Emperor penguin - Knowledge

1086:

their own chick may attempt to adopt a stray chick or steal the chick of another female. The mother of the chick and neighboring females will fight to protect the chick or reclaim it, if it has been successfully stolen. These scuffles involving several birds often result in the chick being smothered or trampled to death. Chicks which have been adopted or stolen are quickly abandoned once again, as it is impossible for the female to feed and care for the chick alone. The orphaned chicks wander around the colony attempting to seek food and protection from other adults. They will even try to shelter themselves in an adult bird's brood patch already occupied by their own chick. These stray chicks are brusquely driven away by the adults and their chicks. All orphaned chicks will rapidly become weaker and die of starvation, or freeze to death.

1034:, a patch of skin without feathers. There he balances it on the tops of his feet, engulfing it with loose skin and feathers for around 65-75 consecutive days until hatching. The emperor is the only penguin species where this behaviour is observed; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating. By the time the egg hatches, the male will have fasted for around 120 days since arriving at the colony. To survive the cold and savage winds of up to 200 km/h (120 mph), the males huddle together, taking turns in the middle of the huddle. They have also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat. In the four months of travel, courtship, and incubation, the male may lose as much as 20 kg (44 lb), from a total mass of 38 to 18 kg (84 to 40 lb). 49: 809: 766:, strong winds, and record low amounts of sea ice resulted in "almost total breeding failure" with the deaths of thousands of emperor chicks for three consecutive years within the Halley Bay colony, the second largest emperor penguin colony in the world. Researchers have attributed this loss to immigration of breeding penguins to the Dawson-Lambton colony 55 km (34 mi) south, in which a tenfold population increase was observed between 2016 and 2018. However, this increase is nowhere near the total number of breeding adults formerly at the Halley Bay colony. 597: 858:. It is possible that emperor penguins can dive for even deeper and longer periods, as the accuracy of the recording devices is diminished at greater depths. Further study of one bird's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to 150 m (490 ft) in water around 900 m (3,000 ft) deep, and shallow dives of less than 50 m (160 ft), interspersed with deep dives of more than 400 m (1,300 ft) in depths of 450 to 500 m (1,480 to 1,640 ft). This was suggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom. In 1994, a penguin from 903: 892: 755: 223: 1026:

in the process. When this happens, the chick inside is quickly lost, as the egg cannot withstand the sub-freezing temperatures on the icy ground for more than one to two minutes. When a couple loses an egg in this manner, their relationship is ended and both walk back to the sea. They will return to the colony next year to try mating again. After a successful transfer of the egg to the male penguin, the female departs for the sea and the male spends the dark, stormy winter

561: 102: 874:

walking with a wobbling gait and tobogganing—sliding over the ice on its belly, propelled by its feet and wing-like flippers. Like all penguins, it is flightless. The emperor penguin is a very powerful bird. In one case, a crew of six men, trying to capture a single male penguin for a zoo collection, were repeatedly tossed around and knocked over before all of the men had to collectively tackle the bird, which weighs about half as much as a man.

1073: 1002: 418: 824: 1185: 77: 971: 536:(plumules) likely play a critical role for insulation. Muscles allow the feathers to be held erect on land, reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin. Conversely, the plumage is flattened in water, thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer. Preening is vital in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water-repellent. 751:

deaths also increased; the species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic changes. In 2009, the Dion Islands colony, which had been extensively studied since 1948, was reported to have completely disappeared at some point over the previous decade, the fate of the birds unknown. This was the first confirmed loss of an entire colony.

430:

instead of body length. Although standing height of emperor penguin is rarely provided at scientific reports, Prévost (1961) recorded 86 wild individuals and measured maximum height of 1.08 m (3 ft 7 in). Friedman (1945) recorded measurements from 22 wild individuals and resulted height ranging 83–97 cm (33–38 in). Ksepka

1061:" in birds is only found in pigeons, flamingos and male Emperor penguins. The father is able to produce this crop milk to temporarily sustain the chick for generally 4 to 7 days, until the mother returns from fishing at sea with food to properly feed the chick. If the mother penguin is delayed, the chick will die. The young chick is 998:, having only one mate each year, and remaining faithful to that mate. However, fidelity between years is only around 15%. The narrow window of opportunity available for mating appears to be an influence, as there is a priority to mate and breed which usually precludes waiting for the previous year's partner to arrive at the colony. 954:

often walking 50 to 120 km (31 to 75 mi) inland from the edge of the pack ice. The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by using artificial lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths. The

830: 828: 825: 829: 1342:, 2011) features emperor penguins as its primary characters, with one in particular that loves to dance; although a comedy, it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by overfishing. The animated movie 543:(maintain its core body temperature) without altering its metabolism, over a wide range of temperatures. Known as the thermoneutral range, this extends from −10 to 20 °C (14 to 68 °F). Below this temperature range, its metabolic rate increases significantly, although an individual can maintain its 1021:

in May or early June; it is vaguely pear-shaped, pale greenish-white, and measures around 12 cm × 8 cm (4.7 in × 3.1 in). It represents just 2.3% of its mother's body weight, making it one of the smallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in any bird species. 15.7% of

612:

south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to 18 km (11 mi) offshore. Breeding colonies are usually in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs provide some protection from the wind. Three land colonies have been reported: one (now disappeared) on a shingle

1085:

while the other forages at sea. If either parent is delayed or fails to return to the colony, the lone parent will return to the sea to feed, leaving the chick to die. Abandoned eggs do not hatch and orphaned chicks never survive. Female emperors who failed to find a mate to breed with, or have lost

1080:

The female penguin returns at any time from hatching up to ten days afterwards, from mid-July to early August. She finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the partially digested fish, squid and krill that she has

1025:

After laying, the mother's food reserves are exhausted and she very carefully transfers the egg to the male, and then immediately returns to the sea for two months to feed. The transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult, especially for first-time parents, and many couples drop or crack the egg

882:

is the least severe in the center of the colony, all the juveniles are usually huddled there. Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and add themselves to its leeward edge, producing a slow churning action, and giving each bird a turn on the inside and on

450:

their egg. Male emperor penguins must withstand the extreme Antarctic winter cold for more than two months while protecting their eggs; eating nothing during this time, male emperors will lose around 12 kg (26 lb) while waiting for their eggs to hatch. The mean weight of males at the start

1096:

From early November, chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage, which takes up to two months and is usually not completed by the time they leave the colony. Adults cease feeding them during this time. All birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December and January. The birds spend

986:

in March or April, when the temperature can be as low as −40 °C (−40 °F). A lone male gives an ecstatic display, where it stands still and places its head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for 1–2 seconds; it then moves around the colony and repeats the call. A male

853:

Gerry Kooyman revolutionised the study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he published his results from attaching automatic dive-recording devices to emperor penguins. He found that the species reaches depths of 265 m (869 ft), with dive periods of up to 18 minutes. Later research

487:

The average yearly survival rate of an adult emperor penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life expectancy of 19.9 years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of 50 years. In contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their

3458:

The mystery of how penguins stay warm while they huddle has been revealed by an international team of scientists. ... Dr Zitterbart explained: "The colony would stay still for most of the time, but every 30–60 seconds one penguin or a group of penguin starts to move – just a little bit. "This

552:. At temperatures above 20 °C (68 °F), an emperor penguin may become agitated as its body temperature and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss. Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the exposure of its body surface to the air by 16%, facilitating further heat loss. 513:

As the species has no fixed nesting sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick, emperor penguins must rely on vocal sounds alone for identification. They use a complex set of calls that are critical to individual recognition between mates, parents and offspring, displaying

483:

in January and February. Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds, taking only around 34 days. Emperor penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a third of their total length, and before old feathers are lost, to help reduce heat loss. New feathers then

454:

Like all penguin species, emperor penguins have streamlined bodies to minimize drag while swimming, and wings that are more like stiff, flat flippers. The tongue is equipped with rear-facing barbs to prevent prey from escaping when caught. Males and females are similar in size and colouration. The

429:

that measures length between bill to tail, sometimes body length and standing height are confused, and some reported height even reaching 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall. There are still more than a few papers mentioning that they reach a standing height of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in)

785:

Another study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 2014 again concluded that emperor penguins are at risk from global warming, which is melting the sea ice. This study predicted that by 2100 all 45 colonies of emperor penguins will be declining in numbers, mostly due to loss of habitat.

526:

The emperor penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any bird species; air temperatures may reach −40 °C (−40 °F), and wind speeds may reach 144 km/h (89 mph). Water temperature is a frigid −1.8 °C (28.8 °F), which is much lower than the emperor penguin's average

315:

for just over two months by the male while the female returns to the sea to feed; parents subsequently take turns foraging at sea and caring for their chick in the colony. The lifespan of an emperor penguin is typically 20 years in the wild, although observations suggest that some individuals may

953:

Although Emperor penguins can breed at around three years of age, they generally do not begin breeding for another one to three years. The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter, in March and April, when all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas,

865:

Both male and female emperor penguins forage for food up to 500 km (310 mi) from colonies while collecting food to feed chicks, covering 82–1,454 km (51–903 mi) per individual per trip. A male returning to the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open

845:

in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; birds hunting together may coordinate their diving and surfacing. Individuals may be active day or night. A mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the breeding colony and ocean foraging areas; the species disperses into the oceans from

750:

region have been observed due to an increased death rate among adult birds, especially males, during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s, which resulted in reduced sea-ice coverage. On the other hand, egg hatching success rates declined when the sea-ice extent increased; chick

1093:, huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks. A crèche may consist of around a dozen, up to several thousand chicks densely packed together and is essential for surviving the low Antarctic temperatures. 962:

to find new Emperor penguin breeding sites in Antarctica, a discovery that increased the estimated population of the Emperor penguins by 5 to 10 percent to around 278,000 breeding pairs. Given their remote locations and harsh weather conditions, penguin populations are found by scanning aerial

873:

An efficient swimmer, the emperor penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes while swimming. The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth. Its average swimming speed is 6–9 km/h (3.7–5.6 mph). On land, the emperor penguin alternates between

459:

feathers, covering the head, chin, throat, back, dorsal part of the flippers, and tail. The black plumage is sharply delineated from the light-coloured plumage elsewhere. The underparts of the wings and belly are white, becoming pale yellow in the upper breast, while the ear patches are bright

1258:

in New Zealand. He had consumed 3 kg (6.6 lb) of sand, which he had apparently mistaken for snow, as well as sticks and stones, and had to undergo a number of operations to remove these to save his life. Following recovery, on 4 September, the juvenile, named "Happy Feet" (after the

827: 926:) mainly scavenges for dead chicks, as the live chicks are usually too large to be attacked by the time of its annual arrival in the colony. Occasionally, a parent may attempt to defend its chick from attack, although it may be more passive if the chick is weak or sickly. 547:

from 38.0 °C (100.4 °F) down to −47 °C (−53 °F). Movement by swimming, walking, and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism; a fourth process involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes, which is induced by the hormone

987:

and female then stand face to face, with one extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it; they both hold this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples waddle around the colony together, with the female usually following the male. Before

1233:

in 2010. Since then it has been kept and bred at a few other facilities in China, and the only confirmed twin emperor penguins (the species normally lays just one egg) hatched at Sun Asia Ocean World in Dalian in 2017. In Japan, the species is housed at

1081:

stored in her stomach. The male is often reluctant to surrender the chick he has been caring for all winter to its mother, but he soon leaves to take his turn at sea, spending 3 to 4 weeks feeding there before returning. The parents then take turns, one

497: 710:

in 1910–11; it was reduced to a few hundred birds, and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf. By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically, but by 2009 was again reduced to a small population of around 300.

