202:, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively. Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities). Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.
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hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management. These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers. Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New
Zealand Public Service Act 2020.
187:
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Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.
171:
Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly-organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part. It often includes the use of
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Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting
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However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented. Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the long-term outcomes of training investments; and in the public sector, managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.
182:
There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some believe training wastes time and money because, in
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Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers
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Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth. Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual
90:
By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research, and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing. The scope of
369:
The
Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers,
122:
The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the
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Motivation is an internal process that influences an employee's behavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals. Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity, and can create an engaged workforce that enhances
102:
The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs. The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more
352:
implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups, which should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the
126:
Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities. These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning, error management training, guided exploration, and mastery training. Typical
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When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee
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Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people
43:
may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used
127:
projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in
134:
The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:
378:
consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.
210:
Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month. To mitigate the issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:
123:
participants are those who undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the others'.
270:
Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’ perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.
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access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break the glass ceiling” and seek out the opportunity for themselves.
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Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators associate with employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace.
145:
Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
118:
Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development. Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.
360:
Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’s self-identified attributes.
1136:
Wood, Robert; Kakebeeke, Bastiaan; Debowski, Shelda; Frese, Michael (April 2000). "The Impact of
Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search".
559:"David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. ÂŁ22.50"
348:
To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:
44:
interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with
165:
Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities
162:: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work
75:
Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world. Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the
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Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
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131:, which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants and operating rooms).
2120:"The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management"
2089:"The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management"
2019:"The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management"
222:
maintaining a positive attitude, as an uncooperative attitude towards learning could hinder the individual's capability to grasp the knowledge being provided
110:
The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.
107:. It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.
331:
The impact of excluding or limiting a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.
371:
1887:"Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate"
246:, achievement recognition, responsibility, opportunity for meaningful work, involvement in decision making, and importance within the organization
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and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.
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Aguinis, Herman; Kraiger, Kurt (January 2009). "Benefits of
Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society".
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Training delivery and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
238:
individual and organizational performance. The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:
826:
Marks, Michelle A.; Sabella, Mark J.; Burke, C. Shawn; Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2002). "The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness".
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Extrinsic factors, which are factors external to the individual, such as job security, salary, benefits, work conditions, and vacations
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identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.
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Birdi, Kamal; Allan, Catriona; Warr, Peter (1997). "Correlates and perceived outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity".
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Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction
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Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment
1988:"The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce"
1926:"The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce"
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Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods. Other training methods may include:
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84:
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Thomas N. Garavan; Pat
Costine & Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues".
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1091:"Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects"
999:"Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability"
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Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means
63:
Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies. Germany has an elaborate
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Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement
2204:"Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination"
2151:"Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination"
1957:"Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination"
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certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.
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1382:
Brown, Judith (December 2002). "Training Needs
Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program".
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Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.
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providing external motivators, such as a reward for the completion of the training or an extrinsic goal to follow
45:
1054:
McDaniel, Mark A.; Schlager, Mark S. (June 1990). "Discovery
Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills".
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Burke, Michael J.; Day, Russell R. (1986). "A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training".
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How
Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan
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How
Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan
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system, whereas the United States and the United
Kingdom are considered to generally have weak ones.
64:
53:
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Cohn JM, Khurana R, Reeves L (October 2005). "Growing talent as if your business depended on it".
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Bell, Bradford S.; Tannenbaum, Scott I.; Ford, J. Kevin; Noe, Raymond A.; Kraiger, Kurt (2017).
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increasing competence, which is the ability for an individual to make good decisions efficiently
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Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
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2050:"Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design"
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Tannenbaum, S I; Yukl, G (January 1992). "Training and Development in Work Organizations".
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Quratulain, Samina; Khan, Abdul Karim; Sabharwal, Meghna; Javed, Basharat (June 2021).
512:"Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective"
159:
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Intrinsic factors, which represent the internal factors of an individual, such as the
27:
Improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them
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642:"100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go"
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1358:"Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste Of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It"
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training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new
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87:, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.
