1909:
analysis, which was probably significant for
Franklin's own theorizing. One physicist suggests that Watson first proposed a one-fluid theory, which Franklin then elaborated further and more influentially. A historian of science argues that Watson missed a subtle difference between his ideas and Franklin's, so that Watson misinterpreted his ideas as being similar to Franklin's. In any case, there was no animosity between Watson and Franklin, and the Franklin model of electrical action, formulated in early 1747, eventually became widely accepted at that time. After Franklin's work, effluvia-based explanations were rarely put forward.
1680:, who lived from c. 624 to c. 546 BC, but there are doubts about whether Thales left any writings; his account about amber is known from an account from early 200s. This account can be taken as evidence that the phenomenon was known since at least c. 600 BC, but Thales explained this phenomenon as evidence for inanimate objects having a soul. In other words, there was no indication of any conception of electric charge. More generally, the ancient Greeks did not understand the connections among these four kinds of phenomena. The Greeks observed that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as
1805:, which he generated using a glass tube. He noticed that a cork, used to protect the tube from dust and moisture, also became electrified (charged). Further experiments (e.g., extending the cork by putting thin sticks into it) showedâfor the first timeâthat electrical effluvia (as Gray called it) could be transmitted (conducted) over a distance. Gray managed to transmit charge with twine (765 feet) and wire (865 feet). Through these experiments, Gray discovered the importance of different materials, which facilitated or hindered the conduction of electrical effluvia.
1233:
40:
1414:
1405:
198:
1779:.) Gilbert hypothesized that this amber effect could be explained by an effluvium (a small stream of particles that flows from the electric object, without diminishing its bulk or weight) that acts on other objects. This idea of a material electrical effluvium was influential in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a precursor to ideas developed in the 18th century about "electric fluid" (Dufay, Nollet, Franklin) and "electric charge".
2236:
4005:
1642:
1965:
stops considering electric charge as a special substance that accumulates in objects, and starts to understand electric charge as a consequence of the transformation of energy in the field. This pre-quantum understanding considered magnitude of electric charge to be a continuous quantity, even at the
1821:
Gray's discoveries introduced an important shift in the historical development of knowledge about electric charge. The fact that electrical effluvia could be transferred from one object to another, opened the theoretical possibility that this property was not inseparably connected to the bodies that
2039:
An established convention in the scientific community defines vitreous electrification as positive, and resinous electrification as negative. The exactly opposite properties of the two kinds of electrification justify our indicating them by opposite signs, but the application of the positive sign to
1908:
independently arrived at the same one-fluid explanation around the same time (1747). Watson, after seeing
Franklin's letter to Collinson, claims that he had presented the same explanation as Franklin in spring 1747. Franklin had studied some of Watson's works prior to making his own experiments and
1903:
with resinous electricity after performing an experiment with a glass tube he had received from his overseas colleague Peter
Collinson. The experiment had participant A charge the glass tube and participant B receive a shock to the knuckle from the charged tube. Franklin identified participant B to
1953:
In 1838, Faraday raised a question about whether electricity was a fluid or fluids or a property of matter, like gravity. He investigated whether matter could be charged with one kind of charge independently of the other. He came to the conclusion that electric charge was a relation between two or
1957:
In 1838, Faraday also put forth a theoretical explanation of electric force, while expressing neutrality about whether it originates from one, two, or no fluids. He focused on the idea that the normal state of particles is to be nonpolarized, and that when polarized, they seek to return to their
1817:
to refer to the effects of different materials in these experiments. Gray also discovered electrical induction (i.e., where charge could be transmitted from one object to another without any direct physical contact). For example, he showed that by bringing a charged glass tube close to, but not
1435:
Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off
1855:. In contemporary understanding, positive charge is now defined as the charge of a glass rod after being rubbed with a silk cloth, but it is arbitrary which type of charge is called positive and which is called negative. Another important two-fluid theory from this time was proposed by
2025:. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by sliding. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts.
2073:
without regard to whether it is carried by positive charges moving in the direction of the conventional current or by negative charges moving in the opposite direction. This macroscopic viewpoint is an approximation that simplifies electromagnetic concepts and calculations.
1886:
that held the accumulated charge. He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current. He also posited that when matter contained an excess of the fluid it was
1794:, who in 1675 published the first book in English that was devoted solely to electrical phenomena. His work was largely a repetition of Gilbert's studies, but he also identified several more "electrics", and noted mutual attraction between two bodies.
1870:, based on an experiment that showed that a rubbed glass received the same, but opposite, charge strength as the cloth used to rub the glass. Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter and coined the term
1995:
When a piece of glass and a piece of resinâneither of which exhibit any electrical propertiesâare rubbed together and left with the rubbed surfaces in contact, they still exhibit no electrical properties. When separated, they attract each other.
1456:. In this way, non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of
1833:), showing that more or less all substances could be 'electrified' by rubbing, except for metals and fluids and proposed that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, which he expressed in terms of a two-fluid theory. When
2332:
1818:
touching, a lump of lead that was sustained by a thread, it was possible to make the lead become electrified (e.g., to attract and repel brass filings). He attempted to explain this phenomenon with the idea of electrical effluvia.
2524:
1074:. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is
2232:
2392:
1926:
sought to remove any doubt that electricity is identical, regardless of the source by which it is produced. He discussed a variety of known forms, which he characterized as common electricity (e.g.,
1388:
is an atom (or group of atoms) that has lost one or more electrons, giving it a net positive charge (cation), or that has gained one or more electrons, giving it a net negative charge (anion).
