Electric vehicle battery - Knowledge (XXG)

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GHG. As shown in the battery recycling emission plot a and c, the emission of the recycling process varies with the different recycling processes, different chemistry and different form factor. Thus, the net emission avoided compared to not recycling also varies with these factors. At a glance, as shown in the plot b and d, the direct recycling process is the most ideal process for recycling pouch cell batteries, while the hydrometallurgical process is most suitable for cylindrical type battery. However, with the error bars shown, the best approach cannot be picked with confidence. It is worth noting that for the lithium iron phosphates (LFP) chemistry, the net benefit is negative. Because LFP cells lacks cobalt and nickel which are expensive and energy intensive to produce, it is more energetically efficient to mine. In general, in addition to promoting the growth of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV batteries. A finite total supply of rare earth material can apparently justify the need for recycling. But the environmental benefit of recycling needs closer scrutiny. Based on current recycling technology, the net benefit of recycling depends on the form factors, the chemistry and the recycling process chosen.

667: 1102: 1083: 956: 590:) salt as the electrolyte. It has a specific energy of 120 W·h/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather does not strongly affect its operation except for increasing heating costs. Zebra batteries can last for a few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the need to heat the electrolyte to about 270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard. 1244: 897:

kilotonnes in 2040 in order to cover the demand by EV. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain as 60% of production is concentrated in China to significant impact on climate and environment as result of such a large increase in mining operations. However 45% of oil demand in 2022 was for road transport, and batteries may reduce this to 20% by 2050, which would save hundreds of times more raw material than that used to make the batteries.

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and performance degradation with age. Due to the volatility of organic electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal oxides, and the thermal instability of the anode SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. Early cells did not accept or supply charge when extremely cold. Heaters can be used in some climates to warm them.

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hardware, i.e. casings and current collectors. During the materials manufacturing process, the active material, conductivity additives, polymer binder and solvent are mixed first. After this, they are coated on the current collectors ready for the drying process. During this stage, the methods of making active materials depend on the electrode and the chemistry.

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brings in three universities and three national labs together to develop innovative, efficient recycling technologies. Most notably, the direct cathode recycling method was developed by the ReCell center. On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges.

4905: 705:. After the materials are refined by pre-processing factories, battery manufacturing companies buy them, make batteries, and assemble them into packs. Car manufacturing companies buy and install them in cars. To address the environmental impact of this process, the supply chain is increasingly focusing on sustainability, with efforts to reduce reliance on 1730:, passed on 16 August 2022, aimed to incentivize clean energy manufacturing with a $ 7,500 consumer tax credit for EVs with US-built batteries, and subsidies for EV plants. By October 2022, billions of dollars of investment had been announced for over two dozen US battery plants, leading some commentators to nickname the Midwest as the "Battery Belt". 1394:, while the other is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack. In one inductive charging system, one winding is attached to the underside of the car, and the other stays on the floor of the garage. The advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of 1137:

pack, which then supply high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack designs include alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-charge resistor or for powering an auxiliary bus which will also have their own associated control relays. For safety reasons these relays are all normally open.

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The battery cell stack has a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit. A "service plug" or "service disconnect" can be removed to split the battery stack into two electrically isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of the battery present

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The actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical shapes, and sizes as preferred by various pack manufacturers. Battery packs will always incorporate many discrete cells connected in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and current requirements of the pack. Battery packs for

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Average battery costs have fallen by 90% since 2010 due to advances in battery chemistry and manufacturing. Batteries represent a substantial portion of an EV's overall cost, often accounting for up to 30-40% of the vehicle's total price. However, the cost of EV batteries has been decreasing steadily

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while materials manufacturing still contributes to more than 50% of the emission. During the end-of-life management phase, the refurbishing process adds little emission to the lifecycle emission. The recycling process, on the other hand, as suggested by Ciez and Whitacre emits a significant amount of

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Although battery life span can be extended by enabling a second-life application, ultimately EV batteries need to be recycled. Recyclability is not currently an important design consideration for battery manufacturers, and in 2019 only 5% of electric vehicle batteries were recycled. However, closing

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Battery technology is non-transparent and lacks standards. Because battery development is the core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode, anode and electrolytes on the pack. In addition, the capacity and the design of the cells and packs changes on a

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Researchers have come up with some design considerations for contactless BEV chargers. Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems are made to transfer power efficiently from a primary source (charging station) to one or more secondary sources (BEVs) in a contactless way via magnetic coupling.

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New data has shown that exposure to heat and the use of fast charging promote the degradation of Li-ion batteries more than age and actual use, and that the average electric vehicle battery will retain 90% of its initial capacity after six years and six months of service. For example, the battery in

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The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery pack's electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases there will be a minimum of two main relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output terminals of the

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of electric cars is often less than petrol or diesel cars. In 2024 Gartner predicted that by 2027, next-generation BEVs will, on average, be cheaper to produce than a comparable ICE“. In China, BEV are now cheaper than comparable combustion cars. The development is driven by subsidies in the Chinese

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is emitted during raw materials pre-processing and battery manufacturing under the US average electricity grid. The biggest part of the emission came from materials preparation accounting for more than 50% of the emissions. If NMC pouch cell is used, the total emission increases to almost 10 kg

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It is costly and time-intensive to disassemble modules and cells. The module must be fully discharged. Then, the pack must be disassembled and reconfigured to meet the power and energy requirement of the second life application. A refurbishing company can sell or reuse the discharged energy from the

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There are mainly three stages during the manufacturing process of EV batteries: materials manufacturing, cell manufacturing and integration, as shown in Manufacturing process of EV batteries graph in grey, green and orange color respectively. This shown process does not include manufacturing of cell

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In practical use, charging speed is more relevant than battery capacity (see rechaging section). Typical EV batteries in passenger cars have a weight of 300 to 1,000 kg (660 to 2,200 lb) resulting in ranges from 150 to 500 km (90 to 310 miles), depending on temperature, driving style

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There have been many efforts around the world to promote recycling technologies development and deployment. In the US, the Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Offices (VTO) set up two efforts targeting at innovation and practicability of recycling processes. ReCell Lithium Recycling RD center

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In the cell manufacturing stage, the prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format. Then after filling the electrolytes and sealing the cells, the battery cells are cycled carefully to form SEI protecting the anode. Then, these

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offer high performance and have become the global standard in BEV production since the 2010s. On the other hand, the exploitation of the required minerals causes environmental problems. The downside of traditional NMC batteries includes sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power performance,

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BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to extend their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use. Discharged basket trailers can be replaced by recharged ones en route. If rented then maintenance costs can be