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83:. Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the
2003:
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Patrick J. Montana & Bruce H. Charnov (2000). "Training and Development".
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Roberts, Karlene H. (July 1990). "Managing High Reliability Organizations".
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Motivation and performance : a guide to motivating a diverse workforce
1467:"Elements and principles of training as a performance improvement solution"
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1597:"Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach"
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Managing employee performance : motivation, ability, and obstacles
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and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by
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Campbell, J P (January 1971). "Personnel Training and Development".
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Nelson, Bob. “A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way.”
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The benefits of the training and development of employees include:
1595:
Aguinis, Herman; Gottfredson, Ryan K.; Joo, Harry (1 March 2012).
252:
311:
Enhancements in public service motivation among public employees
1331:
Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020).
1306:
Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020).
1276:
Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020).
1248:
Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020).
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Chen, Chung-An; Hsieh, Chih-Wei; Chen, Don-Yun (March 2021).
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Managing Human Resources in Small & Mid-Sized Companies
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Improving patient safety through teamwork and team training
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969:
Derek Torrington; Laura Hall & Stephen Taylor (2004).
2234:"Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service"
287:
increased productivity and performance in the workplace
305:
better knowledge of policies and organization's goals
302:
improved organizational structure, designs and morale
1223:"The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained"
992:
990:
2259:"13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists"
1764:"The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits"
2332:
2326:
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91:training and development also expanded to include
2306:Diane Arthur (1995). "Training and Development".
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103:frequently being influenced by the concept of
2208:Review of Public and Personnel Administration
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898:. Barron Educationally Series. p. 225.
620:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
39:and the individuals and teams within them.
2289:Gower Handbook of Training and Development
2054:American Society for Public Administration
1870:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1748:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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1580:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2238:Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission
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1797:Review of Public Personnel Administration
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1661:"Work Groups and Teams in Organizations"
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99:literature to frame training programs.
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372:industrial-organizational psychologists
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563:International Review of Social History
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299:a decrease in safety-related accidents
2399:Organizational performance management
2181:"New Zealand Public Service Act 2020"
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724:10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025
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293:skills and team development
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1992:Public Personal Management
1930:Public Personal Management
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160:Apprenticeship training
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1768:Indeed Career Guide
65:vocational training
35:involves improving
2414:Applied psychology
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244:difficulty of work
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955:978-0-17-679806-2
496:978-0-521-54674-4
200:Needs assessments
195:Needs assessments
105:lifelong learning
50:talent management
16:(Redirected from
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1955:Lee, HH (2021).
1952:
1946:
1945:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1869:
1861:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1747:
1739:
1713:
1704:
1703:
1684:
1656:
1650:
1639:
1633:
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1592:
1586:
1585:
1579:
1571:
1543:
1530:
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1501:
1495:
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1462:
1445:
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1422:
1416:
1415:
1379:
1373:
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1370:
1368:
1353:
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1328:
1322:
1321:
1303:
1292:
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1245:
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1238:
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1234:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1185:10.2307/41166631
1168:
1162:
1161:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1026:
994:
985:
984:
966:
960:
959:
941:
935:
934:
916:
910:
909:
891:
885:
884:
866:
860:
859:
823:
817:
816:
780:
771:
770:
742:
736:
735:
705:
696:
695:
669:
637:
626:
625:
619:
611:
603:
597:
596:
578:
554:
548:
547:
507:
501:
500:
480:
471:
470:
424:
245:
77:Antebellum South
21:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2384:
2383:
2353:
2347:
2324:
2318:
2305:
2299:
2286:
2283:
2281:Further reading
2278:
2277:
2267:
2265:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2242:
2240:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2184:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1862:
1850:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1740:
1728:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1693:
1658:
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1640:
1636:
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1572:
1560:
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1533:
1518:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1464:
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1448:
1424:
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1419:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1355:
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1343:
1330:
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1325:
1318:
1305:
1304:
1295:
1288:
1275:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1230:
1221:
1220:
1216:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1053:
1052:
1048:
996:
995:
988:
981:
968:
967:
963:
956:
943:
942:
938:
931:
918:
917:
913:
906:
893:
892:
888:
881:
868:
867:
863:
825:
824:
820:
782:
781:
774:
744:
743:
739:
707:
706:
699:
639:
638:
629:
612:
608:Up From Slavery
605:
604:
600:
556:
555:
551:
509:
508:
504:
497:
482:
481:
474:
426:
425:
412:
407:
389:Adult education
385:
367:
322:
281:
268:
243:
235:
208:
197:
116:
73:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2432:
2430:
2422:
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2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2386:
2385:
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2351:
2345:
2322:
2316:
2303:
2297:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2250:
2225:
2214:(2): 274–293.