1912:
It is now known that the
Franklin model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge.
174:
2262:
755:
1723:, which had been studied quantitatively since antiquity, the start of ongoing qualitative and quantitative research into electrical phenomena can be marked with the publication of
2453:
2424:
1436:
electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as
728:
1733:
in 1600. In this book, there was a small section where
Gilbert returned to the amber effect (as he called it) in addressing many of the earlier theories, and coined the
740:
2267:
2635:
2125:
remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from
1999:
A second piece of glass rubbed with a second piece of resin, then separated and suspended near the former pieces of glass and resin causes these phenomena:
1544:(the electric charge of the proton) is defined as a fundamental constant in the SI. The value for elementary charge, when expressed in SI units, is exactly
1432:
electrically bound to neutral atoms. Thus macroscopic objects tend toward being neutral overall, but macroscopic objects are rarely perfectly net neutral.
2028:
If a body electrified in any manner whatsoever behaves as the glass does, that is, if it repels the glass and attracts the resin, the body is said to be
1981:
when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects.
991:
1790:, but he did not recognize it primarily as an electrical device and only conducted minimal electrical experiments with it. Other European pioneers were
760:
1597:
charge seems to behave as a continuous quantity. In some contexts it is meaningful to speak of fractions of an elementary charge; for example, in the
3933:
770:
2461:
3862:
1652:
From ancient times, people were familiar with four types of phenomena that today would all be explained using the concept of electric charge: (a)
1823:
595:
3488:
2560:
has the same charge regardless of how fast it is travelling. This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of one
1862:
Up until about 1745, the main explanation for electrical attraction and repulsion was the idea that electrified bodies gave off an effluvium.
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3379:
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1161:. The interaction of electric charges with an electromagnetic field (a combination of an electric and a magnetic field) is the source of the
610:
232:
4065:
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3877:
1367:
object is the sum of the electric charges of the particles that it is made up of. This charge is often small, because matter is made of
4015:
1688:
to jump, but there is also a claim that no mention of electric sparks appeared until late 17th century. This property derives from the
1396:
are formed from two or more atoms that have been bonded together, in each case yielding an ion with a positive or negative net charge.
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nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).
2067:. The movement of any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current. In many situations, it suffices to speak of the
1344:. Charged particles whose charges have the same sign repel one another, and particles whose charges have different signs attract.
1248:, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons (which are positively charged), resulting in a net zero overall charge
2040:
one rather than to the other kind must be considered as a matter of arbitrary conventionâjust as it is a matter of convention in
1462:
always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.
3660:
2344:
1829:
1428:
During the formation of macroscopic objects, constituent atoms and ions usually combine to form structures composed of neutral
405:
2103:
Beware that, in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the
1465:
Even when an object's net charge is zero, the charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external
3602:
3165:
1598:
984:
750:
227:
1608:
is sometimes used in electrochemistry. One faraday is the magnitude of the charge of one mole of elementary charges, i.e.
1498:
1256:
attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter with charge. Electric charge is a characteristic property of many
765:
470:
4035:
1730:
1529:
is often used to denote a quantity of electric charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an
630:
620:
605:
370:
237:
3843:
Buchwald, Jed Z. (2013). "Electrodynamics from
Thomson and Maxwell to Hertz". In Buchwald, Jed Z.; Fox, Robert (eds.).
3326:
1322:, but it is believed they always occur in multiples of integral charge; free-standing quarks have never been observed.
1286:
demonstrated this fact directly, and measured the elementary charge. It has been discovered that one type of particle,
670:
360:
1867:
1806:
1422:
Electric field induced by a positive electric charge (left) and a field induced by a negative electric charge (right).
1193:
1039:. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. An object with no net charge is referred to as
923:
798:
695:
1915:
Until 1800 it was only possible to study conduction of electric charge by using an electrostatic discharge. In 1800
590:
1066:. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the
1062:, the quantity of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change. Electric charge is carried by
4040:
4009:
3957:
Singal, A.K. (1992). "On the charge invariance and relativistic electric fields from a steady conduction current".
1905:
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423:
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1935:
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At the opposite extreme, if one looks at the microscopic situation, one sees there are many ways of carrying an
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subsequently discovered the particle that we now call the electron in 1897. The unit is today referred to as
4050:
3324:
Two Kinds of
Electrical Fluid: Vitreous and Resinous â 1733. Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (1698â1739)
1978:
1787:
1566:
1178:
1166:
913:
883:
315:
305:
300:
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Steinle, Friedrich (2013). "Electromagnetism and field physics". In
Buchwald, Jed Z.; Fox, Robert (eds.).
1458:
1197:
735:
505:
280:
3548:
1814:
1772:
1466:
1028:
833:
520:
510:
460:
450:
197:
1477:, while the charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called
1379:, in which case their charges cancel out, yielding a net charge of zero, thus making the atom neutral.
1352:
between two particles by asserting that the force is proportional to the product of their charges, and
2429:
2400:
2338:
Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result:
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2959:
2924:
2889:
2743:
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more bodies, because he could not charge one body without having an opposite charge in another body.
1810:
1689:
1514:
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958:
858:
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575:
440:
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325:
260:
141:
3708:
365:
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2134:
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1962:
1904:
be positively charged after having been shocked by the tube. There is some ambiguity about whether
1856:
1697:
1562:
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1266:
1076:
918:
898:
893:
700:
685:
570:
540:
435:
3473:
2729:
1919:
was the first to show that charge could be maintained in continuous motion through a closed path.