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As of 2024 the range of electric ships and large planes is less than combustion engined ones. To electrify all shipping standardized multi-megawatt charging is needed. But sometimes batteries can be swapped, for example for river shipping. As of 2024 pure electric large plane ranges of over 1000km

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Cathodes mostly use transition metal oxides, i.e. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Li-NMC), or else Lithium metal phosphates, i.e. Lithium iron phosphates (LFP). The most popular material for anodes is graphite. However, recently there have been a lot of companies started to make Si mixed

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On 2 May 2022, President Biden announced the administration will begin a $ 3.16 billion plan to boost domestic manufacturing and recycling of batteries, in a larger effort to shift the country away from gas-powered cars to electric vehicles. The goal of the Biden administration is to have half of

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and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, many experts agree that BEV

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which provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf carts. Deep-cycle batteries are also used as auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but they require different, multi-stage charging. Discharging below 50% can shorten the battery's life. Flooded batteries

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Potential for fraud (battery quality can only be measured over a full discharge cycle; battery lifetime can only be measured over repeated discharge cycles; those in the swap transaction cannot know if they are getting a worn or reduced effectiveness battery; battery quality degrades slowly over

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powers of 150 kW and more which can add up to 300 km of range within a typical 30 minute break. Charging speed depends on the power of the charging station and the maximum load which the specific EV model can handle. At charging states over 50%, charging speed generally slows down. Typical rapid

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where capacities increased by 45 % that year. With their high energy density and long cycle life, lithium-ion batteries have become the leading battery type for use in EVs. They were initially developed and commercialized for use in laptops and consumer electronics. Recent EVs are using new

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in the future, also recycling EV batteries has the potential to maximize the environmental benefit. Xu et al. predicted that in the sustainable development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known reserves in the future if no recycling is in place. Ciez and

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Nonetheless, there have been several successes on the second-life application as shown in the examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. They are used in less demanding stationary storage application as peak shaving or additional storage for renewable-based generating sources.

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When an EV battery pack degrades to 70% to 80% of its original capacity, it is defined to reach the end-of-life. One of the waste management methods is to reuse the pack. By repurposing the pack for stationary storage, more value can be extracted from the battery pack while reducing the per kWh

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can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard. An inductive charging advocate from Toyota contended in 1998, that overall cost differences were minimal, while a conductive charging advocate from Ford

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The battery pack also contains a variety of temperature, voltage, and current sensors. Collection of data from the pack sensors and activation of the pack relays are accomplished by the pack's battery monitoring unit (BMU) or BMS. The BMS is also responsible for communications with the vehicle

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To assist in manufacturing and assembly, the large stack of cells is typically grouped into smaller stacks called modules. Several of these modules are placed into a single pack. Within each module the cells are welded together to complete the electrical path for current flow. Modules can also

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Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require 87 times more than 2015 of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling covering part of the demand in future. According to IEA 2021 study, mineral supplies need to increase from 400 kilotonnes in 2020 to 11,800

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that still operate well after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) and over a decade of service. Downsides include finicky charge cycles and poor performance in cold weather. GM Ovonic produced the NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1. Prototype NiMH-EVs delivered up to 200 km

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Battery pack designs for electric vehicles (EVs) are complex and vary widely by manufacturer and specific application. However, they all incorporate a combination of several simple mechanical and electrical component systems which perform the basic required functions of the pack.

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over the years due to advancements in technology, economies of scale, and improvements in manufacturing processes. EV batteries typically come with warranties covering a certain number of years or miles, reflecting confidence in their durability and reliability over time.

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incorporate cooling mechanisms, temperature monitors, and other devices. Modules must remain within a specific temperature range for optimal performance. In most cases, modules also allow for monitoring the voltage produced by each battery cell in the stack by using a

559:. While less efficient (60–70%) in charging and discharging than even lead–acid, they have a higher specific energy of 30–80 W·h/kg. When used properly, nickel–metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in 810: 147: 475:

which is a part of salt water, cost projections are low. In early 2024, various Chinese manufacturers began with the delivery of their first models. Analysts see a high potential for this type especially for the use in small EVs, bikes and three-wheelers.

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and effective operation over a wide temperature range. LTO batteries have an impressive cycle life, often exceeding 10,000 charge-discharge cycles. They also have rapid charging capabilities due to their high charge acceptance. However, they have a lower

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variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging and longer lifespans. These variants have been shown to have a much longer lifetime.

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Performance testing simulates the drive cycles for the drive trains of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) as per the required specifications of car manufacturers

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To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the emission associated with different phases. Using NMC cylindrical cells as an example, Ciez and Whitacre found that around 9 kg

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Battery prices fell, given economies of scale and new cell chemistries improving energy density. However, general inflationary pressures, and rising costs of raw materials and components, inhibited price declines in the early

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can extend range by up to 50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain.

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Uneven and undesired battery degradation happens during EV operation depending on temperature during operation and charging/discharging patterns. Each battery cell could degrade differently during operation. Currently, the

100:(LFP) is on the rise, reaching 41 % global market share by capacity for BEVs in 2023. LFP batteries are heavier but cheaper and more sustainable. At the same time, the first commercial passenger cars are using a 533:

require inspection of electrolyte levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away during the normal charging cycle. EVs with lead–acid batteries are capable of up to 130 km (81 mi) per charge.

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Harper, Gavin; Sommerville, Roberto; Kendrick, Emma; Driscoll, Laura; Slater, Peter; Stolkin, Rustam; Walton, Allan; Christensen, Paul; Heidrich, Oliver; Lambert, Simon; Abbott, Andrew (6 November 2019).

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Europe has plans for heavy investment in electric vehicle battery development and production, and Indonesia also aims to produce electric vehicle batteries in 2023, inviting Chinese battery firm GEM and

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BEV technologies lack an established recycling framework in many countries, making the usage of BEV and other battery-operated electrical equipment a large energy expenditure, ultimately increasing CO

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In general, for active materials production, there are three steps: materials preparation, materials processing and refinement. Schmuch et al. discussed materials manufacturing in greater details.

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used for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in combustion cars. The average battery capacity of available EV models reached from 21 to 123 kWh in 2023 with an average of 80 kWh.

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yearly basis. The refurbishing company needs to closely work with the manufacture to have a timely update on this information. On the other hand, government can set up labeling standard.

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may be used to suppress development or deployment of battery technology. For example, patents relevant to the use of Nickel metal hydride cells in cars were held by an offshoot of

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The weight of the electric vehicle battery is the limiting factor to reach range parity. Diesel and gasoline have more than the 50-fold energy density of current EV batteries.

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Jalkanen, K.; Karrpinen, K.; Skogstrom, L.; Laurila, T.; Nisula, M.; Vuorilehto, K. (2015). "Cycle aging of commercial NMC/graphite pouch cells at different temperatures".