743:, and disturbance at breeding colonies by humans. Of particular concern is the impact of tourism. One study concluded that emperor penguin chicks in a crèche become more apprehensive following a helicopter approach to 1,000 m (3,300 ft). 264:

and size, reaching 100 cm (39 in) in length and weighing from 22 to 45 kg (49 to 99 lb). Feathers of the head and back are black and sharply delineated from the white belly, pale-yellow breast and bright-yellow ear patches.

1348:(2007) features a surfing emperor penguin named Zeke "Big-Z" Topanga. More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps – Australia, Great Britain, Chile and France have each issued several. It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 4266: 877:

As a defence against the cold, a colony of emperor penguins forms a compact huddle (also known as the turtle formation) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds, with each bird leaning forward on a neighbour. As the

777:

could push the emperor penguin to the brink of extinction by the year 2100. The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at

659:

In 2009, the total population of emperor penguins was estimated to be at around 595,000 adult birds, in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic; around 35% of the known population lives north of the

571:

In addition to the cold, the emperor penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives—markedly increased pressure of up to 40 times that of the surface, which in most other terrestrial organisms would cause

531:

fat which may be up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick before breeding. While the density of contour feathers is approximately 9 per square centimetre (58 per square inch), a combination of dense afterfeathers and

579:

While diving, the emperor penguin's oxygen use is markedly reduced, as its heart rate is reduced to as low as 15–20 beats per minute and non-essential organs are shut down, thus facilitating longer dives. Its

826: 1167:) swimming against the bottom surface of the sea-ice; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish. It then dives again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to 1279:, the Antarctic explorer, wrote in 1922: "Take it all in all, I do not believe anybody on Earth has a worse time than an emperor penguin". Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005, the French documentary 1207:

made early attempts at keeping penguins, capturing several from Antarctica. He successfully transferred penguins to the National Zoological Park on March 5, 1940, where they lived for up to 6 years.

292:. While hunting, the species can remain submerged around 20 minutes, diving to a depth of 535 m (1,755 ft). It has several adaptations to facilitate this, including an unusually structured 1267:. However, 8 days later scientists lost contact with the bird, suggesting that the transmitter had fallen off (considered likely) or that he had been eaten by a predator (considered less likely). 800:

In 2023, another study found that more than 90% of emperor penguin colonies could face "quasi-extinction" from "catastrophic breeding failure" due to the loss of sea ice caused by climate change.

3846:

Robin, Jean-Patrice; Boucontet, Laurent; Chillet, Pascal; Groscolas, René (1998). "Behavioral changes in fasting emperor penguins: evidence for a "refeeding signal" linked to a metabolic shift".

1210:

Until the 1960s, keeping attempts were largely unsuccessful, as knowledge of penguin keeping in general was limited and acquired by trial and error. The first to achieve a level of success was

500: 504: 503: 499: 498: 505: 356:

and officially named five other penguin species. Forster may have been the first person to see emperor penguins in 1773–74, when he recorded a sighting of what he believed was the similar

4274: 527:

body temperature of 39 °C (102 °F). The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat loss. Dense feathers provide 80–90% of its insulation and it has a layer of sub-

1041:, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth. The chick usually hatches before the mother's return, and the father feeds it a 588:

are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations; this allows the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in loss of consciousness.

451:

of the breeding season is 38 kg (84 lb) and that of females is 29.5 kg (65 lb). After the breeding season this drops to 23 kg (51 lb) for both sexes.

4252: 1806: 3910: 3820: 1444: 1214:

where a chilled house was built especially for this Antarctic species. One individual lived for 20 years at the zoo and a chick was hatched there, but died shortly after.

1155:, in either ice-free areas of open water or tidal cracks in pack ice. One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around 50 m (160 ft), where it can easily spot 502: 688:. Colonies are known to fluctuate over time, often breaking into "suburbs" which move apart from the parent group, and some have been known to disappear entirely. The 5392: 2677: 2052: 5570: 782:, Antarctica. The study forecasted an 87% decline in the colony's population, from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to four hundred breeding pairs in 2100. 739:

and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations. Other reasons for the species's placement on the Endangered Species Act's list include disease,

5431: 1378:, aka "The Penguin", styles himself after an emperor penguin, a fact which is often referenced in stories, e.g., in his occasional alias "Forster Aptenodytes." 3165:

Ancel A, Kooyman GL, Ponganis PJ, Gendner JP, Lignon J, Mestre X (1992). "Foraging behaviour of Emperor Penguins as a resource detector in Winter and Summer".

425:

Adult emperor penguins are 110–120 cm (43–47 in) in length, averaging 115 cm (45 in) according to Stonehouse (1975). Due to the method of

653: 48: 1022:

the weight of an emperor penguin egg is shell; like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick, which helps minimize risk of breakage.

3259: 2312: 1936: 2331: 918:) are the predominant land predator of chicks, responsible for over one-third of chick deaths in some colonies; they also scavenge dead penguins. The 5595: 460:

yellow. The upper mandible of the 8 cm (3.1 in) long bill is black, and the lower mandible can be pink, orange or lilac. In juveniles, the

5366: 4639: 1358: 1204: 5405: 3712:

Robin, J. P.; M. Frain; C. Sardet; R. Groscolas; Y. Le Maho (1988). "Protein and lipid utilization during long-term fasting in emperor penguins".

501: 4357: 1217:

Today, the species is kept at just a few zoos and public aquariums in North America and Asia. Emperor penguins were first successfully bred at

4670: 3395:

Pinshow B.; Fedak M.A.; Battles D.R; Schmidt-Nielsen K. (1976). "Energy expenditure for thermoregulation and locomotion in emperor penguins".

929:

The only known predators thought to attack healthy adults, and which attack emperor penguins in the water, are both mammals. The first is the

268:

Like all species of penguin, the emperor is flightless, with a streamlined body, and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine

5477: 4804: 4505: 3570:

Groscolas, R; Jallageas, M; Goldsmith, A; Assenmacher, I (1986). "The endocrine control of reproduction and molt in male and female Emperor (

3379: 3000: 1793: 1541: 770: 1810: 1225:, 55 individuals were counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in 1999. In China, the emperor penguin was first bred at 808: 307:

The only penguin species that breeds during the Antarctic winter, emperor penguins trek 50–120 km (31–75 mi) over the ice to

4882: 2842:"First Recorded Loss of an Emperor Penguin Colony in the Recent Period of Antarctic Regional Warming: Implications for Other Colonies" 565: 435: 4114:

Behle, William H.; Storer, Robert W.; Whitney, Nathaniel R.; Manville, Richard H.; Orr, Robert T.; Hertlein, Leo G. (October 1971).

649: 2155: 3824: 5590: 5529: 3882: 1452: 5353: 4466: 4548: 4495: 1235: 5410: 4820: 4185: 1846: 1986: 464:

patches, chin and throat are white, while its bill is black. Emperor penguin chicks are typically covered with silver-grey

1375: 1311: 1289:, told the story of the penguins' reproductive cycle. The subject has been covered for the small screen five times by the 1113:, although its composition varies from population to population. Fish are usually the most important food source, and the 4413: 2681: 1619:"New fossil penguins (Aves, Sphenisciformes) from the Oligocene of New Zealand reveal the skeletal plan of stem penguins" 479:

The emperor penguin's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February (the Antarctic summer), before the yearly

5585: 1264: 446:. The weight also varies by season, as both male and female penguins lose substantial mass while raising hatchlings and 393:, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus 1037:

Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg is thick. Newly hatched chicks are

596: 468:

and have black heads and white masks. A chick with all-white plumage was seen in 2001, but was not considered to be an

5278: 5203: 5110: 5105: 2557:

Fretwell PT; LaRue MA; Morin P; Kooyman GL; B Wienecke; N Ratcliffe; AJ Fox; AH Fleming; C Porter; PN Trathan (2012).

834:

A group of emperor penguins synchronously diving from the edge of some ice in Antarctica; video from Watanabe et al.,

353: 101: 1323: 3027: 5436: 4839: 736: 576:. The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air-filled, which eliminates the risk of mechanical barotrauma. 3223:

Wienecke, B.; Robertson, G.; Kirkwood, R.; Lawton, K. (2007). "Extreme dives by free-ranging emperor penguins".

5221: 5181: 3926:"Behavioral changes in fasting emperor penguins: evidence for a 'refeeding signal' linked to a metabolic shift" 3105: 2502: 2241:

Kooyman GL, Gentry RL, Bergman WP, Hammel HT (1976). "Heat loss in penguins during immersion and compression".

2099: 1867: 1226: 955: 735:. The primary causes for an increased risk of species endangerment are declining food availability, due to the 728: 434:. (2012) measured standing height of 81–94 cm (32–37 in) according to 11 complete skins collected in 3267: 2316: 1944: 902: 5006: 4439: 2339: 1903: 1364: 1239: 891: 835: 488:

first year of life. Therefore, 80% of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older.

345: 341: 1263:), was fitted with a tracking device and released into the Southern Ocean 80 km (50 mi) north of 991:, one bird bows deeply to its mate, its bill pointed close to the ground, and its mate then does the same. 754: 731:. Along with nine other species of penguin, it is currently under consideration for inclusion under the US 5252: 5143: 4875: 4444: 3925: 3904: 3322:

Kooyman GL, Ponganis PJ, Castellini MA, Ponganis EP, Ponganis KV, Thorson PH, Eckert SA, LeMaho Y (1992).

