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88:, stone, or any material that will withstand the fusing temperature. In technical terms fired enamelware is an integrated layered composite of glass and another material (or more glass). The term "enamel" is most often restricted to work on metal, which is the subject of this article. Essentially the same technique used with other bases is known by different terms: on glass as
415:, France, the most famous centre of vitreous enamel production in Western Europe, though Spain also made a good deal. Limoges became famous for champlevé enamels from the 12th century onwards, producing on a large scale, and then (after a period of reduced production) from the 15th century retained its lead by switching to painted enamel on flat metal plaques. The
929:. Frit for enamelling steel is typically an alkali borosilicate glass with a thermal expansion and glass temperature suitable for coating steel. Raw materials are smelted together between 2,100 and 2,650 °F (1,150 and 1,450 °C) into a liquid glass that is directed out of the furnace and thermal shocked with either water or steel rollers into frit.
669:
386:
1138:, not strictly a technique, but a necessary step in many techniques, especially painted enamel on thin plaques; introduced in 15th-century Europe. Enamel is applied to the back of a piece as well – sandwiching the metal – to equalize the rates of expansion under heat, and so create less tension on the glass so it does not crack.
1042:
is the best known type of painted enamel, using this from the 16th century onwards. Most traditional painting on glass, and some on ceramics, uses what is technically enamel, but is often described by terms such as "painted in enamels", reserving "painted enamel" and "enamel" as a term for the whole
951:
There are various types of frit, which may be applied in sequence. A ground coat is applied first; it usually contains smelted-in transition metal oxides such as cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, and iron that facilitate adhesion to the metal. Next, clear and semi-opaque frits that contain material
271:
of c. 1325 BC, are frequently described as using "enamel", many scholars doubt the glass paste was sufficiently melted to be properly so described, and use terms such as "glass-paste". It seems possible that in
Egyptian conditions the melting point of the glass and gold were too close to make enamel
1243:
659:
which he co-founded is one of the few makers from this era still active. Distinctively
Japanese designs, in which flowers, birds and insects were used as themes, became popular. Designs also increasingly used areas of blank space. With the greater subtlety these techniques allowed, Japanese enamels
921:
One of the most widespread modern uses of enamel is in the production of quality chalk-boards and marker-boards (typically called 'blackboards' or 'whiteboards') where the resistance of enamel to wear and chemicals ensures that 'ghosting', or unerasable marks, do not occur, as happens with polymer
473:
From either
Byzantium or the Islamic world, the cloisonné technique reached China in the 13–14th centuries. The first written reference to cloisonné is in a book from 1388, where it is called "Dashi ('Muslim') ware". No Chinese pieces that are clearly from the 14th century are known; the earliest
922:
boards. Since standard enamelling steel is magnetically attractive, it may also be used for magnet boards. Some new developments in the last ten years include enamel/non-stick hybrid coatings, sol-gel functional top-coats for enamels, enamels with a metallic appearance, and easy-to-clean enamels.
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The frit in the ground coat contains smelted-in cobalt and/or nickel oxide as well as other transition metal oxides to catalyse the enamel-steel bonding reactions. During firing of the enamel at between 760 and 895 °C (1,400 and 1,643 °F), iron oxide scale first forms on the steel. The
1174:
On sheet steel, a ground coat layer is applied to create adhesion. The only surface preparation required for modern ground coats is degreasing of the steel with a mildly alkaline solution. White and coloured second "cover" coats of enamel are applied over the fired ground coat. For electrostatic
1084:, version of painted enamel, French term meaning "in grey", where a dark, often blue or black background is applied, then a palescent (translucent) enamel is painted on top, building up designs in a monochrome gradient, paler as the thickness of the layer of light colour increases.
1183:. The iron acts as the anode in an electrogalvanic reaction in which the iron is again oxidised, dissolved by the glass, and oxidised again with the available cobalt and nickel limiting the reaction. Finally, the surface becomes roughened with the glass anchored into the holes.