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performance depends on a number of factors including the battery chemistry. Lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 320–540 km (200–340 mi) of range per charge.

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With rapid recharging, the concern about limited travel ranges loses relevance as the duration of a stops at public charging stations can be minimized. There is a growing

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Even with the same range as an average all-combustion vehicle, buyers must be assured that there are widely available and compatible charging stations for their vehicles.

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The battery makes up a significant portion of the cost and environmental impact of an electric vehicle. Growth in the industry has generated interest in securing ethical

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of some batteries may be significantly increased at low temperature which can cause noticeable reduction in the range of the vehicle and on the lifetime of the battery.

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usually takes several hours. The table assumes a typical consumption of 15 kWh per 100 km and takes into account that drivers should take a break every 300 km anyway.

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In addition, climatic chambers control environmental conditions during testing and allow simulation of the full automotive temperature range and climatic conditions.

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dominates the BEV market. The combined global production capacity in 2023 reached almost 2000 GWh with 772 GWh used for EVs in 2023. Most production is based in

774:(BMS) can be extracted on a pack level but not on a cell level. Engineers can mitigate the degradation by engineering the next-generation thermal management system. 126:

As of December 2019, despite more reliance on recycled materials the cost of electric vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis.

4691: 427:. Since 2023, LFP has become the leading technology in China while the market share in Europe and North America remains lower than 10%. LFP is the dominant type in 3543: 4897: 4004: 1744: 3620: 1368: 4418: 2235: 1938: 2270: 2080:

Stephan, Annegret; Hettesheimer, Tim; Neef, Christoph; Schmaltz, Thomas; Stephan, Maximilian; Link, Steffen; Heizmann, Jan Luca; Thielmann, Axel (2023).

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due to their mature technology, high availability, and low cost. Lead–acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the original 1996 versions of the

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batteries are safe in commercially available vehicles and in rear-end collisions, and are safer than gasoline-propelled cars with rear gasoline tanks.

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With suitable power supplies, good battery lifespan is usually achieved at charging rates not exceeding half of the capacity of the battery per hour (

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hours at cheaper rates which helps absorb excess night time generation. The vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.)

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Battery recycling emissions under US average electricity grid. (a,b) for cylindrical cell and (c,d) for pouch cell. Adapted from Ciez and Whitacre.

4393: 1807: 4812: 2929: 4128:"Optimal Configuration of Extreme Fast Charging Stations Integrated with Energy Storage System and Photovoltaic Panels in Distribution Networks" 1227:

V) grid connection is increasingly popular since newer houses don't have natural gas connection due to the European Union's safety regulations.

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Lastly, battery costs have decreased faster than predicted. The refurbished unit may be less attractive than the new batteries to the market.

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Auxiliary battery capacity carried in trailers can increase the overall vehicle range, but also increases the loss of power arising from

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The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used. The weight and type of vehicle as well as terrain, weather, and the

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Since commercially available ultracapacitors have a low specific energy, no production electric cars use ultracapacitors exclusively.

702: 686: 2386: 3130: 1754: 1252: 4673: 542: 2364: 2081: 4032: 4025: 3716: 2915: 913: 3594: 3480:"Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development" 1637:). During these drive cycles, controlled cooling of the battery can be performed, simulating the thermal conditions in the car. 4935: 4080: 1727: 1693: 1634: 1235:

will degrade twice as fast as the battery in a Tesla, because the Leaf does not have an active cooling system for its battery.

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has a shorter range but is cheaper, safer and more sustainable than the NMC battery. It does not require the critical minerals

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2) for deployment in Europe, which, without a latch, means unnecessary extra power requirements for the locking mechanism.

1192:), thereby taking two or more hours for a full charge, but faster charging is available even for large capacity batteries. 4930: 4260: 1714:, stated that the advancements in Li-ion battery technology have made ultra-capacitors unnecessary for electric vehicles. 1491: 675: 108: 4909: 4786: 2253: 2168:"Benchmarking the electrochemical parameters of the LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 positive electrode material for Li-ion batteries" 3535: 2890: 1673:

As of December 2019, billions of euro in research are planned to be invested around the world for improving batteries.

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The consumer is no longer concerned with battery capital cost, life cycle, technology, maintenance, or warranty issues;

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are not expected within a decade - meaning that for over half of scheduled flights range parity cannot be achieved.

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Whitacre found that by deploying battery recycling some green house gas (GHG) emission from mining could be avoided.

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module to reduce the cost of this process. Robots are being used to increase the safety of the dismantling process.

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Lampo, Alessandro; Silva, Susana C. (1 January 2024), van Tulder, Rob; Grøgaard, Birgitte; Lunnan, Randi (eds.),

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The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways. The first is a direct electrical connection known as

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refining, has been a major goal of research. A number of new chemistries compete to displace Li-NMC with (see

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Xu, Chengjian; Dai, Qiang; Gaines, Linda; Hu, Mingming; Tukker, Arnold; Steubing, Bernhard (December 2020).

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all electric drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3-4

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The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery was used in early EVs between 1997 and 2012. It uses a molten

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Howell, David; Boyd, Steven; Duong, Tien; Faguy, Peter; Cunningham, Brian; Gillard, Samuel (1 April 2019).

3009:, Progress in International Business Research, vol. 18, Emerald Publishing Limited, pp. 223–235, 2218:"CATL Unveils Its Latest Breakthrough Technology by Releasing Its First Generation of Sodium-ion Batteries" 1960: 1199:, unless specialized electrical wiring work is done. In the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with 120 111:, which presents many challenges and has become an important geopolitical issue. Reduction of use of mined 4370: 4218: 4180: 1509: 1473: 583: 496: 4055: 2803: 2634: 521: 4709: 3826:"Addressing electric vehicle (EV) sales and range anxiety through parking layout, policy and regulation" 2051: 1749: 1170: 818: 547: 78: 1560:

periods (When the selling price of electricity can be very high. Vehicles can then be recharged during

4106:"New Data Shows Heat & Fast-Charging Responsible For More Battery Degradation Than Age Or Mileage" 3951: 3393: 2668:"Battery management strategies: An essential review for battery state of health monitoring techniques" 2667: 2650:"Alternatives to lithium-ion batteries: potentials and challenges of alternative battery technologies" 1997: 3963: 3837: 3491: 3405: 3350: 3286: 3210: 3057: 2431: 2138: 1812: 1528: 1448: 1076: 941: 55: 3952:"Heat transfer in phase change materials for thermal management of electric vehicle battery modules" 2310: 1580:

The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard

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As of June 2024, there more than 200,000 locations and 400,000 EV charging stations worldwide.