2182:"Hidden keys to survival: the type, density, pattern and functional role of emperor penguin body feathers" 732: 31: 4647: 1275:

The species' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has been described in print and visual media.

5503: 5283: 5100: 4491: 4246: 3504:

Kooyman GL, Croll DA, Stone S, Smith S (1990). "Emperor penguin colony at Cape Washington, Antarctica".

1285: 1276: 975: 911: 774: 704: 398: 196: 4701: 1421: 4854: 4831: 4365: 2942:"Demographic models and IPCC climate projections predict the decline of an emperor penguin population" 1121:) makes up the bulk of the bird's diet. Other prey commonly recorded include other fish of the family 222: 5580: 5534: 5456: 5327: 5234: 5190: 4035: 3988: 3515: 3174: 3065: 2953: 2912: 2853: 2798: 2716: 2643: 2570: 2440: 2401: 1740: 1630: 1528:

Jouventin P (1982). "Visual and vocal signals in penguins, their evolution and adaptive characters".

1139: 1114: 988: 697: 514:

the widest variation in individual calls of all penguin species. Vocalizing emperor penguins use two

3459:

makes the surrounding ones move – and all of a sudden this moves throughout the colony like a wave."

1618: 5063: 4678: 2559:"An Emperor Penguin Population Estimate: The First Global, Synoptic Survey of a Species from Space" 1729:"Drag reduction by air release promotes fast ascent in jumping emperor penguins—a novel hypothesis" 1344: 1299: 1090: 740: 618: 609: 605: 604:

The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the

469: 382: 325: 66: 5521: 5265: 5028: 4135: 4051: 4004: 3531: 3420: 3240: 3190: 3132: 3083: 2822: 2771: 2732: 2659: 1709: 1654: 1567:"Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling" 1498: 1353: 1294: 1218: 1193: 797:

in West Antarctica was discovered by satellite imaging, bringing the total known colonies to 66.

518:

simultaneously. Chicks use a frequency-modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents.

401:; in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. 329: 212: 96: 5508: 472:

as it did not have pink eyes. Chicks weigh around 315 g (11.1 oz) after hatching, and

438:. The weight ranges from 22.7 to 45.4 kg (50 to 100 lb) and varies by sex, with males 5397: 2046:

Mougin JL, van Beveren M (1979). "Structure et dynamique de la population de manchots empereur

5575: 5490: 5423: 5301: 5090: 5038: 4974: 4969: 4868: 4800: 4501: 4093: 3945: 3863: 3770: 3729: 3595: 3412: 3375: 3348: 2981: 2881: 2814: 2598: 2468: 2258: 2211: 1789: 1768: 1701: 1693: 1646: 1596: 1547: 1537: 1189: 983: 959: 439: 402: 371:

Together with the king penguin, the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus

253: 5195: 4330: 3578:) Penguins. I. Annual changes in plasma levels of gonadal steroids and luteinizing hormone". 2940:

Jenouvrier, S.; Caswell, H.; Barbraud, C.; Holland, M.; Str Ve, J.; Weimerskirch, H. (2009).

311:

which can contain up to several thousand individuals. The female lays a single egg, which is

5495: 5208: 5125: 5120: 5033: 4905: 4771: 4522: 4234: 4127: 4085: 4043: 3996: 3937: 3855: 3805:

Prévost J, Vilter V (1963). "Histologie de la sécrétion oesophagienne du Manchot empereur".

3760: 3721: 3587: 3523: 3404: 3338: 3302: 3291:"Upstroke thrust, drag effects, and stroke-glide cycles in wing-propelled swimming by birds" 3232: 3182: 3124: 3073: 3054:"Record low 2022 Antarctic sea ice led to catastrophic breeding failure of emperor penguins" 2971: 2961: 2920: 2871: 2861: 2806: 2763: 2724: 2651: 2588: 2578: 2458: 2448: 2409: 2250: 2201: 2193: 1758: 1748: 1685: 1638: 1586: 1578: 1490: 1481:

Wienecke, B. (2009). "The history of the discovery of emperor penguin colonies, 1902–2004".

1416: 1222: 1199:

Since the 1930s, there have been several attempts at keeping emperor penguins in captivity.

1072: 1027: 945:), mostly take adult birds, although they will attack penguins of any age in or near water. 919: 817: 661: 645: 544: 540: 456: 447: 426: 57: 5257: 1001: 417: 5464: 5080: 5068: 5043: 4901: 3442: 3438: 1305: 1144: 995: 724: 665: 560: 442:

females. It is the fifth heaviest living bird species, after only the larger varieties of

81: 4478: 4160: 1398: 779: 4070: 4039: 3992: 3614: 3519: 3178: 3069: 2957: 2916: 2857: 2802: 2720: 2647: 2574: 2444: 2405: 1744: 1634: 5446: 5095: 5018: 5000: 4979: 4238: 2976: 2941: 2876: 2841: 2593: 2558: 2463: 2428: 2206: 2181: 1591: 1566: 1338: 1152: 859: 813: 794: 747: 685: 669: 622: 515: 312: 308: 5547: 5270: 3323: 2254: 5564: 5418: 5115: 3765: 3748: 3591: 3535: 3408: 3368: 3087: 2826: 2707:) to encounters with ecotourists while commuting to and from their breeding colony". 1502: 1407: 1349: 1317: 1200: 1160: 1126: 1122: 1006: 855: 842: 720: 673: 626: 337: 86: 4297: 4055: 4008: 3941: 3888: 3859: 3424: 1713: 1658: 1617:

Ksepka, Daniel T.; Fordyce, R. Ewan; Ando, Tatsuro; Jones, Craig M. (1 March 2012).

1184: 4943: 4826: 3725: 3506: 3194: 2775: 2736: 2663: 2385: 1134: 1038: 970: 930: 896: 689: 681: 630: 614: 533: 465: 357: 5358: 5306: 5293: 4556: 3924:

Robin, Jean-Patrice; Boucontet, Laurent; Chillet, Pascal; Groscolas, René (1998).

3244: 1674:"Energy saving processes in huddling emperor penguins: from experiments to theory" 1672:

Gilbert, Caroline; Blanc, Stéphane; Le Maho, Yvon; Ancel, André (1 January 2008).

967:. The new discoveries increased the number of known breeding sites from 50 to 61. 862:

reached a depth of 564 m (1,850 ft); the entire dive took him 21.8 min.

4192: 2866: 2583: 2453: 1642: 5516: 5379: 5175: 4933: 4728: 1994: 1211: 1069:, spending time balanced on its parent's feet and kept warm by the brood patch. 1031: 854:

revealed a small female had dived to a depth of 535 m (1,755 ft) near

648:, near the northern tip of the Peninsula. Individual vagrants have been seen on 581: 406: 373: 173: 17: 4387: 3078: 3053: 5542: 5054: 4959: 4775: 3527: 3236: 2925: 2900: 2728: 1494: 1332: 1260: 1255: 1110: 1106: 1054: 879: 850: 763: 677: 573: 349: 301: 297: 293: 285: 277: 257: 5166: 2789:

Barbraud, C.; Weimerskirch H. (2001). "Emperor penguins and climate change".

2486:

Downes MC, Ealey EH, Gwynn AM, Young PS (1959). "The Birds of Heard Island".

1772: 1697: 1650: 1321:

in 2011 and a one-hour programme dedicated to the species in the 2018 series

963:

imagery and locating enormous pages of ice that have been stained with their

5340: 4990: 4089: 2966: 2840:

Trathan, P. N.; Fretwell, P. T.; Stonehouse, B. (2011). Briffa, Mark (ed.).

2503:"Eighth record of the Emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri at South Georgia" 1371: 1251: 1082: 1062: 1058: 994:

Contrary to popular belief, Emperor penguins do not mate for life; they are

634: 585: 409:

DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago.

113: 4097: 3307: 3290: 2985: 2885: 2818: 2602: 2472: 2215: 2197: 1705: 1600: 1582: 1551: 937:), which takes adult birds and fledglings soon after they enter the water. 4047: 3949: 3867: 3733: 3599: 3352: 3343: 2767: 1871: 5469: 5160: 3774: 3619: 3416: 1156: 1018: 693: 549: 390: 133: 5244: 4298:"Management of penguin populations in North American zoos and aquariums" 1673: 5371: 5229: 4923: 4891: 4217:

Todd, FS (1986). "Techniques for propagating King and Emperor penguins

4139: 4115: 4000: 3749:"Thermoregulation in fasting emperor penguins under natural conditions" 3136: 2262: 2111: 1689: 1368:

is a 2004 non-fiction children's picture book by Brenda Z. Guiberson.

1046: 867: 638: 364:) but given the location, may very well have been the emperor penguin ( 269: 261: 249: 163: 153: 3324:"Heart rates and swim speeds of emperor penguins diving under sea ice" 2427:

Fretwell, P. T.; Trathan, P. N.; Wienecke, B.; Kooyman, G. L. (2014).

2413: 1763: 1753: 1728: 641:, in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late. 5216: 3975:

Pütz, K.; Plötz, J. (1991). "Moulting starvation in emperor penguin (

3186: 2901:"Emperors on thin ice: Three years of breeding failure at Halley Bay" 2810: 2655: 1230: 1168: 528: 473: 443: 378: 123: 5384: 5319: 5137: 4131: 3128: 2535:

Croxall JP, Prince PA (1983). "Antarctic Penguins and Albatrosses".

296:

to allow it to function at low oxygen levels, solid bones to reduce

5345: 4069:

Ponganis PJ, Van Dam RP, Marshall G, Knower T, Levenson DH (2003).

1250:

In June 2011, a juvenile emperor penguin was found on the beach at

910:

The emperor penguin's predators include birds and aquatic mammals.

5314: 4915: 3615:"Climate change: Satellites find new colonies of Emperor penguins" 2156:"Emperor penguins' feathers defy conventional wisdom, study finds" 1183: 1151:). The emperor penguin searches for prey in the open water of the 1071: 1050: 1000: 969: 964: 901: 890: 822: 807: 787: 753: 595: 559: 480: 416: 333: 289: 281: 5332: 1221:; more than 20 birds have hatched there since 1980. Considered a 5482: 2390:

at Auster and Taylor Glacier colonies, Mawson Coast, Antarctica"

1900:

Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Vol. 1A

1727:

Davenport, J; Hughes, RN; Shorten, M; Larsen, PS (26 May 2011).