2194:
2172:
2161:(2): 274–293.
2141:
2110:
2079:
2040:
2009:
1998:(3): 380–404.
1978:
1967:(2): 274–293.
1947:
1936:(3): 380–404.
1916:
1897:(2): 250–273.
1877:
1848:
1830:
1803:(1): 194–215.
1780:
1755:
1726:
1705:
1691:
1651:
1634:
1607:(2): 105–111.
1587:
1558:
1531:
1516:
1496:
1446:
1435:(1): 399–441.
1417:
1390:(4): 569–578.
1374:
1348:
1341:
1323:
1316:
1293:
1286:
1265:
1258:
1240:
1214:
1179:(4): 101–113.
1163:
1144:(2): 263–283.
1128:
1101:(4): 677–691.
1081:
1062:(2): 129–159.
1046:
1009:(2): 296–316.
986:
979:
961:
954:
936:
929:
911:
904:
886:
879:
861:
818:
791:(6): 845–857.
772:
753:(2): 232–245.
737:
718:(1): 565–602.
697:
652:(3): 305–323.
627:
598:
569:(1): 129–131.
549:
502:
495:
472:
437:(1): 451–474.
409:
408:
406:
403:
402:
401:
396:
391:
384:
381:
366:
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93:cross-cultural
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24:
14:
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10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2364:(10): 62–70.
2363:
2359:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2346:9780814472231
2342:
2337:
2336:
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2323:
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2298:9780566081224
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2044:
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2032:
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2024:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1982:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1948:
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1935:
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980:9780273687139
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930:9781872853925
926:
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905:9780764112768
901:
897:
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880:9781843980506
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399:Microtraining
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217:self-efficacy
214:
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205:
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201:
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177:
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111:
108:
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100:
98:
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88:
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78:
70:
68:
66:
61:
59:
58:human factors
55:
51:
47:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
2377:
2361:
2355:
2334:
2307:
2288:
2266:. Retrieved
2262:
2253:
2243:17 September
2241:. Retrieved
2237:
2228:
2211:
2207:
2197:
2187:17 September
2185:. Retrieved
2175:
2158:
2154:
2144:
2127:
2123:
2113:
2096:
2092:
2082:
2074:10356/149992
2057:
2053:
2043:
2026:
2022:
2012:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1964:
1960:
1950:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1894:
1890:
1880:
1839:
1833:
1817:10356/149992
1800:
1796:
1771:. Retrieved
1767:
1758:
1717:
1664:
1654:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1548:
1506:
1499:
1477:(3): 28–32.
1474:
1470:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1365:. Retrieved
1361:
1351:
1332:
1326:
1307:
1277:
1249:
1243:
1231:. Retrieved
1227:AIHR Digital
1226:
1217:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1059:
1055:
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1002:
970:
964:
945:
939:
920:
914:
895:
889:
870:
864:
831:
827:
821:
788:
784:
750:
746:
740:
715:
709:
649:
645:
607:
601:
566:
562:
552:
522:(1): 82–96.
519:
515:
505:
485:
434:
428:
368:
347:
343:
330:
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323:
314:
282:
273:
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125:
121:
117:
109:
101:
89:
74:
62:
32:
31:
29:
2130:: 133–151.