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Recycling of EV Batteries helps to recover valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and

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Managing 12 Volts: How To Upgrade, Operate, and Troubleshoot 12 Volt Electrical Systenms

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Battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle

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charging powers are between 30 and 80 kW. Charging at home or smaller charging stations using

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Schmuch, Richard; Wagner, Ralf; Hörpel, Gerhard; Placke, Tobias; Winter, Martin (April 2018).

3018: 2811: 2710: 2687: 2590: 2504: 2276: 2199: 1797: 1792: 1372: 1344: 1340: 905: 556: 4320:"Volkswagen Says 'No' to Battery Swapping, 'Yes' to Electrics in U.S. : Greentech Media" 3975: 4893: 4543: 4535: 4139: 3971: 3845: 3499: 3444: 3413: 3358: 3304: 3294: 3218: 3160: 3118: 3065: 3010: 2679: 2580: 2570: 2496: 2439: 2236:"LFP cell average falls below US$ 100/kWh as battery pack prices drop to record low in 2023" 2189: 2179: 2146: 2085: 1787: 1495: 1485: 1465: 1412: 1162: 1154: 1093: 611: 528:. There are two main types of lead–acid batteries: automobile engine starter batteries, and 155: 3924: 3788: 1700:, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life. 1515:

Swap stations increase the feasibility of distributed energy storage via the electric grid;

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During the first stage, the materials are mined in different parts of the world, including

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the loop is extremely important. Not only because of a predicted tightened supply of

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Assessment of Technologies for Improving Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economyâ€"2025-2035

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battery access and implementation details, so users must find a proprietary station

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An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or

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as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special connectors and

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Demand for EVBs exceeded 750 GWh in 2023. EVBs have much higher capacities than

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Swapping is far faster than charging: battery swap equipment built by the firm

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Examples of current lithium-ion battery recycling facilities. Adapted from Awan

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Other types of rechargeable batteries used in early electric vehicles include

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Kurzweil, Peter (1 January 2015), Moseley, Patrick T.; Garche, Jürgen (eds.),

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through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from

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Examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. Adapted from Awan

560: 85:. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower 39: 4557: 3983: 3859: 3513: 3425: 3394:"Electric vehicle battery technologies: From present state to future systems" 3370: 3318: 3232: 3077: 2691: 637:

Cell to Module (CTM) - battery cells put into modules, than into battery pack

30:

For the starting, lighting and ignition system battery of an automobile, see

4539: 3621:"Philippines: Locals and activists campaign against booming nickel industry" 2948:"Biden's sanctions of Russian energy give electric vehicle batteries a pass" 2575: 1707: 1557: 1352: 727: 420: 3678:"Land grabs and vanishing forests: Are 'clean' electric vehicles to blame?" 3240: 2594: 2340:"Future Sodium Ion Batteries Could Be Ten Times Cheaper for Energy Storage" 2272:

Sodium-ion Batteries 2024-2034: Technology, Players, Markets, and Forecasts

2203: 4904: 4524:"Design considerations for a contactless electric vehicle battery charger" 4394:"Are EV batteries safe? Electric car batteries can be safer than gas cars" 4342:"What's Hot: Car News, Photos, Videos & Road Tests | Edmunds.com" 2984:"Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries" 2089: 1584: 4660:"Europe aims to take its place on the global EV battery production stage" 4275:"US NREL: Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Issues and Thermal Management" 3112: 1782: 1204: 975:

One issue is purchase price, the other issue is total cost of ownership.

655: 4445:"ECD Ovonics 10-Q Quarterly Report for the period ending March 31, 2008" 3900:"Largest Electric, Battery-Powered Containerships Commissioned in China" 3122: 2217: 1157:. The energy is generated from a variety of domestic resources, such as 844:

emissions - especially in countries lacking renewable energy resources.

446:

batteries are known for their high safety profile, with reduced risk of

4235: 4144: 4005:"PHEV, HEV, and EV Battery Pack Testing in a Manufacturing Environment" 3440: 3309: 2808:

Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing

1149:

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged. BEVs charge from the

981: 833: 471:

completely avoids critical materials. Due to the high availability of

3536:"The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions – Analysis" 3456: 2254:"EV LFP Battery Price War at Less Than $ 56 per kWh Within Six Months" 2125:

May, Geoffrey J.; Davidson, Alistair; Monahov, Boris (February 2018).

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is controversial due to the devastation it causes to the environment.

1658: 909: 829: 825: 617: 472: 424: 112: 4813:"Biden's Team Puts Up Over $ 3 Billion to Boost U.S. Battery Output" 4548: 3717:"Race to Net Zero: The Pressures of the Battery Boom in Five Charts" 3448: 3154: 2839:"CTP, CTC and CTB Integrated Battery Industry Research Report, 2022" 2730: 640:

Cell to Pack (CTP) - battery cells into battery pack without modules

4026:"Leader of Battery Safety & Battery Regulation Programs - PBRA" 3874:"Fast charging for battery-powered ships: Horizon Europe guarantee" 3339:"Examining different recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries" 3164: 4594:"Factbox: Plans for electric vehicle battery production in Europe" 4219:"Car Companies' Head-on Competition In Electric Vehicle Charging." 2610:"Cobalt in EV Batteries: Advantages, Challenges, and Alternatives" 2365:"Battery cycle count comparison between lithium-ion and lead-acid" 1552:

allows BEVs to provide power to the grid at any time, especially:

1242: 1195:

Charging time at home is limited by the capacity of the household

1100: 1092: 1081: 1070: 954: 753:

batteries are assembled into packs ready for vehicle integration.

546: 492:

could offer high energy density and potential safety improvements.

176: 140: 38: 4642:"France and Germany commit to European electric battery industry" 3925:"90-seat Elysian airliner: 800-1,000-km range on batteries alone" 1524:

time, so worn batteries will be gradually forced into the system)

1108:

monitoring electronics (overcharge and over-discharge protection)

735: 4865:"Here's where the new US EV 'Battery Belt' is forming – and why" 3256:"It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries" 3007:

Walking the Talk? MNEs Transitioning Towards a Sustainable World

1682: 1118: 506:

is a LFP battery that includes manganese as a cathode component.