1042: 938: 836:"Activity Time Budget during Foraging Trips of Emperor Penguins" 273: 143: 5141: 4864: 4753: 3807:

Proceedings of the XIII International Ornithological Conference

2703:

Burger J.; Gochfeld M. (2007). "Responses of Emperor Penguins (

2050:

de la colonie de l'archipel de Pointe Géologie, Terre Adélie".

1352:

stamp as part of an Antarctic expedition series. Canadian band

4834:

including 3D computed tomographic (CT) animations of skeletons

1392: 1390: 1290: 719:

In 2012, the emperor penguin was downgraded from a species of

461: 3028:"Hidden, never-before-seen penguin colony spotted from space" 1297:: first in episode five of the 1993 series on the Antarctic 4860: 2634:

Stonehouse, B. (1964). "Emperor Penguins at Cape Crozier".

1017:

The female penguin lays one 460–470 g (16–17 oz)

2750:

Giese M, Riddle M (1997). "Disturbance of emperor penguin

2386:"Population size and breeding success of Emperor Penguins 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 340:

word elements, ἀ-πτηνο-δύτης , "without-wings-diver". Its

4578:

Presenter – David Attenborough (1993). "The Big Freeze".

3443:"Penguin huddle secrets revealed with time lapse footage" 3052:

Fretwell, Peter; Boutet, Aude; Ratcliffe, Norman (2023).

3001:"Emperor penguins at risk of extinction, scientists warn" 1356:

composed the song "Emperor Penguin" for their 1998 album

633:. Since 2009, a number of colonies have been reported on 4022:

Cherel Y, Kooyman GL (1998). "Food of emperor penguins (

2899:

Fretwell, Peter T.; Trathan, Philip N. (25 April 2019).

1915: 1913: 1868:"Emperor Penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri at MarineBio.org" 3936:(Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 43): R746–R753. 3854:(Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 43): R746–R753. 4593:

Presenter – David Attenborough (2001). "Frozen Seas".

2367:

Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey Scientific Report

600:

Emperor penguin jumping out of the water in Antarctica

4608:

Presenter – David Attenborough (2006). "Ice Worlds".

3104:

Kooyman GL, Drabek CM, Elsner R, Campbell WB (1971).

484:

push out the old ones before finishing their growth.

3887:. David Attenborough (narrator). BBC. Archived from 1105:

The emperor penguin's diet consists mainly of fish,

5150: 5078: 5052: 5016: 4988: 4957: 4931: 4913: 2332:"Penguins Safely Lower Oxygen to "Blackout" Levels" 1937:""Penguin Ranch" Reveals Hunting, Swimming Secrets" 1788:by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), 1565:Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA (2006). 1089:About 45–50 days after hatching, the chicks form a 870:, around 100 km (62 mi) from the colony. 696:shrank drastically between the first visits by the 509:

Emperor penguins and chick vocalizing in Antarctica

3367: 1422:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22697752A157658053.en 30:This article is about the bird. For the band, see 4623:Presenter – David Attenborough (2011). "Winter". 4549:"La Marche de l'empereur, un film de Luc Jacquet" 4251:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 3260:"Emperor Penguins: Uniquely Armed for Antarctica" 2313:"Emperor Penguins: Uniquely Armed for Antarctica" 1283:, which was also released with the English title 389:)—has been found in fossil records from the late 4671:"Behind the Scenes of the New Movie "Surf's Up"" 1987:"Scientists find rare all-white emperor penguin" 1451:. Trustees of the British Museum. Archived from 790:, which is a primary food for emperor penguins. 4479:Concern mounts for 'missing' penguin Happy Feet 4071:"Sub-ice foraging behavior of emperor penguins" 3909:: CS1 maint: others in cite AV media (notes) ( 3747:Le Maho, Y.; P. Delclitte; J Chatonnet (1976). 3499: 3497: 2946:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2680:. Birdlife International (2012). Archived from 1242:, with successful hatching at Adventure World. 4908:: Spheniscidae · subfamily: Spheniscinae) 4770:#257, 1974 - story "Hail Emperor Penguin!" by 4640:""Happy Feet": Movie Magic vs. Penguin Truths" 2104:Penguins: Application of the Two-voice Theory" 1445:"King penguin: The Forsters, King and Emperor" 27:Large flightless seabird endemic to Antarctica 4876: 2629: 2627: 2488:Australian National Antarctic Research Report 2365:Gray I. Breeding behaviour and development". 2180:Cassondra WL, Hagelin JC, Kooyman GL (2015). 2041: 2039: 304:and shut down non-essential organ functions. 8: 4799:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 3714:Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol 1229:in 2009, followed by Laohutan Ocean Park in 248:) is the tallest and heaviest of all living 4855:Emperor penguin videos, photos & sounds 4388:"World's first twin penguins born in China" 3370:The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats 2552: 2550: 2361:Stonehouse, B (1953). "The Emperor Penguin 1809:. .canada.com. 19 June 1910. Archived from 644:The northernmost breeding population is on 476:when they reach about 50% of adult weight. 5138: 4883: 4869: 4861: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3481: 3479: 3206: 3204: 3160: 3158: 2014: 2012: 1993:. Cyber Diver News Network. Archived from 1845:University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. 1476: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1246:Penguin rescue, rehabilitation and release 664:. Major breeding colonies were located at 221: 75: 47: 38: 4440:"Happy Feet's trek a boon for scientists" 4331:"First emperor penguin egg laid in China" 3788: 3786: 3784: 3764: 3342: 3306: 3106:"Diving behaviour of the Emperor Penguin 3099: 3097: 3077: 2975: 2965: 2924: 2875: 2865: 2592: 2582: 2462: 2452: 2429:"Emperor Penguins Breeding on Iceshelves" 2205: 2081: 2079: 2053:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 1893: 1891: 1889: 1762: 1752: 1590: 1420: 4026:) in the western Ross Sea, Antarctica". 3962: 3792: 3699: 3687: 3675: 3663: 3651: 3557: 3470: 3210: 3149: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2228: 2141: 2129: 2085: 2070: 2030: 2018: 1972: 1919: 1515: 495: 4467:New Zealand releases penguin Happy Feet 4109: 4107: 2243:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 1930: 1928: 1386: 906:Giant petrel and emperor penguin chicks 703:in 1902–03 and the later visits by the 4780:The Greatest Batman Stories Ever Told, 4523:"Penguin secrets captivate US viewers" 4296:Diebold EN, Branch S, Henry L (1999). 4244: 3902: 3058:Communications Earth & Environment 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1097:the rest of the summer feeding there. 1053:, which is produced by a gland in his 762:Beginning in September 2015, a strong 556:Adaptations to pressure and low oxygen 344:is in honour of the German naturalist 5571:IUCN Red List near threatened species 4677:. National Geographic. Archived from 4646:. National Geographic. Archived from 4500:. Carroll & Graf. pp. xvii. 4358:"China hatches first emperor penguin" 3266:. National Geographic. Archived from 2338:. National Geographic. Archived from 2315:. National Geographic. Archived from 1943:. National Geographic. Archived from 260:. The male and female are similar in 7: 5457:4144b337-c80d-4d1f-8974-ea3be8dee564 4469:. Associated Press, 5 September 2011 2999:Goldenberg, Suzanne (30 June 2014). 2618:Attenborough's Natural Curiosities 2 1612: 1610: 771:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 4823:with citations for specific studies 4191:. Aalborg Zoo. 2010. Archived from 4161:"Record Unit 74 Records, 1887-1966" 1408:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 656:, and occasionally in New Zealand. 4529:. British Broadcasting Corporation 4414:"Penguin chick makes public debut" 4239:10.1111/j.1748-1090.1986.tb02208.x 2186:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 1623:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 793:In December 2022, a new colony at 786:Loss of ice reduces the supply of 769:In January 2009, a study from the 746:Population declines of 50% in the 566:American Museum of Natural History 436:American Museum of Natural History 25: 4832:Morphology of the emperor penguin 3026:Metcalfe, Tom (20 January 2023). 3007:. Guardian News and Media Limited 1786:CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses 316:live as long as 50 years of age. 272:. Its diet consists primarily of 5596:Taxa named by George Robert Gray 4821:University of Michigan info site 4273:. SeaWorld. 2008. Archived from 4165:Smithsonian Institution Archives 3766:10.1152/ajplegacy.1976.231.3.913 3613:Amos, Jonathon (5 August 2020). 3409:10.1152/ajplegacy.1976.231.3.903 2678:"Recently recategorised species" 1898:Marchant, S; Higgins PJ (1990). 1309:, once again in the 2006 series 1045:-like substance composed of 59% 300:, and the ability to reduce its 100: 4857:on the Internet Bird Collection 4827:Photographs of Emperor penguins 4186:"75 år med dyrebare oplevelser" 4078:Journal of Experimental Biology 3942:10.1152/ajpregu.1998.274.3.R746 3860:10.1152/ajpregu.1998.274.3.R746 3331:Journal of Experimental Biology 1870:. Marinebio.org. Archived from 1678:Journal of Experimental Biology 1397:BirdLife International (2020). 1076:Emperor penguin feeding a chick 539:The emperor penguin is able to 4638:Lovgren S (16 November 2006). 4497:The Worst Journey in the World 4356:Tong, Xiong (19 August 2010). 3726:10.1152/ajpregu.1988.254.1.R61 3397:American Journal of Physiology 2620:. Vol. Life on Ice. UKTV. 1733:Marine Ecology Progress Series 1236:Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium 1009:of the emperor penguin. It is 895:Emperor penguin attacked by a 1: 4241:(inactive 25 September 2024). 2255:10.1016/S0300-9629(76)80074-6 1376:Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot 328:in 1844 by English zoologist 232:(breeding colonies in green) 5009:(or northern little penguin) 3592:10.1016/0016-6480(86)90092-4 3488:Ecologie du manchot empereur 2867:10.1371/journal.pone.0014738 2584:10.1371/journal.pone.0033751 2454:10.1371/journal.pone.0085285 2330:Norris S (7 December 2007). 1643:10.1080/02724634.2012.652051 1336:(2006, followed by a sequel 381:evidence of a third species— 5111:Northern rockhopper penguin 5106:Southern rockhopper penguin 4675:National Geographic website 4644:National Geographic website 4627:. Season 1. Episode 5. BBC. 4612:. Season 1. Episode 6. BBC. 4597:. Season 1. Episode 4. BBC. 4582:. Season 1. Episode 5. BBC. 4555:(in French). Archived from 3264:National Geographic website 2616:David Attenborough (2014). 2336:National Geographic website 1941:National Geographic website 1303:, again in the 2001 series 1057:. This ability to produce " 629:, and most recently one at 5612: 4795:Williams, Tony D. (1995). 4729:"Bird stamps from Belgium" 4521:Bowes P (19 August 2005). 4227:International Zoo Yearbook 4225:at Sea World, San Diego". 3821:"ScienceAlert 19 SEP 2011" 3079:10.1038/s43247-023-00927-x 2154:Khan A (20 October 2015). 1935:Owen J (30 January 2004). 1192:and an emperor penguin at 348:, who accompanied Captain 29: 4904:: Sphenisciformes · 4898: 4481:, BBC, 12 September 2011. 4271:SeaWorld official website 4267:"Animal Bytes – Penguins" 3528:10.1017/S0032247400011141 3374:. Guinness Superlatives. 3237:10.1007/s00300-006-0168-8 2926:10.1017/S0954102019000099 2729:10.1007/s00300-007-0291-1 1985:CDNN (8 September 2001). 1495:10.1017/S0032247409990283 1415:: e.T22697752A157658053. 841:The emperor penguin is a 758:Halley Bay Colony in 1999 737:effects of climate change 229: 220: 202: 195: 97:Scientific classification 95: 73: 64: 55: 46: 41: 5003:(or little blue penguin) 4494:(1922). "introduction". 3258:Hile J (29 March 2004). 2754:chicks by helicopters". 1227:Nanjing Underwater World 1205:National Zoological Park 1175:Relationship with humans 1165:Pagothenia borchgrevinki 1131:Psychroteuthis glacialis 1119:Pleuragramma antarcticum 956:British Antarctic Survey 924:Stercorarius maccormicki 592:Distribution and habitat 564:Mounted skeleton at the 5591:Birds described in 1844 5007:White-flippered penguin 4963:(brush-tailed penguins) 4755:The Emperor Lays an Egg 4702:"Penguins Spheniscidae" 4090:10.1242/jeb.203.21.3275 3289:Lovvorn, J. R. (2001). 2967:10.1073/pnas.0806638106 1904:Oxford University Press 1374:' crime boss character 1365:The Emperor Lays an Egg 1281:La Marche de l'empereur 621:, one on a headland at 346:Johann Reinhold Forster 56:Adults with a chick on 4445:Television New Zealand 4219:Aptenodytes patagonica 2198:10.1098/rspb.2015.2033 1847:"Aptenodytes forsteri" 1583:10.1098/rspb.2005.3260 1196: 1077: 1065:in what is called the 1014: 1013:cm and avocado-shaped. 979: 978:of the emperor penguin 949:Courtship and breeding 912:Southern giant petrels 907: 899: 838: 820: 759: 733:Endangered Species Act 601: 568: 510: 422: 324:Emperor penguins were 230:Emperor penguin range 60:, Antarctic Peninsula 32:Emperor Penguin (band) 5504:Paleobiology Database 5101:Erect-crested penguin 4733:Theme Birds on Stamps 4706:Theme Birds on Stamps 4048:10.1007/s002270050253 3809:(in French): 1085–94. 3580:Gen. Comp. Endocrinol 3366:Wood, Gerald (1983). 3344:10.1242/jeb.165.1.161 2768:10.1007/s003000050430 2384:Robertson, G (1992). 1286:March of the Penguins 1277:Apsley Cherry-Garrard 1187: 1180:In zoos and aquariums 1075: 1004: 973: 916:Macronectes giganteus 905: 894: 833: 811: 775:global climate change 757: 599: 563: 508: 455:adult has deep black 420: 5548:Aptenodytes-forsteri 5222:aptenodytes-forsteri 5209:Aptenodytes_forsteri 5196:Aptenodytes_forsteri 5182:Aptenodytes forsteri 5152:Aptenodytes forsteri 4727:Scharning K (2008). 4700:Scharning K (2008). 4024:Aptenodytes forsteri 3977:Aptenodytes forsteri 3572:Aptenodytes forsteri 3308:10.1093/icb/41.2.154 3108:Aptenodytes forsteri 2752:Aptenodytes forsteri 2705:Aptenodytes forsteri 2388:Aptenodytes forsteri 2363:Aptenodytes forsteri 2048:Aptenodytes forsteri 1530:Advances in Ethology 1401:Aptenodytes forsteri 1140:Kondakovia longimana 1115:Antarctic silverfish 1030:the egg against his 276:, but also includes 245:Aptenodytes forsteri 206:Aptenodytes forsteri 5586:Birds of Antarctica 5064:Yellow-eyed penguin 4580:Life in the Freezer 4198:on 13 February 2018 4040:1998MarBi.130..335C 3993:1991PoBio..11..253P 3884:Life in the Freezer 3720:(1 Pt 2): R61–R68. 3520:1990PoRec..26..103K 3486:Prévost, J (1961). 3179:1992Natur.360..336A 3070:2023ComEE...4..273F 2958:2009PNAS..106.1844J 2917:2019AntSc..31..133F 2858:2011PLoSO...614738T 2803:2001Natur.411..183B 2721:2007PoBio..30.1303B 2648:1964Natur.203..849S 2575:2012PLoSO...733751F 2501:Clark, G S (1986). 