802:
Enamel was first applied commercially to sheet iron and steel in
Austria and Germany in about 1850. Industrialization increased as the purity of raw materials increased and costs decreased. The wet application process started with the discovery of the use of clay to suspend
1191:
Enamel coatings applied to steel panels offer protection to the core material whether cladding road tunnels, underground stations, building superstructures or other applications. It can also be specified as a curtain walling. Qualities of this structural material include:
728:
began to be used for handicraft products after the Gold
Control Act, was enforced in India which compelled the Meenakars to look for an alternative material. Initially, the work of Meenakari often went unnoticed as this art was traditionally used on the back of pieces of
720:, which comprised a pattern of birds and animals on a floral background in light blue, green, yellow and red. Gold has been used traditionally for Meenakari jewellery as it holds the enamel better, lasts longer and its lustre brings out the colours of the enamels.
107:
840:
Vitreous enamel can be applied to most metals. Most modern industrial enamel is applied to steel in which the carbon content is controlled to prevent unwanted reactions at the firing temperatures. Enamel can also be applied to gold, silver, copper,
948:. The latter creates delicate shades ranging from pure violet through wine-red and warm grey. Enamel can be transparent, opaque or opalescent (translucent). Different enamel colours can be mixed to make a new colour, in the manner of paint.
251:
The earliest enamel all used the cloisonné technique, placing the enamel within small cells with gold walls. This had been used as a technique to hold pieces of stone and gems tightly in place since the 3rd millennium BC, for example in
1263:
531:
eras (late 19th/early 20th century). Enamel had been used as decoration for metalwork since about 1600, and
Japanese cloisonné was already exported to Europe before the start of the Meiji era in 1868. Cloisonné is known in Japan as
330:
piece. This occurs in several different regions, from ancient Egypt to Anglo-Saxon
England. Once enamel becomes more common, as in medieval Europe after about 1000, the assumption that enamel was originally used becomes safer.
1064:, French for "open to daylight" where the enamel is applied in cells, similar to cloisonné, but with no backing, so light can shine through the transparent or translucent enamel. It has a stained-glass like appearance; the
871:
with wealth earned by his development of improved enamelling processes, c. 1887, for sheet steel and cast iron. Such enameled ferrous material had, and still has, many applications: early 20th century and some modern
1307:
860:. A disadvantage of enamel is a tendency to crack or shatter when the substrate is stressed or bent, but modern enamels are relatively chip- and impact-resistant because of good thickness control and coefficients of
688:
in the mid-17th century. Transparent enamels were popular during this time. Both cloissoné and champlevé were produced in Mughal, with champlevé used for the finest pieces. Modern industrial production began in
538:, literally "seven treasures". This refers to richly coloured substances mentioned in Buddhist texts. The term was initially used for colourful objects imported from China. According to legend, in the 1830s
807:
in water. Developments that followed during the 20th century include enamelling-grade steel, cleaned-only surface preparation, automation, and ongoing improvements in efficiency, performance, and quality.
522:
Japanese artists did not make three-dimensional enamelled objects until the 1830s but, once the technique took hold based on analysis of
Chinese objects, it developed very rapidly, reaching a peak in the
326:
A problem that adds to the uncertainty over early enamel is artefacts (typically excavated) that appear to have been prepared for enamel, but have now lost whatever filled the cloisons or backing to a
1291:
1025:, French for "cell", where thin wires are applied to form raised barriers, which contain different areas of (subsequently applied) enamel. Widely practiced in Europe, the Middle East and East Asia.
1175:
enamels, the coloured enamel powder can be applied directly over a thin unfired ground coat "base coat" layer that is co-fired with the cover coat in a very efficient two-coat/one-fire process.
1074:, French for "in the round", also known as "encrusted enamel". A 3D type of enamelling where a sculptural form or wire framework is completely or partly enamelled, as in the 15th century
1054:, from the French word meaning "low-cut". The surface of the metal is decorated with a low relief design which can be seen through translucent and transparent enamels. The 14th century
1223:
315:, made for the Roman military market, which has swirling enamel decoration in a Celtic style. In Britain, probably through preserved Celtic craft skills, enamel survived until the
1998:
Gavlenski, Jim and
Baldwin, Charles, "Advanced Porcelain Enamel Coatings with Novel Properties," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 53-58, (2007).
