438: 1425: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1399: 1395: 1389: 1386: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1340:(May 4, 2019) 1339: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1322: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1258: 1255: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1182: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1078: 1076: 1074: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1024: 1019: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 995: 989: 987: 984: 981: 975: 966: 963: 955: 952:February 2008 945: 941: 937: 931: 930: 926: 921:This section 919: 915: 910: 909: 903: 898: 894: 891:Sem Parar in 890: 887: 883: 879: 876: 873: 869: 865: 862: 859: 855: 852: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 822: 819: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 785: 782: 778: 775: 774: 770: 768: 765: 761: 757: 752: 748: 744: 740: 738: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 713: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 628: 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 570: 566: 559: 555: 549: 544: 539: 535: 527: 525: 521: 519: 513: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 486: 482: 479: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 433: 429: 425: 421: 419: 415: 409: 405: 398: 395: 392: 389: 386: 383: 380: 379: 378: 375: 371: 368: 363: 352: 327: 320: 316: 312: 305: 300: 292: 284: 277: 275: 265: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 237: 235: 232: 227: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 197: 195: 191: 186: 184: 180: 176: 168: 166: 163: 159: 155: 150: 148: 143: 139: 134: 132: 131:license plate 128: 124: 119: 115: 110: 108: 102: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 30: 19: 2463: 2444: 2427: 2410: 2398: 2386:. 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Retrieved 1372:the original 1367: 1345: 1329: 1320: 1314: 1305: 1301: 1295: 1285: 1276: 1267: 1263: 1257: 1185:cryptography 1177: 1152: 1148: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1127: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1100:conditions. 1093: 1089: 1085: 1082: 1069: 1058: 1042: 1027: 1020: 1016: 993: 976: 973: 958: 949: 934:Please help 922: 904:Technologies 742: 741: 733: 714: 691: 665:(1991) (see 661:(1990), and 637: 633: 582: 574: 534:Road pricing 522: 514: 488:Since 2016, 487: 483: 480: 437: 430:lane on the 410: 406: 402: 376: 372: 358: 273: 262: 238: 198: 187: 172: 151: 135: 123:pay by plate 122: 114:transponders 111: 103: 95:radio signal 83:toll tunnels 79:toll bridges 62: 58: 57: 36: 2388:October 16, 2353:October 18, 2323:October 18, 2294:(in Danish) 2253:November 9, 2248:Sunpass.com 1933:January 16, 1847:January 17, 1816:January 17, 1790:January 27, 1543:October 21, 1521:October 21, 1430:December 9, 1404:December 9, 1378:January 20, 1034:transponder 1007:Highway 407 886:Scandinavia 872:Scandinavia 781:drive-thrus 605:Highway 407 506:toll plazas 464:Westlink M7 315:Genesis G70 304:Nissan Fuga 234:expressways 213:Enforcement 91:transponder 87:toll booths 2536:Toll (fee) 2505:Categories 1249:References 1238:Tachograph 980:New Jersey 897:McDonald's 858:McDonald's 811:Peach Pass 805:, and the 685:); and in 532:See also: 448:Transurban 249:toll roads 71:toll roads 2531:Car costs 2298:April 12, 2269:"Parking" 2074:March 18, 1874:April 16, 1868:The Times 1287:USA Today 1198:Tollbooth 923:does not 854:Via Verde 826:The NTTA 719:scheme. 