2445:2014PLoSO...985285F 2406:1992EmuAO..92...65R 2231:, pp. 107–108. 2192:(1817): 2015–2033. 2098:Robisson P (1992). 1947:on 11 November 2007 1745:2011MEPS..430..171D 1635:2012JVPal..32..235K 1330:The animated movie 1300:Life in the Freezer 1271:Cultural references 996:serially monogamous 982:The penguins start 812:An emperor penguin 741:habitat destruction 715:Conservation status 619:Antarctic Peninsula 522:Adaptations to cold 67:Conservation status 5266:BirdLife-Australia 5084:(crested penguins) 5029:Magellanic penguin 4842:. Photo Volcaniaca 4669:Lovgren S (2007). 4650:on 8 December 2006 4448:. 6 September 2011 4368:on 9 November 2015 4337:. 11 February 2009 4305:Marine Ornithology 4001:10.1007/BF00238459 3576:Pygoscelis adeliae 3295:American Zoologist 2490:. Series B1: 1–35. 2342:on 8 December 2007 2100:"Vocalizations in 1997:on 7 November 2012 1690:10.1242/jeb.005785 1449:Explore/Highlights 1354:The Tragically Hip 1295:David Attenborough 1219:SeaWorld San Diego 1197: 1194:SeaWorld San Diego 1078: 1015: 980: 908: 900: 846:January to March. 839: 821: 760: 602: 569: 511: 440:weighing more than 423: 421:Adults with chicks 332:, who created the 330:George Robert Gray 5558: 5557: 5491:Open Tree of Life 5144:Taxon identifiers 5135: 5134: 5091:Fiordland penguin 5039:Galapagos penguin 5022:(banded penguins) 4994:(little penguins) 4975:Chinstrap penguin 4840:"Emperor Penguin" 4806:978-0-19-854667-2 4507:978-0-88184-478-8 4492:Cherry-Garrard, A 4420:. 2 November 2011 4394:. 4 November 2017 3891:on 24 August 2018 3490:. Paris: Hermann. 3381:978-0-85112-235-9 2905:Antarctic Science 2797:(6834): 183–186. 2715:(10): 1303–1313. 2684:on 28 August 2007 2642:(4947): 849–851. 2414:10.1071/MU9920065 2160:Los Angeles Times 1794:978-0-8493-4258-5 1754:10.3354/meps08868 1543:978-3-48-961436-4 1149:Euphausia superba 960:satellite imagery 935:Hydrurga leptonyx 831: 506: 309:breeding colonies 236: 235: 90: 16:(Redirected from 5603: 5551: 5550: 5538: 5537: 5525: 5524: 5512: 5511: 5499: 5498: 5486: 5485: 5473: 5472: 5460: 5459: 5450: 5449: 5440: 5439: 5427: 5426: 5414: 5413: 5401: 5400: 5388: 5387: 5375: 5374: 5362: 5361: 5349: 5348: 5336: 5335: 5323: 5322: 5310: 5309: 5297: 5296: 5287: 5286: 5274: 5273: 5261: 5260: 5248: 5247: 5238: 5237: 5235:58848B7175EB4B3C 5225: 5224: 5212: 5211: 5199: 5198: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5171: 5170: 5169: 5139: 5121:Macaroni penguin 5034:Humboldt penguin 4937:(great penguins) 4885: 4878: 4871: 4862: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4810: 4783: 4765: 4759: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4742: 4740: 4724: 4718: 4717: 4715: 4713: 4697: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4686: 4681:on 10 March 2008 4666: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4488: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4364:. Archived from 4353: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4335:english.sina.com 4327: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4302: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4242: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4171: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4111: 4102: 4101: 4075: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4019: 4013: 4012: 3972: 3966: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3921: 3915: 3914: 3908: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3881:"Cold comfort". 3878: 3872: 3871: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3827:on 30 March 2019 3823:. Archived from 3817: 3811: 3810: 3802: 3796: 3790: 3779: 3778: 3768: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3679: 3673: 3667: 3661: 3655: 3649: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3540: 3539: 3501: 3492: 3491: 3483: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3455: 3453: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3373: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3328: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3255: 3249: 3248: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3199: 3198: 3187:10.1038/360336a0 3173:(6402): 336–39. 3162: 3153: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3114: 3101: 3092: 3091: 3081: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3014: 3012: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2979: 2969: 2952:(6): 1844–1847. 2937: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2879: 2869: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2811:10.1038/35075554 2786: 2780: 2779: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2700: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2656:10.1038/203849a0 2631: 2622: 2621: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2596: 2586: 2554: 2545: 2544: 2532: 2526: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2507: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2466: 2456: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2279: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2219: 2209: 2177: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2108: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2074: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2043: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2016: 2007: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1957: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1932: 1923: 1917: 1908: 1907: 1895: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1864: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1842: 1823: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1803: 1797: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1766: 1756: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1614: 1605: 1604: 1594: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1525: 1519: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1478: 1465: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1455:on 5 August 2008 1443:British Museum. 1440: 1434: 1433: 1431: 1429: 1424: 1394: 1223:flagship species 1012: 920:south polar skua 866:water, known as 832: 818:Snow Hill Island 662:Antarctic Circle 646:Snow Hill Island 545:core temperature 507: 427:bird measurement 383:Ridgen's penguin 225: 208: 188:A. forsteri 105: 104: 84: 79: 78: 58:Snow Hill Island 51: 42:Emperor penguin 39: 21: 18:Emperor penguins 5611: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5561: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5546: 5541: 5533: 5528: 5520: 5515: 5507: 5502: 5494: 5489: 5481: 5476: 5468: 5465:Observation.org 5463: 5455: 5453: 5447:emperor-penguin 5445: 5443: 5435: 5430: 5422: 5417: 5409: 5404: 5396: 5391: 5383: 5378: 5370: 5365: 5357: 5352: 5344: 5339: 5331: 5326: 5318: 5313: 5305: 5300: 5292: 5290: 5282: 5277: 5271:emperor-penguin 5269: 5264: 5256: 5251: 5243: 5241: 5233: 5228: 5220: 5215: 5207: 5202: 5194: 5189: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5165: 5164: 5159: 5146: 5136: 5131: 5126:Chatham penguin 5074: 5069:Waitaha penguin 5048: 5044:African penguin 5012: 4984: 4970:Adélie penguin 4953: 4949:Emperor penguin 4927: 4909: 4894: 4889: 4845: 4843: 4837: 4817: 4807: 4794: 4791: 4786: 4782:volume 2, 1992. 4778:, reprinted in 4766: 4762: 4752: 4748: 4738: 4736: 4726: 4725: 4721: 4711: 4709: 4699: 4698: 4694: 4684: 4682: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4651: 4637: 4636: 4632: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4595:The Blue Planet 4592: 4591: 4587: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4559:on 6 March 2008 4547: 4546: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4477: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4451: 4449: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4423: 4421: 4418:The Japan Times 4412: 4411: 4407: 4397: 4395: 4386: 4385: 4381: 4371: 4369: 4362:english.news.cn 4355: 4354: 4350: 4340: 4338: 4329: 4328: 4324: 4314: 4312: 4300: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4280: 4278: 4277:on 3 April 2008 4265: 4264: 4260: 4243: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4179: 4169: 4167: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4144: 4142: 4132:10.2307/4083872 4113: 4112: 4105: 4084:(21): 3275–78. 4073: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4021: 4020: 4016: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3901: 3894: 3892: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3830: 3828: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3791: 3782: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3686: 3682: 3674: 3670: 3662: 3658: 3650: 3635: 3625: 3623: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3556: 3543: 3514:(157): 103–08. 3503: 3502: 3495: 3485: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3465: 3451: 3449: 3441:(2 June 2011). 3439:Rebecca Morelle 3437: 3436: 3432: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3326: 3321: 3320: 3316: 3288: 3287: 3283: 3273: 3271: 3257: 3256: 3252: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3202: 3164: 3163: 3156: 3148: 3144: 3129:10.2307/4083837 3112: 3103: 3102: 3095: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3036: 3034: 3032:livescience.com 3025: 3024: 3020: 3010: 3008: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2687: 2685: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2633: 2632: 2625: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2556: 2555: 2548: 2534: 2533: 2529: 2519: 2517: 2505: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2345: 2343: 2329: 2328: 2324: 2319:on 3 June 2004. 2311: 2310: 2306: 2298: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2227: 2223: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2164: 2162: 2153: 2152: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2124: 2106: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2065: 2045: 2044: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2017: 2010: 2000: 1998: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1971: 1960: 1950: 1948: 1934: 1933: 1926: 1918: 1911: 1897: 1896: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1851: 1849: 1844: 1843: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1813:on 12 June 2012 1807:"Daddy Dearest" 1805: 1804: 1800: 1784: 1780: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1671: 1670: 1666: 1616: 1615: 1608: 1577:(1582): 11–17. 1564: 1563: 1559: 1544: 1527: 1526: 1522: 1514: 1510: 1480: 1479: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1442: 1441: 1437: 1427: 1425: 1396: 1395: 1388: 1384: 1306:The Blue Planet 1273: 1265:Campbell Island 1248: 1240:Adventure World 1190:Adélie penguins 1182: 1177: 1145:Antarctic krill 1103: 1010: 951: 889: 823: 806: 773:concluded that 725:near threatened 717: 666:Cape Washington 594: 558: 524: 516:frequency bands 496: 494: 415: 322: 252:species and is 240:emperor penguin 231: 216: 210: 204: 191: 154:Sphenisciformes 99: 91: 82:Near Threatened 80: 76: 69: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5609: 5607: 5599: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5563: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5552: 5539: 5526: 5513: 5500: 5487: 5474: 5461: 5451: 5441: 5428: 5415: 5402: 5389: 5376: 5363: 5350: 5337: 5324: 5311: 5298: 5288: 5275: 5262: 5249: 5239: 5226: 5213: 5200: 5187: 5172: 5156: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5142: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5096:Snares penguin 5093: 5087: 5085: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5066: 5060: 5058: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5025: 5023: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5010: 5004: 5001:Little penguin 4997: 4995: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4980:Gentoo penguin 4977: 4972: 4966: 4964: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4940: 4938: 4929: 4928: 4921: 4919: 4911: 4910: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4865: 4859: 4858: 4852: 4835: 4829: 4824: 4816: 4815:External links 4813: 4812: 4811: 4805: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4784: 4760: 4746: 4719: 4692: 4661: 4630: 4615: 4600: 4585: 4570: 4540: 4513: 4506: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4431: 4405: 4379: 4348: 4322: 4288: 4258: 4209: 4177: 4152: 4103: 4061: 4028:Marine Biology 4014: 3987:(4): 253–258. 