1096:, French for 'enamel in a network on glass') where enamelled metal is suspended in glass. The technique was briefly popular in seventeenth-century France and was re-discovered by
2915:
1117:, where a stencil is placed over the work and the powdered enamel is sifted over the top. The stencil is removed before firing, the enamel staying in a pattern, slightly raised.
2133:
Feldman, Sid and
Baldwin, Charles, "Surface Tension and Fusion Properties of Porcelain Enamels," Proceedings of the 69th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 1-10 (2008)
1830:
We doubt if any form of the enameller's art can equal the work executed in Japan, which is distinguished by great freedom of design, and the most exquisite gradations of color.
557:
company to sponsor the creation of a wide range of decorative arts at international exhibitions. This was part of a programme to promote Japan as a modern, industrial nation.
1989:
Fedak, David and Baldwin, Charles, "A Comparison of Enameled and Stainless Steel Surfaces," Proceedings of the 67th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-54 (2005).
3285:
1971:
Sullivan, J.D. and Nelson, F.W., "Stainless Steel Requires Special Enameling Procedures", Proceedings of the Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum," 150–155 (1970).
481:
Cloisonné remained very popular in China until the 19th century and is still produced today. The most elaborate and most highly valued Chinese pieces are from the early
453:
A Russian school developed, which used the technique on other objects, as in the Renaissance, and for relatively cheap religious pieces such as crosses and small icons.
1123:, where an unfired layer of enamel is applied over a previously fired layer of enamel of a contrasting colour, and then partly removed with a tool to create the design.
2095:
2802:
1489:Актуальнi питання гуманiтарних наук: Мiжвузiвський збiрник наукових праць молодих вчених Дрогобицького державного педагогiчного унiверситету iменi Iвана Франка
3558:
567:
he developed a transparent black enamel which was used for backgrounds. Translucent enamels in various other colours followed during this period. Along with
2043:
1428:
40:; 1185–1200; champlevé enamel over copper gilded; height: 17.7 cm (7.0 in), width: 17.4 cm (6.9 in), depth: 10.1 cm (4.0 in)
59:
to a substrate by firing, usually between 750 and 850 °C (1,380 and 1,560 °F). The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable
1343:
1031:, French for "raised field", where the surface is carved out to form pits in which enamel is fired, leaving the original metal exposed; the Romanesque
2908:
545:
Early Japanese enamels were cloudy and opaque, with relatively clumsy shapes. This changed rapidly from 1870 onwards. The Nagoya cloisonné company (
219:. Used as a noun, "an enamel" is usually a small decorative object coated with enamel. "Enamelled" and "enamelling" are the preferred spellings in
2354:
1323:
680:
by around 1600 for decorating gold and silver objects, and became a distinctive feature of Mughal jewellery. The Mughal court was known to employ
1778:
3202:
571:, Wagener transformed the firing processes used by Japanese workshops, improving the quality of finishes and extending the variety of colours.
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3278:
2151:
1873:
1726:
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1532:
1962:
Judd, Donald, “Porcelain Enameling Aluminum: An Overview,” Proceedings of the 59th Porcelain Enamel Institute Technical Forum, 45-51 (1997).
551:
existed from 1871 to 1884, to sell the output of many small workshops and help them improve their work. In 1874, the government created the
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for colouring and ornamenting the surface of metals by fusing over it brilliant colours that are decorated in an intricate design called
4013:
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273:
374:
northern Europe. The Byzantines then began to use cloisonné more freely to create images; this was also copied in Western Europe. In
2272:
2186:
1524:
998:
970:
1980:
Pew, Steve, "The Who, What, Why, Where, and When of Cast Iron Enameling," Advances in Porcelain Enamel Technology, 177–186, (2010).
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2827:
2623:
856:), has long-lasting colour fastness, is easy to clean, and cannot burn. Enamel is glass, not paint, so it does not fade under
461:
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2235:
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Vitreous enamel has many useful properties: it is smooth, hard, chemically resistant, durable, scratch resistant (5–6 on the
563:
was a German scientist brought in by the government to advise Japanese industry and improve production processes. Along with
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30:
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Painted enamel remained in fashion for over a century, and in France developed into a sophisticated Renaissance and the
542:
broke open a Chinese enamel object to examine it, then trained many artists, starting off Japan's own enamel industry.