89:. This increases the weight of vehicles or reduces their range. 4419:"ECD Ovonics Amended General Statement of Beneficial Ownership" 3275:"Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries" 2652:. Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI. 3775:"In China, It's Already Cheaper to Buy EVs Than Gasoline Cars" 3643: 2966:"New Caledonia unrest pushes nickel sector deeper into crisis" 1581: 1512:

has demonstrated automated swaps in less than 60 seconds;

1211:

V electricity between 7 and 14 kilowatts can be delivered (230

621: 525: 4471:"EU approves 3.2 billion euro state aid for battery research" 4159: 2916:"Electric Vehicles, Batteries, Cobalt, and Rare Earth Metals" 2387:"A123 Inks Deal to Develop Battery Cells for GM Electric Car" 778:(EIS) can be used to ensure the quality of the battery pack. 104:(Na-ion) completely avoiding the need for critical minerals. 4729:"Closing the Power Gap Between a Hybrid's Supply and Demand" 4674:"CATL Plans Massive Increase In European Battery Production" 4522:

Wang, Chwei-Sen; Stielau, O.H.; Covic, G.A. (October 2005).

2559:"Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries at all temperatures" 1899:"BYD breaks ground on its first sodium-ion EV battery plant" 1403:

contended that conductive charging was more cost efficient.

1133:

no high potential electrical danger to service technicians.

980:

market. The USA are protecting their own manufacturers with

670:

Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain

4181:"Tesla Model Y Long Range charging curve & performance" 2891:"Electric Vehicle Battery Integration: Pushing the Limits" 2865:"EVs Battery Pack Technology Today and Development Trends" 1351:. The modern standard for plug-in vehicle charging is the 520:

In the 20th century most electric vehicles used a flooded

4371:"Battery swap model ?won?t work? | carsguide.com.au" 4056:"Fast charging is not a friend of electric car batteries" 3999: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3569:"How EVs Will Drive Peak Oil This Decade, in Five Charts" 984:, in the EU this is debated. This can delay cost parity. 4612:"European battery production to receive financial boost" 3711: 3709: 3199:"Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles" 1913:"Battery prices are falling, which is good news for EVs" 723: 1594:

Functional safety means and protection against failures

1429:

also have an impact, just as they do on the mileage of

154:

A man cutting open a lithium-ion battery for use in an

4754:"AFS TRINITY UNVEILS 150 MPG EXTREME HYBRID (XH™) SUV" 4126:

Wu, Zhouquan; Bhat, Pradeep; Chen, Bo (1 March 2023).

3595:"Batteries vs oil: A comparison of raw material needs" 3392:

Manzetti, Sergio; Mariasiu, Florin (1 November 2015).

2895:

Semco university - All about the Lithium-Ion Batteries

2755: 2533:"All About Batteries, Part 12: Lithium Titanate (LTO)" 1203:

V electricity, a normal household outlet delivers 1.5

819:

Lithium-ion batteries § Solid waste and recycling

731: 2127:"Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review" 1654:

patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries

123:) performance above 800Wh/kg in laboratory testing. 4710:"EU aims to become powerhouse of battery production" 4580:"Indonesia to produce EV batteries by 2022 - report" 4261:"Edmunds Tested: Electric Car Range and Consumption" 3760:"Gartner Outlines a New Phase for Electric Vehicles" 3478:

Månberger, André; Stenqvist, Björn (1 August 2018).

2034:"Six Most Important Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries" 1961:"Useable battery capacity of full electric vehicles" 1591:

On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery

4365: 4363: 3830:

Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice

3337:Ciez, Rebecca E.; Whitacre, J. F. (February 2019). 2084:. Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation. 1270:Duration for refuelling / charging 300 km (45 kWh) 4081:"How Long Does It Take to Charge an Electric Car?" 3824:Bonges, Henry A.; Lusk, Anne C. (1 January 2016). 2166:Savina, Aleksandra A.; Abakumov, Artem M. (2023). 499:is also expected to meet high performance demands. 4898:Electric vehicle conversion chapter: technologies 3811:"A Complete Guide on Electric Car Battery Weight" 2015:"NMC vs LFP: safety and performance in operation" 1892: 1890: 1597:Protection of persons against electrical hazards. 2082:"Alternative Battery Technologies Roadmap 2030+" 555:Nickel–metal hydride batteries are considered a 4692:"The 2040 outlook for EV battery manufacturing" 3956:International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2666:Pradhan, S. K.; Chakraborty, B. (1 July 2022). 2563:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3660:"Indonesia and China killed the nickel market" 2483:Wu, Feixiang; Chu, Fulu; Xue, Zhichen (2022). 1745:List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers 1219:V three-phase, respectively). In Europe, a 400 4214: 4212: 3696:"EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel" 2635:"Global EV Outlook 2023: Trends in batteries" 1723:U.S. automobile production electric by 2030. 1587:. This standard is divided into three parts: 616:Lithium vanadium oxide made its way into the 8: 3950:Duan, X.; Naterer, G. F. (1 November 2010). 2709:. Summer Breeze Publishing. pp. 63–65. 2557:Yang, Xiao-Guang; Zhang, Guangsheng (2018). 2297:"Lithium LiFePO4 vs Lead-Acid cost analysis" 2247: 2245: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1527:Manufacturers' unwillingness to standardize 1089:e-Force One. Battery pack between the axles. 4528:IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 4020: 4018: 3735:"How much do electric vehicles (EVs) cost?" 2265: 2263: 2045: 2043: 1941:. EU European Alternative Fuels Observatory 1867: 1865: 643:Cell to Chassis (CTC) - battery cells into 563:and in the surviving first-generation NiMH 46:cutaway showing part of the battery in 2009 4811:Natter, Ari; Leonard, Jenny (2 May 2022). 2359: 2357: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1266: 1097:Cylindrical cell (18650) prior to assembly 994: 182: 4547: 4143: 3849: 3503: 3441:"FY2018 Batteries Annual Progress Report" 3308: 3298: 3222: 2810:, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 269–307, 2584: 2574: 2229: 2227: 2193: 2183: 2150: 2009: 2007: 1998:"Batteries and secure energy transitions" 1447:With an AC system or advanced DC system, 1121:, depending on its chemical composition. 942:Rechargeable battery § Price history 239:210 90-160 kWh 135 kWh (sales avg 2023) 4203:"EV-Database: Volkswagen e-Up (2020-21)" 3976:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.07.044 3398:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 862: 808: 780: 743: 701:. All the following steps are currently 665: 654:Cell to Body (CTB) - battery cells into 171:(LIB) with the variants Li-NMC, LFP and 4322:. greentechmedia.com. 17 September 2009 2036:. Electronics for you. 25 January 2023. 1841: 1808:Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents 681:Lifecycle of lithium-based EV batteries 4225:, 1998-11-24. Retrieved on 2007-08-21. 4054:Coren, Michael J. (15 December 2019). 3723:from the original on 7 September 2023. 3159:. The National Academies Press. 2021. 1519:Concerns about swap stations include: 776:electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 404:Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides 163:Comparison of commercial battery types 94:lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides 4837:Weisbrod, Katelyn (27 October 2022). 4121: 4119: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 2731:"Nickel Metal Hydride NiMH Batteries" 2661: 2659: 2648:Stephan, Annegret (6 February 2024). 2367:. Enertec Batteries. 28 November 2022 2028: 2026: 2024: 1247:EV charging curves at 300 kW chargers 748:Manufacturing process of EV batteries 233:150-220 kWh 165 kWh (sales avg 2023) 7: 4727:Wald, Matthew L. (13 January 2008). 2234:Colthorpe, Andy (27 November 2023). 1669:Research, development and innovation 912:in developing countries such as the 629:Battery architecture and integration 4863:Lewis, Michelle (13 October 2022). 4344:. blogs.edmunds.com. Archived from 4035:from the original on 7 October 2011 2863:Battery, Bonnen (12 October 2023). 2327:. EnergyPost.eu. 11 September 2023. 1939:"Electric vehicle model statistics" 1683:Contemporary Amperex Technology Ltd 1501:Features of swap stations include: 484:Several types are in development. 2889:University, Semco (9 April 2024). 2501:10.1016/B978-0-12-819723-3.00102-5 2458:"Why are LFP Cells so Attractive?" 25: 4785:Lambert, Fred (21 January 2020). 4421:. 2 December 2004. Archived from 4292:"Electric cars wait in the wings" 3773:Fickling, David (9 August 2023). 3546:from the original on 17 June 2021 2608:Trento, Chin (27 December 2023). 2313:. Eco Tree Lithium. 22 June 2022. 1897:Johnson, Peter (5 January 2024). 1755:List of battery electric vehicles 1253:electric vehicle charging network 928:has contributed significantly to 4903: 4892: 4618:. DW. 2 May 2019. Archived from 3015:10.1108/s1745-886220240000018016 2837:ReportLinker (11 October 2022). 2338:Wang, Brian (1 September 2023). 2311:"Lead-acid vs lithium batteries" 1694:Electric double-layer capacitors 1386:The second approach is known as 4759:(Press release). Archived from 4447:. 31 March 2008. Archived from 3260:Chemical & Engineering News 2531:Cowie, Ivan (21 January 2015). 2252:Wang, Brian (16 January 2024). 1612:includes the determination of: 1339:. This might be as simple as a 96:are the most common in EV. The 4392:Walford, Lynn (18 July 2014). 4236:"Open Charge Map - Statistics" 3254:Jacoby, Mitch (14 July 2019). 2489:Encyclopedia of Energy Storage 2444:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.110 1803:Electric car energy efficiency 1773:Battery electric multiple unit 1718:Promotion in the United States 1492:battery range extender modules 1421:Travel range before recharging 1075:Battery pack on the roof of a 417:Lithium iron phosphate battery 137:Electric vehicle battery types 98:lithium iron phosphate battery 1: 4926:Electric vehicle technologies 4716:. Platts Insight. 2 May 2019. 2185:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21881 2017:. Power Up. 21 November 2023. 1207:. In other countries with 230 676:Electric vehicle supply chain 551:GM Ovonic NiMH battery module 322:Cycles (state of health 80%) 3658:Rick, Mills (4 March 2024). 918:Democratic Republic of Congo 543:Nickel–metal hydride battery 444:lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) 411:Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) 115:, which is also required in 3599:Transport & Environment 3505:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056 2614:Stanford Advanced Materials 1610:battery performance testing 1435:Electric vehicle conversion 971:Electric vehicle conversion 537:Nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) 77:that are designed for high 4952: 3418:10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.010 3300:10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x 1647: 1571:, as backup power sources. 1542: 1483: 1410: 1141:outside the battery pack. 968: 939: 930:deforestation in Indonesia 816: 673: 575: 540: 341:Considerable flammability 254:Energy density projection 160: 29: 3851:10.1016/j.tra.2015.09.011 3363:10.1038/s41893-019-0222-5 3224:10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5 3070:10.1038/s41560-018-0107-2 2684:10.1016/j.est.2022.104427 2672:Journal of Energy Storage 2152:10.1016/j.est.2017.11.008 2131:Journal of Energy Storage 1427:performance of the driver 1357:1772 conductive connector 1343:lead into a weatherproof 1269: 1127:battery management system 772:battery management system 770:(SOH) information from a 3279:Communications Materials 1873:"Global EV Outlook 2024" 1685:to invest in Indonesia. 1456:deferred to the agency. 568:(120 mi) of range. 314:40-80$ (2034) 8-10$ 217:<1% (high potential) 205:global BEV market share 64:battery electric vehicle 52:electric vehicle battery 18:Electric-vehicle battery 4540:10.1109/TIE.2005.855672 2843:GlobeNewswire News Room 2576:10.1073/pnas.1807115115 2485:"Lithium-Ion Batteries" 2462:springerprofessional.de 1760:List of hybrid vehicles 1728:Inflation Reduction Act 1026:7 litres ~ 72 kWh 977:Total cost of ownership 757:Reusing and repurposing 709:and improve recycling. 