2099:: 133–151.
2060:: 194–215.
2029:: 133–151.
1773:29 November
1367:29 November
1233:29 November
834:(1): 3–13.
2388:Categories
1692:0471264385
1682:1813/75229
1024:1813/75102
896:Management
667:1813/74878
405:References
365:Occupation
233:Motivation
215:improving
206:Principles
1911:0734-371X
1866:cite book
1858:883248797
1825:0734-371X
1744:cite book
1736:811142213
1647:EBSCOhost
1629:154034097
1621:0007-6813
1576:cite book
1568:966315014
1526:852507794
1491:1090-8811
1412:154852480
1404:0091-0260
1356:Say, My.
1209:154274951
1193:0008-1256
1158:0269-994X
1115:1939-1854
1076:0737-0008
1033:1939-1854
848:0021-9010
805:0021-9010
767:0021-9010
732:0066-4308
676:1939-1854
616:cite book
593:144977591
585:0020-8590
544:143353567
536:1534-4843
451:0066-4308
394:Andragogy
2409:Learning
2404:Training
2370:16250625
1701:28847722
1201:41166631
1123:16060786
1041:18361633
856:11916213
692:26505012
684:28125262
467:45609735
459:18976113
383:See also
279:Benefits
266:Feedback
41:Training
2268:1 March
813:9638086
340:morale.
71:History
2368:
2343:
2314:
2295:
1909:
1856:
1846:
1823:
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1699:
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1410:
1402:
1362:Forbes
1339:
1314:
1284:
1256:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1156:
1121:
1113:
1074:
1039:
1031:
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902:
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803:
765:
730:
690:
682:
674:
591:
583:
542:
534:
493:
465:
457:
449:
374:, and
1697:S2CID
1625:S2CID
1408:S2CID
1205:S2CID
1197:JSTOR
688:S2CID
589:S2CID
540:S2CID
463:S2CID
2366:PMID
2341:ISBN
2312:ISBN
2293:ISBN
2270:2019
2245:2024
2189:2024
1907:ISSN
1872:link
1854:OCLC
1844:ISBN
1821:ISSN
1775:2020
1750:link
1732:OCLC
1722:ISBN
1687:ISBN
1617:ISSN
1582:link
1564:OCLC
1554:ISBN
1522:OCLC
1512:ISBN
1487:ISSN
1400:ISSN
1369:2020
1337:ISBN
1312:ISBN
1282:ISBN
1254:ISBN
1235:2020
1189:ISSN
1154:ISSN
1119:PMID
1111:ISSN
1072:ISSN
1037:PMID
1029:ISSN
975:ISBN
950:ISBN
925:ISBN
900:ISBN
875:ISBN
852:PMID
844:ISSN
809:PMID
801:ISSN
763:ISSN
728:ISSN
680:PMID
672:ISSN
622:link
581:ISSN
532:ISSN
491:ISBN
455:PMID
447:ISSN
2216:doi
2163:doi
2132:doi
2101:doi
2070:hdl
2062:doi
2031:doi
2000:doi
1969:doi
1938:doi
1899:doi
1813:hdl
1805:doi
1677:hdl
1669:doi
1643:T+D
1609:doi
1479:doi
1437:doi
1392:doi
1181:doi
1146:doi
1103:doi
1064:doi
1019:hdl
1011:doi
836:doi
793:doi
755:doi
720:doi
662:hdl
654:doi
650:102
571:doi
524:doi
439:doi
2390::
2362:83
2360:.
2331:.
2261:.
2236:.
2212:41
2210:.
2206:.
2159:41
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2128:27
2126:.
2122:.
2097:27
2095:.
2091:.
2068:.
2058:41
2056:.
2052:.
2027:27
2025:.
2021:.
1996:51
1994:.
1990:.
1965:41
1963:.
1959:.
1934:51
1932:.
1928:.
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