3967: 3955: 3930:Am. J. Physiol 3916: 3873: 3848:Am. J. Physiol 3838: 3812: 3797: 3780: 3759:(3): 913–922. 3753:Am. J. Physiol 3739: 3704: 3692: 3680: 3668: 3656: 3654:, p. 157. 3633: 3605: 3574:) and Adélie ( 3562: 3560:, p. 158. 3541: 3493: 3475: 3463: 3430: 3387: 3380: 3358: 3337:(1): 1161–80. 3314: 3301:(2): 154–165. 3281: 3270:on 3 June 2004 3250: 3231:(2): 133–142. 3215: 3213:, p. 156. 3200: 3154: 3142: 3093: 3044: 3018: 2991: 2932: 2911:(3): 133–138. 2891: 2832: 2781: 2742: 2695: 2669: 2623: 2608: 2546: 2527: 2493: 2478: 2419: 2376: 2353: 2322: 2304: 2302:, p. 111. 2292: 2290:, p. 110. 2280: 2278:, p. 109. 2268: 2233: 2221: 2172: 2146: 2144:, p. 108. 2134: 2132:, p. 107. 2122: 2090: 2075: 2063: 2035: 2023: 2021:, p. 159. 2008: 1977: 1975:, p. 152. 1958: 1924: 1909: 1885: 1874:on 4 June 2012 1859: 1824: 1798: 1778: 1719: 1664: 1629:(2): 235–254. 1606: 1557: 1542: 1520: 1508: 1489:(3): 271–276. 1466: 1435: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1339:Happy Feet Two 1293:and presenter 1272: 1269: 1247: 1244: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1159:fish like the 1153:Southern Ocean 1102: 1099: 1039:semi-altricial 950: 947: 888: 885: 860:Auster rookery 805: 802: 795:Verleger Point 716: 713: 692:colony on the 686:Dibble Glacier 670:Coulman Island 623:Taylor Glacier 593: 590: 557: 554: 541:thermoregulate 523: 520: 493: 490: 414: 411: 362:A. patagonicus 321: 318: 234: 233: 227: 226: 218: 217: 211: 200: 199: 193: 192: 185: 183: 179: 178: 171: 167: 166: 161: 157: 156: 151: 147: 146: 141: 137: 136: 131: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 111: 107: 106: 93: 92: 74: 71: 70: 65: 62: 61: 53: 52: 44: 43: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5608: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5177: 5173: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5116:Royal penguin 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5077: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5015: 5008: 5005: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4961: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4925: 4920: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4881: 4879: 4874: 4872: 4867: 4866: 4863: 4856: 4853: 4841: 4836: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4798: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4772:Dennis O'Neil 4769: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4750: 4747: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4720: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4693: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4665: 4662: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4631: 4626: 4625:Frozen Planet 4619: 4616: 4611: 4604: 4601: 4596: 4589: 4586: 4581: 4574: 4571: 4558: 4554: 4553:Official Site 4550: 4544: 4541: 4528: 4524: 4517: 4514: 4509: 4503: 4499: 4498: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4460: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4419: 4415: 4409: 4406: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4380: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4323: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4289: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4259: 4254: 4248: 4240: 4236: 4233:(1): 110–24. 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4210: 4194: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4166: 4162: 4156: 4153: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4072: 4065: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4034:(3): 335–44. 4033: 4029: 4025: 4018: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3981:Polar Biology 3978: 3971: 3968: 3965:, p. 30. 3964: 3963:Williams 1995 3959: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3917: 3912: 3906: 3905:cite AV media 3890: 3886: 3885: 3877: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3839: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3798: 3795:, p. 28. 3794: 3793:Williams 1995 3789: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3743: 3740: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3705: 3702:, p. 27. 3701: 3700:Williams 1995 3696: 3693: 3689: 3688:Williams 1995 3684: 3681: 3678:, p. 23. 3677: 3676:Williams 1995 3672: 3669: 3666:, p. 55. 3665: 3664:Williams 1995 3660: 3657: 3653: 3652:Williams 1995 3648: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3622: 3621: 3616: 3609: 3606: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3558:Williams 1995 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3473:, p. 40. 3472: 3471:Williams 1995 3467: 3464: 3460: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3434: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3403:(3): 903–12. 3402: 3398: 3391: 3388: 3383: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3362: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3318: 3315: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3285: 3282: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3254: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3225:Polar Biology 3219: 3216: 3212: 3211:Williams 1995 3207: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3152:, p. 89. 3151: 3150:Williams 1995 3146: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3123:(4): 775–95. 3122: 3118: 3111: 3109: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3019: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2933: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2852:(2): e14738. 2851: 2847: 2843: 2836: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2762:(6): 366–71. 2761: 2757: 2756:Polar Biology 2753: 2746: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2709:Polar Biology 2706: 2699: 2696: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2600: 2595: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2569:(4): e33751. 2568: 2564: 2560: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2531: 2528: 2515: 2511: 2504: 2497: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2439:(1): e85285. 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2389: 2380: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2354: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2326: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2308: 2305: 2301: 2300:Williams 1995 2296: 2293: 2289: 2288:Williams 1995 2284: 2281: 2277: 2276:Williams 1995 2272: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2229:Williams 1995 2225: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2176: 2173: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2147: 2143: 2142:Williams 1995 2138: 2135: 2131: 2130:Williams 1995 2126: 2123: 2119:(3): 654–658. 2118: 2114: 2113: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2091: 2088:, p. 68. 2087: 2086:Williams 1995 2082: 2080: 2076: 2073:, p. 47. 2072: 2071:Williams 1995 2067: 2064: 2059: 2056:(in French). 2055: 2054: 2049: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2033:, p. 45. 2032: 2031:Williams 1995 2027: 2024: 2020: 2019:Williams 1995 2015: 2013: 2009: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1973:Williams 1995 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1920:Williams 1995 1916: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1902:. Melbourne: 1901: 1894: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1873: 1869: 1863: 1860: 1848: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1812: 1808: 1802: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1720: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1668: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571:Proc Biol Sci 1568: 1561: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1524: 1521: 1518:, p. 13. 1517: 1516:Williams 1995 1512: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1439: 1436: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1359:Phantom Power 1355: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1334: 1328: 1326: 1325: 1320: 1319: 1318:Frozen Planet 1314: 1313: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1282: 1278: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1238:and Wakayama 1237: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1201:Malcolm Davis 1195: 1191: 1186: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161:bald notothen 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1143:, as well as 1142: 1141: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1127:glacial squid 1124: 1123:Nototheniidae 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1092: 1087: 1084: 1074: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1023: 1020: 1008: 1003: 999: 997: 992: 990: 985: 977: 972: 968: 966: 961: 957: 948: 946: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 904: 898: 893: 886: 884: 883:the outside. 881: 875: 871: 869: 863: 861: 857: 856:McMurdo Sound 852: 849:The American 847: 844: 843:social animal 837: 819: 815: 810: 803: 801: 798: 796: 791: 789: 783: 781: 776: 772: 767: 765: 756: 752: 749: 744: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 721:least concern 714: 712: 709: 707: 702: 700: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 674:Victoria Land 671: 667: 663: 657: 655: 654:South Georgia 651: 647: 642: 640: 636: 632: 628: 627:Victoria Land 624: 620: 616: 611: 607: 598: 591: 589: 587: 583: 577: 575: 567: 562: 555: 553: 551: 546: 542: 537: 535: 534:down feathers 530: 521: 519: 517: 491: 489: 485: 482: 477: 475: 471: 467: 463: 458: 452: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 428: 419: 412: 410: 408: 404: 403:Mitochondrial 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 375: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 354:second voyage 351: 347: 343: 342:specific name 339: 338:Ancient Greek 335: 331: 327: 319: 317: 314: 310: 305: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 246: 241: 228: 224: 219: 214: 209: 207: 201: 198: 197:Binomial name 194: 190: 189: 184: 181: 180: 177: 176: 172: 169: 168: 165: 162: 159: 158: 155: 152: 149: 148: 145: 142: 139: 138: 135: 132: 129: 128: 125: 122: 119: 118: 115: 112: 109: 108: 103: 98: 94: 88: 83: 72: 68: 63: 59: 54: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5151: 5079: 5053: 5017: 4989: 4958: 4948: 4944:King penguin 4932: 4922: 4914: 4844:. Retrieved 4797:The Penguins 4796: 4779: 4767: 4763: 4754: 4749: 4737:. Retrieved 4732: 4722: 4710:. Retrieved 4705: 4695: 4683:. Retrieved 4679:the original 4674: 4664: 4652:. Retrieved 4648:the original 4643: 4633: 4624: 4618: 4610:Planet Earth 4609: 4603: 4594: 4588: 4579: 4573: 4561:. Retrieved 4557:the original 4552: 4543: 4531:. Retrieved 4526: 4516: 4496: 4486: 4474: 4462: 4452:29 September 4450:. Retrieved 4443: 4434: 4422:. Retrieved 4417: 4408: 4396:. Retrieved 4391: 4382: 4370:. Retrieved 4366:the original 4361: 4351: 4339:. Retrieved 4334: 4325: 4313:. Retrieved 4308: 4304: 4291: 4279:. Retrieved 4275:the original 4270: 4261: 4247:cite journal 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4200:. Retrieved 4193:the original 4180: 4168:. Retrieved 4164: 4155: 4143:. Retrieved 4123: 4119: 4116:"Obituaries" 4081: 4077: 4064: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4017: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3958: 3933: 3929: 3919: 3893:. Retrieved 3889:the original 3883: 3876: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3829:. Retrieved 3825:the original 3815: 3806: 3800: 3756: 3752: 3742: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3695: 3690:, p. 24 3683: 3671: 3659: 3624:. Retrieved 3618: 3608: 3586:(1): 43–53. 