225:Energy density per ton 92:Li-NMC batteries using 68:hybrid electric vehicle 4936:Rechargeable batteries 3904:The Maritime Executive 3114:Global EV Outlook 2020 2705:Barre, Harold (1997). 1400:ground fault detectors 1248: 1215:V single phase and 400 1177:solar cell panels and 1109: 1098: 1090: 1079: 961: 868: 814: 786: 749: 730:) and Li metal anode ( 671: 584:sodium chloroaluminate 552: 497:lithium-sulfur battery 435:Lithium Titanate (LTO) 158: 47: 3813:. EVGas. 6 July 2023. 3343:Nature Sustainability 2238:. energy-storage.net. 2220:. CATL. 21 July 2021. 2090:10.24406/publica-1342 1750:List of battery types 1480:Swapping and removing 1246: 1104: 1096: 1085: 1074: 958: 866: 812: 784: 747: 669: 550: 457:lithium-ion batteries 153: 109:battery supply chains 79:power-to-weight ratio 75:lithium-ion batteries 42: 4931:Battery applications 4912:at Wikimedia Commons 2411:. 11 September 2023. 1813:Rechargeable battery 1529:open-source hardware 1472:effects and reduces 1449:regenerative braking 1431:traditional vehicles 1077:battery electric bus 1006:typical consumption 892:Environmental impact 565:Toyota RAV4 EVs 530:deep-cycle batteries 131:automotive batteries 56:rechargeable battery 4843:Inside Climate News 4766:on 29 February 2012 4622:on 16 December 2019 4582:. 19 December 2019. 4300:. 17 September 2008 4112:. 16 December 2019. 3968:2010IJHMT..53.5176D 3842:2016TRPA...83...63B 3739:www.fleetnews.co.uk 3496:2018EnPol.119..226M 3410:2015RSERv..51.1004M 3355:2019NatSu...2..148C 3291:2020CoMat...1...99X 3215:2019Natur.575...75H 3123:10.1787/d394399e-en 3062:2018NatEn...3..267S 2436:2015ApEn..154..160J 2342:. NextBigFuture.com 2143:2018JEnSt..15..145M 2000:. Paris: IEA. 2024. 1663:Chevron Corporation 1442:internal resistance 1337:conductive coupling 1262:alternating current 1153:at home or using a 1106:Lithium ion battery 1067:Internal components 859:Recycling vs mining 853:rare-earth elements 762:lifecycle impact. 707:rare-earth minerals 608:Nickel–iron battery 578:Molten salt battery 490:solid-state battery 429:grid energy storage 169:lithium-ion battery 121:solid-state battery 73:They are typically 4910:Traction batteries 4733:The New York Times 4600:. 9 November 2018. 4398:auto connected car 4373:. carsguide.com.au 4263:. 9 February 2021. 4145:10.3390/en16052385 3647:. 1 February 2023. 2918:. 25 October 2017. 2783:. 24 November 2006 2781:Green Car Congress 2275:. IDTechEx. 2023. 2106:. 23 November 2023 1875:. Paris: IEA. 2024 1818:Salt water battery 1778:Battery locomotive 1388:inductive charging 1367:1) in the US. The 1249: 1223:V (three-phase 230 1110: 1099: 1091: 1080: 962: 869: 815: 787: 750: 703:dominated by China 672: 594:Other legacy types 553: 469:Sodium-ion battery 455:compared to other 361:Temperature range 159: 102:sodium-ion battery 58:used to power the 48: 32:Automotive battery 4908:Media related to 4503:. 5 November 2019 4477:. 9 December 2019 4297:Manawatu Standard 4240:openchargemap.org 4160:"Open Charge Map" 3962:(23): 5176–5182. 3931:. 12 January 2024 3174:978-0-309-37122-3 3024:978-1-83549-117-1 2936:. 15 August 2022. 2817:978-0-444-62616-5 2716:978-0-9647386-1-4 2569:(28): 7266–7271. 2510:978-0-12-819730-1 2282:978-1-83570-006-8 1919:. 3 December 2019 1798:Electric aircraft 1793:Dual-mode vehicle 1706:In January 2020, 1628:Energy Efficiency 1496:exchange stations 1373:VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 1328: 1327: 1324:90 min (2 stops) 1307:87.7 kW (10-90%) 1289:Diesel / Gasoline 1197:electrical outlet 1047: 1046: 557:mature technology 522:lead–acid battery 396: 395: 301:Price projection 151: 16:(Redirected from 4943: 4907: 4896: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4765: 4758: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4724: 4718: 4717: 4714:blogs.platts.com 4706: 4700: 4699: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4662:. 28 March 2019. 4656: 4650: 4649: 4638: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4551: 4534:(5): 1308–1314. 4519: 4513: 4512: 4510: 4508: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4367: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4316: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4232: 4226: 4223:The Auto Channel 4216: 4207: 4206: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4123: 4114: 4113: 4102: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4030: 4022: 4013: 4012: 4001: 3988: 3987: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3853: 3821: 3815: 3814: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3791:. CEVA Logistics 3789:"Energy density" 3785: 3779: 3778: 3770: 3764: 3763: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3719:. 21 July 2022. 3713: 3704: 3703: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3684:. 14 March 2024. 3674: 3668: 3667: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3591: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3565: 3559: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3532: 3526: 3525: 3507: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3334: 3323: 3322: 3312: 3302: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3226: 3193: 3187: 3186: 3151: 3145: 3144: 3117:. 18 June 2020. 3109: 3090: 3089: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3033: 3031: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2954:. 10 March 2022. 2944: 2938: 2937: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2727: 2721: 2720: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2663: 2654: 2653: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2588: 2578: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2389:. 10 August 2007 2383: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2361: 2352: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2267: 2258: 2257: 2256:. NextBigFuture. 2249: 2240: 2239: 2231: 2222: 2221: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2197: 2187: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2154: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2077: 2064: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2047: 2038: 2037: 2030: 2019: 2018: 2011: 2002: 2001: 1994: 1973: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1894: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1869: 1788:Charging station 1783:Battery charging 1486:Battery swapping 1466:aerodynamic drag 1413:Charging station 1407:Recharging spots 1382: 1378: 1366: 1362: 1356: 1267: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1202: 1163:hydroelectricity 1155:recharging point 995: 612:Detroit Electric 440:Lithium titanate 366:(cold climates) 312:<40€ (2035) 227:(same as Wh/kg) 183: 167:As of 2024, the 156:electric vehicle 152: 21: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4916: 4915: 4889: 4884: 4883: 4873: 4871: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4847: 4845: 4836: 4835: 4831: 4821: 4819: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4795: 4793: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4752: 4751: 4747: 4737: 4735: 4726: 4725: 4721: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4690: 4689: 4685: 4680:. 27 June 2019. 4672: 4671: 4667: 4658: 4657: 4653: 4640: 4639: 4635: 4625: 4623: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4592: 4591: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4521: 4520: 4516: 4506: 4504: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4480: 4478: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4451:on 28 July 2009 4443: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4426: 4425:on 29 July 2009 4417: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4400: 4391: 4390: 4386: 4376: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4325: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4313: 4303: 4301: 4290: 4289: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4272: 4268: 4259: 4258: 4254: 4244: 4242: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4217: 4210: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4186: 4184: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4125: 4124: 4117: 4104: 4103: 4099: 4089: 4087: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4038: 4036: 4028: 4024: 4023: 4016: 4003: 4002: 3991: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3908: 3906: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3883: 3881: 3880:. 19 March 2024 3872: 3871: 3867: 3823: 3822: 3818: 3809: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3782: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3743: 3741: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3715: 3714: 3707: 3702:. 16 July 2024. 3694: 3693: 3689: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3627:. 5 April 2024. 