5039:
5034:
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2347:
1485:"Traditions of painted hot enamel of Europe and the East of the XVIIIth century in contemporary enamel art of Ukraine"
1169:
308:
2144:
Vitreous and porcelain enamels — Characteristics of enamel coatings applied to steel panels intended for architecture
1692:"Kawade Shibatarō | Imperial Presentation Vase with Maple Branches and Imperial Chrysanthemum Crest (one of a pair)"
478:(1425–1435), which, since they show a full use of Chinese styles, suggest considerable experience in the technique.
339:
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1719:
Japonisme and the rise of the modern art movement : the arts of the Meiji period : the Khalili collection
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are minimised or burned away completely with acid. This contrasts with the Chinese style which used thick metal
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More recently, the bright, jewel-like colours have made enamel popular with jewellery designers, including the
235:
165:
The term "enamel" has also sometimes been applied to industrial materials other than vitreous enamel, such as
651:) technique which burns away the metal substrate to leave translucent enamel, producing an effect resembling
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4937:
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4006:
3712:
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2734:
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605:("piling up") technique which places layers of enamel upon each other to create a three-dimensional effect.
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256:, and then Egypt. Enamel seems likely to have developed as a cheaper method of achieving similar results.
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1843:
Namikawa Yasuyuki and Japanese Cloisonné The Allure of Meiji Cloisonné: The Aesthetic of Translucent Black
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were regarded as unequalled in the world and won many awards at national and international exhibitions.
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a viable technique. Nonetheless, there appear to be a few actual examples of enamel, perhaps from the
435:
techniques, but cheaper champlevé works continued to be produced in large numbers for a wider market.
134:. Since the 18th century, enamels have also been applied to many metal consumer objects, such as some
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Splendors of Meiji : treasures of imperial Japan : masterpieces from the Khalili Collection
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mortar and pestle is used to finely grind vitreous enamel powder, mixed with a volatile oil, such as
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85:
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collection database, "Scope note" for the term "enamelled"; other sources use different categories.
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991:
694:
572:
268:
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3333:
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3006:
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2429:
2419:
2191:
1821:
1132:
Surrey enamel, a 17th-century type for brass objects such as candlesticks; effectively champlevé.
868:
773:
749:
447:
307:
mentions the Celts' use of the technique on metal, which the Romans in his day hardly knew. The
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135:
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2221:
2213:
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2182:
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1869:
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1614:
1604:
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312:
174:
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2613:
2383:
1846:
1496:
1330:
1061:
903:
646:
371:
367:
359:
292:
224:
126:
Enamelling is an old and widely adopted technology, for most of its history mainly used in
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4249:
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2250:
Dimand, M. S. "An Enameled-Glass Bottle of the Mamluk Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
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2247:"Collection Highlights: Art in the Islamic World". Beaker. Smithsonian Institution: 2013.
1468:Наумов, Олег (2019-01-01), "ХУДОЖНЯ ЕМАЛЬ У ХРОНОТОПІ УКРАЇНСЬКОГО МИСТЕЦТВА. Альманах",
724:, a later introduction, is used for artifacts like boxes, bowls, spoons, and art pieces.
450:, spreading to England and other countries. This continued until the early 19th century.
267:, dated to the 13th century BC. Although Egyptian pieces, including jewellery from the
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Moura Carvalho, Pedro (2009). "Enamel in the Islamic Lands". In Williams, Haydn (ed.).
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Papadopoulous, Kiko. "Venetian Eastern Trade: 11th to 14th Centuries" 20 January 2012.
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Impey, Oliver; Fairley, Malcolm (2009). "Enamel in Japan". In Williams, Haydn (ed.).
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Colour in enamel is obtained by the addition of various minerals, often metal oxides
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A resurgence in enamel-based art took place near the end of the 20th century in the
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and the enameled copper boxes of the Battersea enamellers, and for artists such as
709:
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428:
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316:
166:
155:
115:
1028:
1022:
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363:
327:
119:
2007:
Andrews, A.I. Porcelain Enamels, The Garrard Press: Champaign, IL, 1961 p. 321-2.