1119:, but they are found only combined in particles that have a charge that is an integer multiple of
3908:
3822:
3763:
3728:
3526:
3455:
2107:
of the actual charge carriers; i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners.
1974:
1927:
1875:
1802:
1437:
1353:
1063:
793:
533:
335:
295:
130:
3509:
Watson, William (1748). "Some further inquiries into the nature and properties of electricity".
2866:
2819:
39:
3310:
1696:, a compacted form of coal, was noted to have an amber effect, and in the middle of the 1500s,
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1147:
1081:
1048:
1016:
853:
86:
2773:
2327:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {S} =\int J\mathrm {d} S\cos \theta =I.}
3974:
3900:
3812:
3755:
3720:
3592:
3518:
3447:
3155:
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3005:
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2126:
2097:
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1939:
1931:
1916:
1705:
1605:
1486:
1440:. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing
1345:
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1217:
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953:
868:
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375:
3301:
The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to
Coulomb
3052:
The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to
Coulomb
2810:
The development of the concept of electric charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb
928:
3970:
3896:
3106:
3001:
2963:
2928:
2893:
1684:. They also found that if they rubbed the amber for long enough, they could even get an
1260:. The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge
3628:
3299:
3050:
2808:
2598:
2564:
2138:
2104:
1947:
1685:
1158:
1154:
1124:
1067:
848:
843:
665:
555:
480:
430:
380:
353:
310:
285:
255:
248:
44:
1961:
In developing a field theory approach to electrodynamics (starting in the mid-1850s),
1509:(symbol: C). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the
4024:
3978:
3826:
3767:
3746:
Faraday, Michael (1838). "Experimental researches in electricity â eleventh series".
3732:
3668:
3530:
2130:
2082:
2036:
electrified. All electrified bodies are either vitreously or resinously electrified.
1768:
1748:
1704:
also showed this effect. Some efforts were made by Fracastoro and others, especially
1693:
1570:
1253:
1237:
1162:
963:
948:
933:
873:
585:
500:
485:
400:
385:
290:
3912:
3459:
2988:
Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science".
2950:
Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science".
2915:
Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science".
2880:
Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1953). "The Prenatal History of Electrical Science".
17:
2593:
1943:
1791:
1657:
1534:
1530:
1474:
1357:
1275:
943:
838:
803:
745:
680:
565:
445:
320:
107:
600:
2837:
2575:
bound together in a nucleus and moving around at high speeds) is the same as two
1589:. The charge of an isolated system should be a multiple of the elementary charge
2090:
2032:
electrified, and if it attracts the glass and repels the resin it is said to be
1636:
1364:
1221:
1201:
1127:, charge is an absolutely conserved quantum number. The proton has a charge of +
863:
715:
545:
207:
96:
3395:
Heilbron, John (2003). "Leyden jar and electrophore". In Heilbron, John (ed.).
3096:
2627:
1413:
3553:(reprint ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 390â413.
3148:
1883:
1809:, who repeated many of Gray's experiments, is credited with coining the terms
1725:
1404:
580:
3986:
3904:
3451:
2519:{\displaystyle q=\int _{t_{\mathrm {i} }}^{t_{\mathrm {f} }}I\,\mathrm {d} t}
1866:
started electrical experiments in late 1746, and by 1750 had developed a one-
1569:
proposed the unit 'electron' for this fundamental unit of electrical charge.
3323:
2606:
or antielectron is an antiparticle or antimatter counterpart of the electron
2576:
2085:
that act like positive particles; and both negative and positive particles (
1734:
1716:
1712:
1653:
1525:. This unit was proposed in 1946 and ratified in 1948. The lowercase symbol
1209:
903:
878:
690:
615:
212:
3817:
3800:
3759:
3724:
3598:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of early Modern physics
3522:
3371:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
3258:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
3161:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of early Modern physics
3071:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
2537:
is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface.
1278:
experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge.
1150:
as the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed with a silk cloth.
1146:. Before these particles were discovered, a positive charge was defined by
4004:
1047:, and is still accurate for problems that do not require consideration of
2603:
2064:
1502:
1376:
1329:
1241:
1139:
655:
650:
270:
2751:(9th ed.), International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Dec 2022,
2701:
Rennie, Richard; Law, Jonathan, eds. (2019). "Quantum electrodynamics".
1096:, which is the smallest charge that can exist freely. Particles called
2572:
1701:
1506:
1205:
1189:
1170:
625:
70:
65:
3438:
Guarnieri, Massimo (2014). "Electricity in the Age of Enlightenment".
3009:
2971:
2936:
2901:
2867:"Lives of the Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, Book 1, §24"
2568:
2561:
2060:
1826:, inspired by Gray's work, made a series of experiments (reported in
1720:
1522:
1518:
1469:, or bound polar molecules). In such cases, the object is said to be
1372:
1337:
1174:
1143:
1080:: it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the
1020:
710:
217:
1641:
2839:
Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy
1360:
equals that of the corresponding particle, but with opposite sign.
1043:. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called
3934:"How can we prove charge invariance under Lorentz Transformation?"