679:Stockholm 663:Trondheim 639:Singapore 621:Highway 6 611:in 2000 ( 609:Melbourne 603:in 1997 ( 595:, called 257:Via Verde 245:Trondheim 173:In 1959, 75:HOV lanes 2434:Archived 2417:Archived 2292:BroBizz® 2131:July 15, 2105:April 7, 2048:April 1, 1996:March 8, 1969:March 8, 1870:. London 1810:BBC News 1762:March 8, 1740:March 8, 1709:March 8, 1656:March 8, 1621:March 8, 1592:March 8, 1566:March 8, 1474:March 8, 1457:March 8, 1192:See also 1128:Source: 1108:Source: 1083:Source: 1065:Autobahn 1023:barcodes 994:Source: 878:AutoPASS 844:PikePass 760:per diem 756:per diem 751:Taiwan's 687:Valletta 657:(1986), 617:Tel Aviv 613:CityLink 510:toll tax 500:using a 494:Pakistan 472:Eastlink 468:CityLink 414:Illinois 321:Terminal 278:Overview 267:— 253:AutoPASS 226:Telepass 217:Telepass 201:Telepass 2228:June 6, 2206:June 6, 2179:June 6, 1984:Staff. 1907:May 23, 1693:Staff. 1497:EUR-Lex 1451:EUR-Lex 1302:Ingenia 1174:Privacy 1045:Toronto 1003:Ontario 983:E-ZPass 944:removed 929:sources 864:BroBizz 828:TollTag 815:E-ZPass 787:SunPass 777:E-ZPass 706:Euro IV 698:Ecopass 615:), and 601:Toronto 434:, Wales 367:E-ZPass 319:Hi-pass 196:(ERP). 177:winner 169:History 156:winner 44:E-ZPass 2022:May 1, 1218:FASTag 1009:, use 893:Brazil 882:EasyGo 868:EasyGo 846:, and 836:EZ Tag 821:E-Pass 710:Area C 655:Bergen 241:Bergen 165:1989. 81:, and 2403:#Home 1963:(PDF) 1952:(PDF) 1901:(PDF) 1894:(PDF) 1650:(PDF) 1643:(PDF) 1181:ecash 1097:laser 848:K-TAG 840:TxTag 745:(see 694:Milan 597:Salik 593:Dubai 518:eToll 452:Linkt 440:e-TAG 418:Maine 355:roads 2390:2023 2355:2019 2325:2019 2300:2019 2255:2021 2230:2015 2208:2015 2181:2015 2159:2009 2133:2008 2107:2008 2076:2008 2050:2008 2024:2010 1998:2012 1971:2012 1935:2012 1909:2012 1876:2008 1849:2008 1818:2008 1792:2008 1764:2012 1742:2012 1711:2012 1658:2012 1623:2012 1594:2012 1568:2012 1545:2014 1523:2014 1476:2012 1459:2012 1432:2022 1406:2022 1380:2008 927:any 925:cite 813:and 671:Rome 659:Oslo 536:and 502:RFID 470:and 462:and 211:and 125:– a 67:toll 1228:GSM 1049:M25 1005:'s 938:by 677:); 669:); 653:), 623:). 492:of 450:'s 428:TAG 416:to 152:US 63:ETC 50:in 2507:: 2472:. 2453:. 2380:. 2363:^ 2341:. 2316:. 2290:. 2271:. 2246:. 2189:^ 2150:. 2124:. 2093:. 2067:. 2041:. 2015:. 1954:. 1866:. 1835:. 1808:. 1781:. 1728:. 1697:. 1674:. 1495:. 1449:. 1422:. 1396:. 1366:. 1354:^ 1306:39 1304:. 1284:, 1268:25 1266:. 1051:) 842:, 838:, 801:, 797:, 793:, 739:) 731:) 712:. 458:, 420:. 77:, 73:, 2476:. 2457:. 2392:. 2357:. 2327:. 2302:. 2275:. 2257:. 2232:. 2210:. 2183:. 2161:. 2135:. 2109:. 2078:. 2052:. 2026:. 2000:. 1973:. 1937:. 1911:. 1878:. 1851:. 1820:. 1794:. 1766:. 1744:. 1713:. 1660:. 1625:. 1596:. 1570:. 1547:. 1525:. 1478:. 1461:. 1434:. 1408:. 1382:. 1336:- 1270:. 1013:. 965:) 959:( 954:) 950:( 946:. 932:. 888:. 61:( 31:. 20:)

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