3619: 3618: 3614: 3604: 3602: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3578: 3576: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3549: 3547: 3534: 3533: 3529: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3449:10.2172/1525362 3438: 3437: 3433: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3336: 3335: 3326: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3209:(7781): 75–86. 3195: 3194: 3190: 3175: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3133: 3111: 3110: 3093: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2990:. 15 July 2024. 2982: 2981: 2977: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2899: 2897: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2871: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2786: 2784: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2665: 2664: 2657: 2647: 2646: 2642: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2607: 2606: 2602: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2541: 2539: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2464:. 12 April 2024 2456: 2455: 2451: 2421: 2420: 2416: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2392: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2370: 2368: 2363: 2362: 2355: 2345: 2343: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2309: 2308: 2304: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2269: 2268: 2261: 2251: 2250: 2243: 2233: 2232: 2225: 2216: 2215: 2211: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2079: 2078: 2067: 2057: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2041: 2032: 2031: 2022: 2013: 2012: 2005: 1996: 1995: 1976: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1937: 1936: 1932: 1922: 1920: 1911: 1910: 1906: 1896: 1895: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1871: 1870: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828:Vehicle-to-grid 1768: 1741: 1736: 1720: 1691: 1689:Ultracapacitors 1671: 1656: 1646: 1623:State of Health 1617:State of charge 1578: 1547: 1545:Vehicle-to-grid 1541: 1539:Vehicle-to-grid 1534:Safety concerns 1488: 1482: 1470:weight transfer 1462: 1423: 1415: 1409: 1380: 1376: 1371:has chosen the 1364: 1360: 1354: 1333: 1241: 1239:Recharging time 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1200: 1147: 1069: 1064: 1049: 1000:energy density 990: 973: 967: 953: 944: 938: 894: 883: 875: 861: 843: 821: 807: 768:state of health 759: 715: 683: 678: 664: 631: 596: 589: 580: 574: 545: 539: 518: 513: 482: 465: 448:thermal runaway 437: 413: 401: 372:(hot climates) 165: 141: 139: 87:specific energy 60:electric motors 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4949: 4947: 4939: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4918: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4901: 4888: 4887:External links 4885: 4882: 4881: 4855: 4829: 4817:Bloomberg News 4803: 4777: 4745: 4719: 4701: 4683: 4665: 4651: 4633: 4603: 4585: 4571: 4514: 4488: 4462: 4436: 4410: 4384: 4359: 4348:on 7 July 2012 4333: 4311: 4283: 4266: 4252: 4227: 4208: 4205:. EV-Database. 4194: 4172: 4151: 4115: 4097: 4072: 4046: 4014: 3989: 3942: 3916: 3891: 3865: 3816: 3802: 3780: 3765: 3751: 3726: 3705: 3700:Deutsche Welle 3687: 3669: 3650: 3630: 3612: 3601:. 1 March 2021 3586: 3575:. 22 June 2023 3560: 3542:. 5 May 2021. 3527: 3470: 3431: 3384: 3349:(2): 148–156. 3324: 3265: 3246: 3188: 3173: 3165:10.17226/26092 3146: 3131: 3091: 3056:(4): 267–278. 3036: 3023: 2993: 2975: 2972:. 28 May 2024. 2957: 2939: 2921: 2907: 2881: 2869:Bonnen Battery 2855: 2829: 2816: 2794: 2768: 2747: 2722: 2715: 2697: 2655: 2640: 2626: 2600: 2549: 2523: 2509: 2475: 2449: 2424:Applied Energy 2414: 2400: 2378: 2353: 2330: 2316: 2302: 2288: 2281: 2259: 2241: 2223: 2209: 2178:(12): e21881. 2158: 2117: 2095: 2065: 2039: 2020: 2003: 1974: 1952: 1930: 1904: 1886: 1840: 1839: 1837: 1834: 1832: 1831: 1825: 1823:Traction motor 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1763: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1719: 1716: 1698:specific power 1690: 1687: 1670: 1667: 1645: 1642: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1620: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1577: 1574: 1573: 1572: 1565: 1543:Main article: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1525: 1517: 1516: 1513: 1506: 1484:Main article: 1481: 1478: 1461: 1458: 1422: 1419: 1411:Main article: 1408: 1405: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1240: 1237: 1146: 1143: 1087:Electric truck 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1051:and car type. 1045: 1044: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1016: 1010: 1004: 998: 989: 986: 966: 963: 952: 949: 940:Main article: 937: 934: 900:The mining of 893: 890: 881: 873: 860: 857: 841: 806: 803: 758: 755: 714: 711: 682: 679: 663: 660: 659: 658: 652: 641: 638: 630: 627: 626: 625: 614: 605: 603:nickel–cadmium 595: 592: 587: 576:Main article: 573: 570: 541:Main article: 538: 535: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 507: 500: 493: 481: 478: 464: 461: 453:energy density 436: 433: 412: 409: 400: 397: 394: 393: 390: 387: 383: 382: 379: 376: 374: 368: 362: 358: 357: 354: 351: 348: 345: 342: 338: 337: 334: 331: 329: 326: 323: 319: 318: 316: 310: 308: 305: 302: 298: 297: 294: 288: 285: 279: 273: 272:Price per kWh 269: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 255: 251: 250: 247: 244: 241: 235: 229: 222: 221: 218: 215: 212: 209: 206: 202: 201: 198: 195: 192: 189: 186: 138: 135: 83:energy density 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4948: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4911: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4870: 4866: 4859: 4856: 4844: 4840: 4833: 4830: 4818: 4814: 4807: 4804: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4778: 4762: 4755: 4749: 4746: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4705: 4702: 4697: 4693: 4687: 4684: 4679: 4678:CleanTechnica 4675: 4669: 4666: 4661: 4655: 4652: 4648:. 2 May 2019. 4647: 4643: 4637: 4634: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4586: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4515: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4476: 4472: 4466: 4463: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4437: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4411: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4385: 4372: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4334: 4321: 4315: 4312: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4287: 4284: 4276: 4270: 4267: 4262: 4256: 4253: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4198: 4195: 4182: 4176: 4173: 4161: 4155: 4152: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4110:CleanTechnica 4107: 4101: 4098: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4073: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4047: 4034: 4027: 4021: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3943: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3917: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3892: 3879: 3875: 3869: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3820: 3817: 3812: 3806: 3803: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3776: 3769: 3766: 3761: 3755: 3752: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3645: 3640: 3634: 3631: 3626: 3622: 3616: 3613: 3600: 3596: 3590: 3587: 3574: 3570: 3564: 3561: 3558: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3531: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3484:Energy Policy 3481: 3474: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3404:: 1004–1012. 3403: 3399: 3395: 3388: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3192: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3157: 3150: 3147: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3132:9789264616226 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3050:Nature Energy 3047: 3040: 3037: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2961: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2935: 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Paris: IEA. 2636: 2630: 2627: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2524: 2512: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2479: 2476: 2463: 2459: 2453: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2415: 2410: 2404: 2401: 2388: 2382: 2379: 2366: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2312: 2306: 2303: 2298: 2292: 2289: 2284: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2213: 2210: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2162: 2159: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2118: 2105: 2099: 2096: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2053: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1963:. 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