2055:
is the flow of electric charge through an object. The most common
1879:
1850:
1848:, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with
1843:
1834:
1665:
1640:
1482:
1449:
1441:
1349:
1287:
1231:
1097:
1024:
2089:
or other charged particles) flowing in opposite directions in an
1838:
1681:
1453:
1368:
1245:
1138:
Today, a negative charge is defined as the charge carried by an
1071:
3474:"Electric charge and current - a short history | IOPSpark"
2227:{\displaystyle -{\frac {d}{dt}}\int _{V}\rho \,\mathrm {d} V=}
2086:
1669:
1445:
1384:
1742:
1672:
would attract small, light objects. The first account of the
3801:"Experimental researches in electricity â fourteenth series"
1244:, a negatively charged particle. In an electrically neutral
2133:. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current
1977:
refers to the electric charge of an object and the related
1878:
and some others); for example, he believed that it was the
1252:
Charge is the fundamental property of matter that exhibits
3135:
Heathcote, N.H. de V. (1950). "Guericke's sulphur globe".
2387:{\displaystyle I=-{\frac {\mathrm {d} q}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}
3805:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
3748:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
3713:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
3511:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1177:-mediated interactions among charged particles is called
3571:(rev ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
2533:
is the net outward current through a closed surface and
3709:"Experimental researches in electricity â third series"
2632:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
1676:
is often attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician
2545:
Aside from the properties described in articles about
2246:
3397:
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
2464:
2432:
2403:
2347:
2270:
2245:
2180:
2081:, including: a flow of electrons; a flow of electron
2044:
to reckon positive distances towards the right hand.
151:
3374:. University of California Press. pp. 280â289.
3630:
Early electrodynamics: The first law of circulation
3425:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3284:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3242:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3227:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3209:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3194:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
3122:
Electricity and magnetism: A historical perspective
140:
129:
118:
105:
77:
64:
52:
32:
3627:
3399:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 459.
3298:
3049:
2807:
2518:
2447:
2418:
2386:
2326:
2256:
2226:
2017:, and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be
168:
2006:Each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin.
1755:). The Latin word was translated into English as
2778:. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited. p. 51.
3261:. University of California Press. p. 248.
3074:. University of California Press. p. 169.
2772:Gambhir, RS; Banerjee, D; Durgapal, MC (1993).
2556:. This means that any particle that has charge
1356:of the distance between them. The charge of an
1841:, du Fay said that the glass was charged with
3845:The Oxford Handbook of the history of physics
3786:The Oxford Handbook of the history of physics
3347:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 40.
2622:
2620:
1708:to develop explanations for this phenomenon.
1473:. The charge due to polarization is known as
985:
8:
3878:"Relativistic invariance of electric charge"
3427:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 38.
3418:
3416:
3286:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 35.
3244:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 28.
3229:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 27.
3220:
3218:
3211:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 21.
3196:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 20.
3187:
3185:
3124:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 11.
2983:
2981:
1775:from 1646. (For more linguistic details see
1371:, and atoms typically have equal numbers of
3838:
3836:
1212:it is common to use the elementary charge (
1142:and a positive charge is that carried by a
3686:. Cambridge University Press. p. 31.
3542:
3540:
2724:
2722:
992:
978:
196:
180:
169:{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}{\mathsf {I}}}
38:
3816:
3489:"Letter to Peter Collinson, May 25, 1747"
3027:. London: The Athlone Press. p. 62.
2705:(8th ed.). Oxford University Press.
2508:
2507:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2463:
2438:
2437:
2431:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2370:
2360:
2357:
2346:
2298:
2284:
2279:
2271:
2269:
2244:
2213:
2212:
2203:
2184:
2179:
2009:The two pieces of resin repel each other.
2003:The two pieces of glass repel each other.
1891:charged and when it had a deficit it was
1759:. Gilbert is also credited with the term
160:
159:
153:
152:
150:
47:of a positive and a negative point charge
2137:. More generally, the rate of change in
1970:The role of charge in static electricity
1585:, with the charge of an electron being â
1481:. The motion of electrons in conductive
3863:A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
3847:. Oxford University Press. p. 575.
3788:. Oxford University Press. p. 560.
2616:
2455:is obtained by integrating both sides:
2257:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \partial V}
2148:is equal to the area integral over the
741:Electromagnetism and special relativity
188:
3297:Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954).
3095:Brother Potamian; Walsh, J.J. (1909).
3048:Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954).
2806:Roller, Duane; Roller, D.H.D. (1954).
2686:Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015).
2671:Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015).
2656:Chabay, Ruth; Sherwood, Bruce (2015).
2628:"2022 CODATA Value: elementary charge"
2048:The role of charge in electric current
161:
154:
29:
2861:
2859:
2397:The charge transferred between times
1822:were electrified by rubbing. In 1733
1786:invented what was probably the first
1290:, have fractional charges of either â
1216:) as a unit. Chemistry also uses the
761:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
7:
3569:The discovery of subatomic particles
3440:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
2163:, which is in turn equal to the net
2013:This attraction and repulsion is an
1824:Charles François de Cisternay du Fay
1767:came later, first attributed to Sir
1485:in a specific direction is known as
1392:are formed from single atoms, while
1354:inversely proportional to the square
1131:, and the electron has a charge of â
2690:(4th ed.). Wiley. p. 942.
2675:(4th ed.). Wiley. p. 673.
2660:(4th ed.). Wiley. p. 867.
1100:have smaller charges, multiples of
2509:
2496:
2482:
2439:
2410:
2371:
2361:
2299:
2280:
2247:
2214:
1946:), and animal electricity (e.g.,
1163:electromagnetic (or Lorentz) force
1157:. A moving charge also produces a
27:Electromagnetic property of matter
25:
3487:Franklin, Benjamin (1747-05-25).