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3511: 3507:Polar Record 3505: 3487: 3466: 3457: 3450:. Retrieved 3446: 3433: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3369: 3361: 3334: 3330: 3317: 3298: 3294: 3284: 3272:. Retrieved 3268:the original 3263: 3253: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3170: 3166: 3145: 3120: 3116: 3107: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3035:. Retrieved 3031: 3021: 3009:. Retrieved 3005:The Guardian 3004: 2994: 2949: 2945: 2935: 2908: 2904: 2894: 2849: 2845: 2835: 2794: 2790: 2784: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2745: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2698: 2686:. Retrieved 2682:the original 2672: 2639: 2635: 2617: 2611: 2566: 2562: 2540: 2536: 2530: 2518:. Retrieved 2516:(2): 180–181 2513: 2509: 2496: 2487: 2481: 2436: 2432: 2422: 2400:(2): 65–71. 2397: 2393: 2387: 2379: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2356: 2344:. Retrieved 2340:the original 2335: 2325: 2317:the original 2307: 2295: 2283: 2271: 2249:(1): 75–80. 2246: 2242: 2236: 2224: 2189: 2185: 2175: 2163:. Retrieved 2159: 2149: 2137: 2125: 2116: 2110: 2101: 2093: 2066: 2057: 2051: 2047: 2026: 1999:. Retrieved 1995:the original 1990: 1980: 1949:. Retrieved 1945:the original 1940: 1922:, p. 3. 1899: 1876:. Retrieved 1872:the original 1862: 1850:. Retrieved 1815:. Retrieved 1811:the original 1801: 1785: 1781: 1736: 1732: 1722: 1681: 1677: 1667: 1626: 1622: 1574: 1570: 1560: 1533: 1529: 1523: 1511: 1486: 1483:Polar Record 1482: 1457:. Retrieved 1453:the original 1448: 1438: 1426:. Retrieved 1412: 1406: 1400: 1370: 1363: 1357: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1329: 1322: 1316: 1312:Planet Earth 1310: 1304: 1298: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1249: 1216: 1209: 1198: 1164: 1148: 1138: 1135:hooked squid 1130: 1118: 1104: 1095: 1088: 1079: 1066: 1036: 1024: 1016: 993: 981: 952: 943:Orcinus orca 942: 934: 931:leopard seal 928: 923: 915: 909: 897:leopard seal 876: 872: 864: 851:physiologist 848: 840: 799: 792: 784: 780:Terre Adélie 768: 761: 748:Terre Adélie 745: 718: 705: 698: 690:Cape Crozier 682:Cape Colbeck 658: 650:Heard Island 643: 637:rather than 631:Amundsen Bay 615:Dion Islands 613:spit at the 603: 578: 570: 538: 525: 512: 492:Vocalisation 486: 478: 453: 431: 424: 394: 386: 372: 370: 365: 361: 358:king penguin 334:generic name 323: 306: 267: 244: 243: 239: 237: 205: 203: 187: 186: 174: 164:Spheniscidae 36: 5581:Aptenodytes 5517:SeaLifeBase 5380:iNaturalist 5176:Wikispecies 4934:Aptenodytes 4838:Roscoe, R. 4757:at Booqster 4527:BBC website 4398:13 February 4341:13 February 4223:A. forsteri 4202:13 February 4170:14 December 4145:14 December 3979:) chicks". 3831:22 December 2102:Aptenodytes 1817:21 November 1739:: 171–182. 1428:19 November 1254:, north of 1212:Aalborg Zoo 1133:), and the 1111:cephalopods 1107:crustaceans 1067:guard phase 1032:brood patch 958:(BAS) used 582:haemoglobin 413:Description 395:Aptenodytes 374:Aptenodytes 366:A. forsteri 294:haemoglobin 286:cephalopods 278:crustaceans 175:Aptenodytes 5565:Categories 5543:Xeno-canto 5055:Megadyptes 5019:Spheniscus 4960:Pygoscelis 4789:References 4776:Neal Adams 4424:28 January 4372:28 January 4126:(4): 962. 3895:3 February 3064:(1): 273. 3037:21 January 3011:28 January 2165:21 October 1878:3 November 1764:10468/8867 1684:(1): 1–8. 1333:Happy Feet 1256:Wellington 1055:oesophagus 1028:incubating 1011:13.5 × 9.5 989:copulation 976:life-cycle 880:wind chill 708:Expedition 706:Terra Nova 701:Expedition 678:Halley Bay 574:barotrauma 448:incubating 387:A. ridgeni 350:James Cook 302:metabolism 298:barotrauma 288:, such as 280:, such as 258:Antarctica 5128:(extinct) 5071:(extinct) 4991:Eudyptula 3626:25 August 3536:129187086 3088:261198955 2827:205016817 2510:Cormorant 2060:: 157–60. 1852:1 January 1773:0171-8630 1698:1477-9145 1651:0272-4634 1536:: 1–149. 1503:129641322 1372:DC Comics 1345:Surf's Up 1324:Dynasties 1261:2006 film 1252:Peka Peka 1059:crop milk 984:courtship 887:Predators 804:Behaviour 699:Discovery 635:shelf ice 586:myoglobin 462:auricular 326:described 313:incubated 182:Species: 120:Kingdom: 114:Eukaryota 5576:Penguins 5424:22697752 5398:10190138 5333:45512074 5258:22697752 5253:BirdLife 5242:BioLib: 5161:Wikidata 5081:Eudyptes 4892:Penguins 4846:13 April 4739:29 March 4712:29 March 4685:26 March 4654:26 March 4563:19 March 4533:23 March 4315:31 March 4311:: 171–76 4281:23 March 4098:11023847 4056:62841771 4009:28535093 3620:BBC News 3447:BBC News 3425:19141176 3274:31 March 2986:19171908 2886:21386883 2846:PLOS ONE 2819:11346792 2603:22514609 2563:PLOS ONE 2543:: 18–27. 2473:24416381 2433:PLOS ONE 2346:26 March 2216:26490794 2001:29 March 1951:26 March 1714:23176358 1706:18083725 1659:85887012 1601:16519228 1157:sympagic 1137:species 1083:brooding 1049:and 28% 868:polynyas 694:Ross Sea 550:glucagon 391:Pliocene 320:Taxonomy 160:Family: 134:Chordata 130:Phylum: 124:Animalia 110:Domain: 87:IUCN 3.1 5372:2481661 5320:emppen1 5294:emppen1 5230:Avibase 5167:Q161829 4924:Species 4392:ecns.cn 4140:4083872 4120:The Auk 4036:Bibcode 3989:Bibcode 3950:9530242 3868:9530242 3734:3337270 3600:3781216 3516:Bibcode 3353:1588249 3195:4274467 3175:Bibcode 3137:4083837 3066:Bibcode 2977:2644125 2954:Bibcode 2913:Bibcode 2877:3046112 2854:Bibcode 2799:Bibcode 2776:2548268 2737:9358798 2717:Bibcode 2688:14 June 2664:4188703 2644:Bibcode 2594:3325796 2571:Bibcode 2537:Oceanus 2464:3885707 2441:Bibcode 2402:Bibcode 2373:: 1–33. 2207:4633883 1741:Bibcode 1631:Bibcode 1592:1560011 1552:8378191 1459:28 July 1203:of the 1169:breathe 1101:Feeding 1063:brooded 1047:protein 764:El Niño 727:by the 639:sea ice 617:on the 407:nuclear 352:on his 270:habitat 262:plumage 254:endemic 250:penguin 170:Genus: 150:Order: 140:Class: 85: ( 5535:225773 5509:372694 5496:494370 5483:225773 5454:NZOR: 5444:NZBO: 5411:174449 5354:EURING 5346:APTNFO 5217:ARKive 4906:family 4803: 4768:Batman 4735:. self 4708:. self 4504: 4138: 4096: 4054: 4007: 3948: 3866: 3775:970475 3773: 3732: 3598: 3534: 3452:4 June 3423: 3417:970474 3415: 3378: 3351: 3245:455088 3243: 3193: 3167:Nature 3135: 3086: 2984: 2974: 2884: 2874: 2825: 2817: 2791:Nature 2774: 2735: 2662: 2636:Nature 2601: 2591: 2520:16 May 2471: 2461: 2261: 2214: 2204: 1792: 1771: 1712: 1704: 1696: 1657: 1649: 1599: 1589: 1550: 1540: 1501: 1231:Dalian 1125:, the 1091:crèche 814:colony 684:, and 529:dermal 474:fledge 470:albino 457:dorsal 444:ratite 379:Fossil 284:, and 215:, 1844 5530:WoRMS 5522:73699 5470:73560 5393:IRMNG 5359:27760 5315:eBird 5291:BOW: 5284:52296 4916:Genus 4902:order 4301:(PDF) 4196:(PDF) 4189:(PDF) 4136:JSTOR 4074:(PDF) 4052:S2CID 4005:S2CID 3532:S2CID 3421:S2CID 3327:(PDF) 3241:S2CID 3191:S2CID 3133:JSTOR 3113:(PDF) 3084:S2CID 2823:S2CID 2772:S2CID 2733:S2CID 2660:S2CID 2506:(PDF) 2107:(PDF) 1710:S2CID 1655:S2CID 1499:S2CID 1382:Notes 1350:franc 1315:, in 1051:lipid 965:guano 939:Orcas 788:krill 481:moult 432:et al 399:basal 336:from 290:squid 282:krill 5478:OBIS 5437:9233 5432:NCBI 5419:IUCN 5406:ITIS 5385:3820 5367:GBIF 5341:EPPO 5307:FYD9 5279:BOLD 5245:8347 4848:2008 4801:ISBN 4774:and 4741:2008 4714:2008 4687:2008 4656:2008 4565:2008 4535:2008 4502:ISBN 4454:2011 4426:2015 4400:2018 4374:2015 4343:2018 4317:2008 4283:2008 4253:link 4221:and 4204:2018 4172:2020 4147:2020 4094:PMID 3946:PMID 3911:link 3897:2015 3864:PMID 3833:2016 3771:PMID 3730:PMID 3628:2020 3596:PMID 3454:2011 3413:PMID 3376:ISBN 3349:PMID 3276:2008 3039:2023 3013:2015 2982:PMID 2882:PMID 2815:PMID 2690:2012 2599:PMID 2522:2013 2469:PMID 2348:2008 2263:3348 2259:PMID 2212:PMID 2167:2015 2058:289D 2003:2008 1991:CDNN 1953:2008 1880:2008 1854:2008 1819:2012 1790:ISBN 1769:ISSN 1702:PMID 1694:ISSN 1647:ISSN 1597:PMID 1548:OCLC 1538:ISBN 1461:2013 1430:2021 1413:2020 1188:Two 1109:and 1043:curd 1005:The 974:The 729:IUCN 608:and 584:and 466:down 405:and 274:fish 238:The 213:Gray 144:Aves 5328:EoL 5302:CoL 5204:AFD 5191:ADW 4235:doi 4128:doi 4086:doi 4082:203 4044:doi 4032:130 3997:doi 3938:doi 3934:274 3856:doi 3852:274 3761:doi 3757:231 3722:doi 3718:254 3588:doi 3524:doi 3405:doi 3401:231 3339:doi 3335:165 3303:doi 3233:doi 3183:doi 3171:360 3125:doi 3117:Auk 3074:doi 2972:PMC 2962:doi 2950:106 2921:doi 2872:PMC 2862:doi 2807:doi 2795:411 2764:doi 2725:doi 2652:doi 2640:203 2589:PMC 2579:doi 2459:PMC 2449:doi 2410:doi 2394:Emu 2251:doi 2247:54A 2202:PMC 2194:doi 2190:282 2117:109 2112:Auk 1759:hdl 1749:doi 1737:430 1686:doi 1682:211 1639:doi 1587:PMC 1579:doi 1575:273 1491:doi 1417:doi 1291:BBC 1019:egg 1007:egg 816:on 723:to 672:in 625:in 610:77° 606:66° 397:is 368:). 256:to 5567:: 5545:: 5532:: 5519:: 5506:: 5493:: 5480:: 5467:: 5434:: 5421:: 5408:: 5395:: 5382:: 5369:: 5356:: 5343:: 5330:: 5317:: 5304:: 5281:: 5268:: 5255:: 5232:: 5219:: 5206:: 5193:: 5178:: 5163:: 4731:. 4704:. 4673:. 4642:. 4551:. 4525:. 4442:. 4416:. 4390:. 4360:. 4333:. 4309:27 4307:. 4303:. 4269:. 4249:}} 4245:{{ 4231:26 4229:. 4163:. 4134:. 4124:88 4122:. 4118:. 4106:^ 4092:. 4080:. 4076:. 4050:. 4042:. 4030:. 4003:. 3995:. 3985:11 3983:. 3944:. 3932:. 3928:. 3907:}} 3903:{{ 3862:. 3850:. 3783:^ 3769:. 3755:. 3751:. 3728:. 3716:. 3636:^ 3617:. 3594:. 3584:62 3582:. 3544:^ 3530:. 3522:. 3512:26 3510:. 3496:^ 3478:^ 3456:. 3445:. 3419:. 3411:. 3399:. 3347:. 3333:. 3329:. 3299:41 3297:. 3293:. 3262:. 3239:. 3229:30 3227:. 3203:^ 3189:. 3181:. 3169:. 3157:^ 3131:. 3121:88 3119:. 3115:. 3096:^ 3082:. 3072:. 3060:. 3056:. 3030:. 3003:. 2980:. 2970:. 2960:. 2948:. 2944:. 2919:. 2909:31 2907:. 2903:. 2880:. 2870:. 2860:. 2848:. 2844:. 2821:. 2813:. 2805:. 2793:. 2770:. 2760:22 2758:. 2731:. 2723:. 2713:30 2711:. 2658:. 2650:. 2638:. 2626:^ 2597:. 2587:. 2577:. 2565:. 2561:. 2549:^ 2541:26 2539:. 2514:13 2512:. 2508:. 2467:. 2457:. 2447:. 2435:. 2431:. 2408:. 2398:92 2396:. 2392:. 2369:. 2334:. 2257:. 2245:. 2210:. 2200:. 2188:. 2184:. 2158:. 2115:. 2109:. 2078:^ 2038:^ 2011:^ 1989:. 1961:^ 1939:. 1927:^ 1912:^ 1888:^ 1827:^ 1767:. 1757:. 1747:. 1735:. 1731:. 1708:. 1700:. 1692:. 1680:. 1676:. 1653:. 1645:. 1637:. 1627:32 1625:. 1621:. 1609:^ 1595:. 1585:. 1573:. 1569:. 1546:. 1534:24 1532:. 1497:. 1487:46 1485:. 1469:^ 1447:. 1411:. 1405:. 1389:^ 1362:. 1327:. 1171:. 680:, 676:, 668:, 652:, 377:. 4900:( 4884:e 4877:t 4870:v 4850:. 4809:. 4743:. 4716:. 4689:. 4658:. 4567:. 4537:. 4510:. 4456:. 4428:. 4402:. 4376:. 4345:. 4319:. 4285:. 4255:) 4237:: 4206:. 4174:. 4149:. 4130:: 4100:. 4088:: 4058:. 4046:: 4038:: 4011:. 3999:: 3991:: 3952:. 3940:: 3913:) 3899:. 3870:. 3858:: 3835:. 3777:. 3763:: 3736:. 3724:: 3630:. 3602:. 3590:: 3538:. 3526:: 3518:: 3427:. 3407:: 3384:. 3355:. 3341:: 3311:. 3305:: 3278:. 3247:. 3235:: 3197:. 3185:: 3177:: 3139:. 3127:: 3110:" 3090:. 3076:: 3068:: 3062:4 3041:. 3015:. 2988:. 2964:: 2956:: 2929:. 2923:: 2915:: 2888:. 2864:: 2856:: 2850:6 2829:. 2809:: 2801:: 2778:. 2766:: 2739:. 2727:: 2719:: 2692:. 2666:. 2654:: 2646:: 2605:. 2581:: 2573:: 2567:7 2524:. 2475:. 2451:: 2443:: 2437:9 2416:. 2412:: 2404:: 2371:6 2350:. 2265:. 2253:: 2218:. 2196:: 2169:. 2005:. 1955:. 1906:. 1882:. 1856:. 1821:. 1796:. 1775:. 1761:: 1751:: 1743:: 1716:. 1688:: 1661:. 1641:: 1633:: 1603:. 1581:: 1554:. 1505:. 1493:: 1463:. 1432:. 1419:: 1403:" 1399:" 1163:( 1147:( 1129:( 1117:( 941:( 933:( 922:( 914:( 385:( 360:( 242:( 89:) 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index