2745:The International System of Units
1895:charged. He identified the term
1633:History of electromagnetic theory
1264:; we say that electric charge is
1192:(C) named after French physicist
4003:
3885:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Naturforschung A
2448:{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {f} }}
2419:{\displaystyle t_{\mathrm {i} }}
2285:
2272:
2234:
2121:The total electric charge of an
1533:, or indirectly measured with a
1412:
1403:
1236:Diagram showing field lines and
3866:, pp. 32â33, Dover Publications
2144:within a volume of integration
2111:Conservation of electric charge
1938:), voltaic electricity (e.g.,
1692:. In late 1100s, the substance
1023:that causes it to experience a
3603:University of California Press
3166:University of California Press
3025:The mathematics of measurement
2775:Foundations of Physics, Vol. 2
1899:with vitreous electricity and
1599:fractional quantum Hall effect
1565:character of charge, in 1891,
1:
4016:How fast does a charge decay?
1958:natural, nonpolarized state.
1348:quantifies the electrostatic
1220:, which is the charge of one
1200:it is also common to use the
766:Relativistic electromagnetism
3979:10.1016/0375-9601(92)90982-R
3634:. Oxford: Pergamon. p.
3343:Wangsness, Roald K. (1986).
1830:Académie Royale des Sciences
3491:. Letter to Peter Collinson
2990:American Journal of Physics
2952:American Journal of Physics
2917:American Journal of Physics
2882:American Journal of Physics
2155:through the closed surface
2063:and the negatively charged
2059:are the positively charged
1868:fluid theory of electricity
1807:John Theophilus Desaguliers
1194:Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
1165:, which is one of the four
4082:
4066:Electromagnetic quantities
4056:Flavour (particle physics)
3547:Cohen, I. Bernard (1966).
2730:"CIPM, 1946: Resolution 2"
2114:
1988:
1985:Electrification by sliding
1743:
1637:Electricity § History
1630:
1579:fundamental unit of charge
1505:of electric charge is the
1188:of electric charge is the
491:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
3938:physics.stackexchange.com
3799:Faraday, Michael (1838).
3707:Faraday, Michael (1833).
3682:Zangwill, Andrew (2013).
3149:10.1080/00033795000201981
2589:SI electromagnetism units
1729:by the English scientist
1363:The electric charge of a
1153:Electric charges produce
1045:classical electrodynamics
1031:. Electric charge can be
756:Mathematical descriptions
466:Electromagnetic radiation
456:Electromagnetic induction
396:Magnetic vector potential
391:Magnetic scalar potential
37:
3905:10.1515/zna-1999-10-1113
3876:Jefimenko, O.D. (1999).
3452:10.1109/MIE.2014.2335431
3307:Harvard University Press
3103:Fordham University Press
3058:Harvard University Press
2816:Harvard University Press
1777:Etymology of electricity
1167:fundamental interactions
3626:Tricker, R.A.R (1965).
3423:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3368:Heilbron, J.L. (1979).
3282:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3255:Heilbron, J.L. (1979).
3240:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3225:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3207:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3192:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3120:Baigrie, Brian (2007).
3068:Heilbron, J.L. (1979).
2703:A Dictionary of Physics
2688:Matter and interactions
2673:Matter and interactions
2658:Matter and interactions
2541:Relativistic invariance
1979:electrostatic discharge
1801:was experimenting with
1788:electrostatic generator
1660:(or electric ray), (c)
1224:of elementary charges.
1179:quantum electrodynamics
1058:: the net charge of an
306:Electrostatic induction
301:Electrostatic discharge
3818:10.1098/rstl.1838.0014
3760:10.1098/rstl.1838.0002
3725:10.1098/rstl.1833.0006
3684:Modern Electrodynamics
3523:10.1098/rstl.1748.0004
3345:Electromagnetic Fields
2842:. Ashgate. p. 8.
2520:
2449:
2420:
2388:
2328:
2258:
2228:
1649:
1561:After discovering the
1535:ballistic galvanometer
1459:conservation of charge
1249:
1198:electrical engineering
736:Electromagnetic tensor
170:
3659:Denker, John (2007).
3098:Makers of electricity
2521:
2450:
2421:
2389:
2329:
2259:
2229:
2015:electrical phenomenon
1989:Further information:
1773:Pseudodoxia Epidemica
1644:
1467:electromagnetic field
1235:
1054:Electric charge is a
1029:electromagnetic field
729:Covariant formulation
521:Synchrotron radiation
461:Electromagnetic pulse
451:Electromagnetic field
171:
4012:at Wikimedia Commons
3665:www.av8n.com/physics
3661:"One Kind of Charge"
3168:. pp. 215â218.
3023:Roche, J.J. (1998).
2834:O'Grady, Patricia F.
2462:
2430:
2401:
2345:
2268:
2243:
2178:
2070:conventional current
2042:mathematical diagram
2023:electrically charged
1991:Triboelectric effect
1690:triboelectric effect
1581:, or simply denoted
1515:electrical conductor
1041:electrically neutral
771:Stressâenergy tensor
696:Reluctance (complex)
441:Displacement current
149:
18:Electrically neutral
4036:Chemical properties
3971:1992PhLA..162...91S
3897:1999ZNatA..54..637J
3858:James Clerk Maxwell
3550:Franklin and Newton
3002:1953AmJPh..21..343R
2964:1953AmJPh..21..343R
2929:1953AmJPh..21..343R
2894:1953AmJPh..21..343R
2503:
2135:continuity equation
2117:Charge conservation
1966:microscopic level.
1963:James Clerk Maxwell
1874:itself (as well as
1857:Jean-Antoine Nollet
1698:Girolamo Fracastoro
1328:, the charge of an
1284:oil drop experiment
1258:subatomic particles
1064:subatomic particles
686:Magnetomotive force
571:Electromotive force
541:Alternating current
476:Jefimenko equations
436:Cyclotron radiation
3891:(10â11): 637â644.
3605:. pp. 344â5.
3329:2009-05-26 at the
2516:
2471:
2445:
2416:
2384:
2324:
2254:
2253:
2224:
1975:Static electricity
1936:magnetic induction
1928:static electricity
1803:static electricity
1700:, discovered that
1650:
1438:static electricity
1336:, while that of a
1250:
1056:conserved property
1027:when placed in an
534:Electrical network
371:Gauss magnetic law
336:Static electricity
296:Electric potential
166:
109:SI base units
4041:Conservation laws
4008:Media related to
3959:Physics Letters A
3693:978-0-521-89697-9
3381:978-0-520-03478-5
3333:. sparkmuseum.com
3305:. Cambridge, MA:
3268:978-0-520-03478-5
3137:Annals of Science
3081:978-0-520-03478-5
3056:. Cambridge, MA:
3010:10.1119/1.1933449
2972:10.1119/1.1933449
2937:10.1119/1.1933449
2902:10.1119/1.1933449
2814:. Cambridge, MA:
2758:978-92-822-2272-0
2379:
2197:
1864:Benjamin Franklin
1784:Otto von Guericke
1763:, while the term
1678:Thales of Miletus
1575:elementary charge
1542:elementary charge
1148:Benjamin Franklin
1082:elementary charge
1017:physical property
1002:
1001:
701:Reluctance (real)
671:Gyratorâcapacitor
616:Resonant cavities
506:Maxwell equations
179:
178:
87:elementary charge
16:(Redirected from
4073:
4007:
3991:
3990:
3954:
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3947:
3945:
3944:
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3923:
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3781:
3775:
3774:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3667:. Archived from
3656:
3650:
3649:
3633:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3565:Weinberg, Steven
3561:
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2677:
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2668:
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2647:
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2644:
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2624:
2547:electromagnetism
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2207:
2198:
2196:
2185:
2127:gauge invariance
2079:electric current
2053:Electric current
1940:electric current
1932:piezoelectricity
1917:Alessandro Volta
1837:was rubbed with
1747:(Älektron), the
1746:
1745:
1706:Gerolamo Cardano
1622:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1557:
1555:
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1549:
1487:electric current
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1407:
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1218:Faraday constant
1115:
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1109:
1106:
1095:
1093:
994:
987:
980:
661:Electric machine
644:Magnetic circuit
606:Parallel circuit
596:Network analysis
561:Electric current
496:London equations
341:Triboelectricity
331:Potential energy
200:
190:Electromagnetism
181:
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110:
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3341:
3337:
3331:Wayback Machine
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2150:current density
2123:isolated system
2119:
2113:
2057:charge carriers
2050:
1993:
1987:
1972:
1924:Michael Faraday
1731:William Gilbert
1711:In contrast to
1664:, and (d) that
1647:torsion balance
1639:
1629:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1553:
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1495:
1430:ionic compounds
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1394:polyatomic ions
1316:
1313:
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1307:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1280:Robert Millikan
1272:Michael Faraday
1230:
1186:SI derived unit
1173:. The study of
1155:electric fields
1110:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1091:
1089:
1060:isolated system
1049:quantum effects
1005:Electric charge
998:
969:
968:
784:
776:
775:
731:
721:
720:
676:Induction motor
646:
636:
635:
551:Current density
536:
526:
525:
516:Poynting vector
426:
424:Electrodynamics
416:
415:
411:Right-hand rule
376:Magnetic dipole
366:BiotâSavart law
356:
346:
345:
281:Electric dipole
276:Electric charge
251:
147:
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80:
55:
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33:Electric charge
28:
23:
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5:
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4058:
4053:
4051:Electrostatics
4048:
4043:
4038:
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4023:
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4019:
4018:
4013:
3999:
3998:External links
3996:
3993:
3992:
3949:
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3868:
3850:
3832:
3791:
3776:
3738:
3699:
3692:
3674:
3671:on 2016-02-05.
3651:
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3593:Heilbron, J.L.
3584:
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3156:Heilbron, J.L.
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3034:978-0387915814
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2115:Main article:
2112:
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2105:drift velocity
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2011:
2010:
2007:
2004:
1986:
1983:
1971:
1968:
1948:bioelectricity
1906:William Watson
1902:
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1890:
1873:
1828:MĂ©moires de l'
1758:
1686:electric spark
1675:
1662:St Elmo's Fire
1628:
1625:
1580:
1576:
1494:
1491:
1421:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1398:
1390:Monatomic ions
1238:equipotentials
1229:
1226:
1159:magnetic field
1125:Standard Model
1000:
999:
997:
996:
989:
982:
974:
971:
970:
967:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
851:
846:
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
785:
782:
781:
778:
777:
774:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
751:Four-potential
748:
743:
738:
732:
727:
726:
723:
722:
719:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
666:Electric motor
663:
658:
653:
647:
642:
641:
638:
637:
634:
633:
628:
623:
621:Series circuit
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
591:Kirchhoff laws
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
556:Direct current
553:
548:
543:
537:
532:
531:
528:
527:
524:
523:
518:
513:
511:Maxwell tensor
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
481:Larmor formula
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
431:Bremsstrahlung
427:
422:
421:
418:
417:
414:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
381:Magnetic field
378:
373:
368:
363:
357:
354:Magnetostatics
352:
351:
348:
347:
344:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
286:Electric field
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
256:Charge density
252:
249:Electrostatics
247:
246:
243:
242:
241:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
202:
201:
193:
192:
186:
185:
184:Articles about
177:
176:
163:
156:
144:
138:
137:
134:
127:
126:
123:
116:
115:
112:
103:
102:
100:
99:
94:
89:
83:
81:
78:
75:
74:
68:
62:
61:
56:
54:Common symbols
53:
50:
49:
45:Electric field
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4078:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4017:
4014:
4011:
4006:
4002:
4001:
3997:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3950:
3939:
3935:
3929:
3926:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3851:
3846:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3795:
3792:
3787:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3739:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3700:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3678:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3655:
3652:
3647:
3645:9781483185361
3641:
3637:
3632:
3631:
3622:
3619:
3614:
3612:0-520-03478-3
3608:
3604:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3588:
3585:
3580:
3578:9780521823517
3574:
3570:
3566:
3560:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3502:
3490:
3483:
3480:
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3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3434:
3431:
3426:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3408:
3406:9780195112290
3402:
3398:
3391:
3388:
3383:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3364:
3361:
3356:
3354:0-471-81186-6
3350:
3346:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3302:
3293:
3290:
3285:
3278:
3275:
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3260:
3259:
3251:
3248:
3243:
3236:
3233:
3228:
3221:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3177:
3175:0-520-03478-3
3171:
3167:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3131:
3128:
3123:
3116:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3053:
3044:
3041:
3036:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2812:
2811:
2802:
2799:
2787:
2785:9788122405231
2781:
2777:
2776:
2768:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2747:
2746:
2739:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2712:9780198821472
2708:
2704:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2682:
2679:
2674:
2667:
2664:
2659:
2652:
2649:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2513:
2504:
2491:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2434:
2405:
2381:
2375:
2365:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2276:
2250:
2221:
2218:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2131:wave function
2128:
2124:
2118:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1918:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1769:Thomas Browne
1766:
1762:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1624:
1607:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1593:, even if at
1592:
1588:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1572:
1571:J. J. Thomson
1568:
1567:George Stoney
1564:
1559:
1543:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1517:carrying one
1516:
1512:
1511:cross section
1508:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1431:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1346:Coulomb's law
1343:
1340:is positive,
1339:
1335:
1332:is negative,
1331:
1327:
1326:By convention
1323:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1254:electrostatic
1247:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1099:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
995:
990:
988:
983:
981:
976:
975:
973:
972:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
850:
847:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
786:
780:
779:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
733:
730:
725:
724:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
648:
645:
640:
639:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
586:Joule heating
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
538:
535:
530:
529:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
501:Lorentz force
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
428:
425:
420:
419:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
401:Magnetization
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
386:Magnetic flux
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
358:
355:
350:
349:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
291:Electric flux
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
253:
250:
245:
244:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
228:Computational
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
205:
204:
203:
199:
195:
194:
191:
187:
183:
182:
145:
143:
139:
135:
132:
128:
124:
121:
117:
113:
111:
104:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
84:
82:
76:
72:
69:
67:
63:
60:
57:
51:
46:
41:
36:
31:
19:
3965:(2): 91â95.
3962:
3958:
3952:
3941:. Retrieved
3937:
3928:
3916:. Retrieved
3888:
3884:
3871:
3861:
3853:
3844:
3808:
3804:
3794:
3785:
3779:
3771:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3716:
3712:
3702:
3683:
3677:
3669:the original
3664:
3654:
3629:
3621:
3597:
3587:
3568:
3559:
3549:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3493:. Retrieved
3482:
3468:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3424:
3396:
3390:
3370:
3363:
3344:
3338:
3319:
3300:
3292:
3283:
3277:
3257:
3250:
3241:
3235:
3226:
3208:
3202:
3193:
3160:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3121:
3115:
3101:. New York:
3097:
3090:
3070:
3051:
3043:
3024:
3018:
2993:
2989:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2885:
2881:
2875:
2838:
2828:
2809:
2801:
2789:. Retrieved
2774:
2767:
2744:
2738:
2702:
2696:
2687:
2681:
2672:
2666:
2657:
2651:
2640:. Retrieved
2631:
2594:Color charge
2557:
2551:relativistic
2544:
2534:
2530:
2528:
2396:
2337:
2167:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2141:
2120:
2102:
2091:electrolytic
2076:
2068:
2051:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2012:
1998:
1994:
1973:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1944:voltaic pile
1921:
1914:
1911:
1861:
1849:
1842:
1827:
1820:
1799:Stephen Gray
1796:
1792:Robert Boyle
1782:Around 1663
1781:
1764:
1760:
1752:
1738:
1724:
1710:
1674:amber effect
1668:rubbed with
1658:torpedo fish
1651:
1603:
1595:large scales
1590:
1586:
1582:
1560:
1539:
1531:electrometer
1526:
1496:
1478:
1475:bound charge
1464:
1457:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1393:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1362:
1358:antiparticle
1341:
1333:
1324:
1276:electrolysis
1265:
1261:
1251:
1213:
1183:
1152:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1085:
1075:
1053:
1036:
1032:
1012:
1011:, sometimes
1008:
1004:
1003:
746:Four-current
681:Linear motor
566:Electrolysis
446:Eddy current
406:Permeability
326:Polarization
321:Permittivity
275:
66:SI unit
58:
4061:Spintronics
4046:Electricity
3811:: 265â282.
3060:. pp.
2019:electrified
1853:electricity
1846:electricity
1765:electricity
1479:free charge
1365:macroscopic
1202:ampere-hour
716:Transformer
546:Capacitance
471:Faraday law
266:Coulomb law
208:Electricity
97:ampere-hour
79:Other units
4025:Categories
3943:2018-03-27
3495:2019-09-16
3309:. p.
3143:(3): 304.
3105:. p.
2996:(5): 356.
2958:(5): 353.
2923:(5): 351.
2888:(5): 348.
2818:. p.
2791:10 October
2642:2024-05-18
2638:. May 2024
2611:References
2034:resinously
2030:vitreously
1893:negatively
1889:positively
1884:Leyden jar
1815:insulators
1811:conductors
1761:electrical
1726:De Magnete
1656:, (b) the
1645:Coulomb's
1631:See also:
1240:around an
1204:(Aâ
h). In
783:Scientists
631:Waveguides
611:Resistance
581:Inductance
361:AmpĂšre law
3987:0375-9601
3827:109146507
3768:116482065
3733:111157008
3719:: 23â54.
3531:186207940
3446:(3): 61.
2577:deuterium
2554:invariant
2473:∫
2355:−
2313:θ
2310:
2293:∫
2277:⋅
2248:∂
2210:ρ
2201:∫
2182:−
1922:In 1833,
1757:electrics
1751:word for
1739:electrica
1735:Neo-Latin
1717:mechanics
1713:astronomy
1654:lightning
1623: C.
1604:The unit
1563:quantized
1556:10 C
1471:polarized
1377:electrons
1274:, in his
1267:quantized
1210:chemistry
1123:. In the
1094:10 C
1077:quantized
1015:) is the
939:Steinmetz
869:Kirchhoff
854:Jefimenko
849:Hopkinson
834:Helmholtz
829:Heaviside
691:Permeance
576:Impedance
316:Insulator
311:Gauss law
261:Conductor
238:Phenomena
233:Textbooks
213:Magnetism
142:Dimension
131:Conserved
120:Extensive
3918:11 April
3913:29149866
3595:(1979).
3567:(2003).
3460:34246664
3327:Archived
3158:(1979).
2836:(2002).
2762:, p. 127
2604:Positron
2583:See also
2573:neutrons
2571:and two
2094:solution
2065:electron
1901:negative
1897:positive
1859:(1745).
1851:resinous
1844:vitreous
1797:In 1729
1744:ጀλΔÎșÏÏÎżÎœ
1521:for one
1503:quantity
1501:unit of
1330:electron
1242:electron
1228:Overview
1140:electron
1088:, about
1037:negative
1033:positive
1007:(symbol
964:Wiechert
919:Poynting
809:Einstein
656:DC motor
651:AC motor
486:Lenz law
271:Electret
3967:Bibcode
3893:Bibcode
3860:(1891)
3517:: 100.
2998:Bibcode
2960:Bibcode
2925:Bibcode
2890:Bibcode
2732:. BIPM.
2569:protons
2565:nucleus
2165:current
2129:of the
1942:from a
1876:battery
1771:in his
1702:diamond
1627:History
1606:faraday
1507:coulomb
1373:protons
1320:
1308:
1304:
1292:
1206:physics
1190:coulomb
1171:physics
1114:
1102:
949:Thomson
924:Ritchie
914:Poisson
899:Neumann
894:Maxwell
889:Lorentz
884:Liénard
814:Faraday
799:Coulomb
626:Voltage
601:Ohm law
223:History
114:C = Aâ
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92:faraday
71:coulomb
3985:
3911:
3825:
3766:
3731:
3690:
3642:
3609:
3575:
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3378:
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3172:
3078:
3031:
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2755:
2709:
2562:helium
2529:where
2098:plasma
2061:proton
1872:charge
1741:(from
1721:optics
1719:, and
1523:second
1519:ampere
1513:of an
1483:metals
1338:proton
1288:quarks
1175:photon
1144:proton
1098:quarks
1068:nuclei
1021:matter
934:Singer
929:Savart
909:Ărsted
874:Larmor
864:Kelvin
819:Fizeau
789:AmpĂšre
711:Stator
218:Optics
3909:S2CID
3881:(PDF)
3823:S2CID
3772:§1168
3764:S2CID
3754:: 4.
3729:S2CID
3527:S2CID
3456:S2CID
2749:(PDF)
2567:(two
2096:or a
2083:holes
2021:, or
1882:in a
1880:glass
1835:glass
1753:amber
1749:Greek
1737:word
1666:amber
1610:9.648
1546:1.602
1452:with
1450:glass
1444:with
1442:amber
1369:atoms
1350:force
1196:. In
1090:1.602
1072:atoms
1025:force
959:Weber
954:Volta
944:Tesla
859:Joule
844:Hertz
839:Henry
824:Gauss
706:Rotor
3983:ISSN
3920:2018
3688:ISBN
3640:ISBN
3607:ISBN
3573:ISBN
3401:ISBN
3376:ISBN
3349:ISBN
3263:ISBN
3170:ISBN
3076:ISBN
3029:ISBN
2844:ISBN
2793:2018
2780:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2707:ISBN
2636:NIST
2426:and
2087:ions
1839:silk
1813:and
1682:hair
1635:and
1540:The
1497:The
1493:Unit
1454:silk
1375:and
1306:or +
1246:atom
1222:mole
1208:and
1184:The
879:Lenz
804:Davy
794:Biot
3975:doi
3963:162
3901:doi
3813:doi
3809:128
3756:doi
3752:128
3721:doi
3717:123
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3448:doi
3145:doi
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2968:doi
2933:doi
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