1927:"Bernard Hesling :: biography at :: at Design and Art Australia Online"
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1779:"Ashmolean − Eastern Art Online, Yousef Jameel Centre for Islamic and Asian Art"
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and in small portraits. After it fell from fashion it continued as a medium for
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147:
104:", the artists "enamellers" and the objects produced can be called "enamels".
34:
1817:
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1380:(1945–1985) – American enamellist who created the largest known enamel mural
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1081:
1038:
Painted enamel, a design in enamel is painted onto a smooth metal surface.
945:
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842:
792:
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591:) technique, in which the metal foundation is hammered outwards to create a
439:
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139:
127:
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1951:
Porcelain enamels: the preparation, application, and properties of enamels
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621:(wireless cloisonné): techniques developed with Wagener in which the wire
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brought the style into prominence with his variously sized steel plates.
690:
489:(1450–1457), although 19th century or modern pieces are far more common.
284:
276:(beginning 1070 BC) on. But it remained rare in both Egypt and Greece.
195:
17:
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1603:. St. Petersburg, Fla.: Broughton International Inc. pp. 252–254.
1114:
1111:, in which a glass surface is enamelled, and fired to fuse the glasses.
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260:
52:
2303:
CIDAE Center of Information and Difusion of the Art of Enamelling (ES)
2212:, eds. Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw, 2000, Cambridge University Press,
385:
4863:
4769:
4729:
4704:
4639:
4624:
4520:
4505:
4500:
4416:
4367:
4357:
4073:
4038:
3608:
3503:
3144:
2658:
2464:
1841:
Toyoro Hida, Gregory Irvine, Kana Ooki, Tomoko Hana and Yukari Muro.
1180:
1007:
933:
918:
had walls, ceilings and structural elements made of enamelled steel.
725:
721:
609:
developed a pictorial style that imitated paintings. He is known for
592:
264:
2317:
925:
The key ingredient of vitreous enamel is finely ground glass called
189:
2312:
1179:
molten enamel dissolves the iron oxide and precipitates cobalt and
684:(enamelers). These craftsmen reached a peak of during the reign of
419:
technique was considerably easier and very widely practiced in the
259:
The earliest undisputed objects known to use enamel are a group of
4842:
4832:
4822:
4805:
4800:
4790:
4749:
4579:
4559:
4495:
4427:
4168:
4143:
4088:
3965:
3925:
3900:
3548:
3423:
3353:
2577:
2544:
2494:
2378:
2363:
1159:
997:
985:
829:
820:
Glass vials with ground vitreous enamel powder in different colors
740:
667:
496:
460:
384:
338:
296:
234:
106:
77:
56:
29:
1317:
in painted Limoges enamel on a copper plaque, by Jacques I Laudin
354:
In European art history, enamel was at its most important in the
295:(c.350–50 BC), probably as an imitation of the red Mediterranean
4714:
4689:
4684:
4634:
4396:
3207:
941:
926:
896:
877:
804:
701:
366:
enamel in imitation of cloisonné inlays of precious stones. The
3995:
3267:
2897:
2336:
1018:
The three main historical techniques for enamelling metal are:
202:
27:
Material made by fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing
1519:, 4th edn, p. 239, University of California Press, 1999,
291:
to the ancient Celts. Red enamel is used in 26 places on the
1925:
database and e-research tool for art and design researchers.
1421:
888:, housing and drums of clothes washers and dryers, sinks and
100:, "overglaze enamels" or "enamelling". The craft is called "
3991:
2322:
2198:, 2003 (2nd edn), Thames & Hudson, World of Art series,
1634:"Japanese Art & Artists of To-day VI. Cloisonné Enamels"
733:
or gem-studded jewellery, allowing pieces to be reversible.
442:
style, seen on objects such as large display dishes, ewers,
2327:
1100:
in 1953. Craver spent 13 years re-creating the technique.
581:(drip-glaze) which produces a rainbow-coloured glaze and
2302:
2298:
Enameling Articles and Tutorials at The Ganoksin Project
1866:
Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections
1569:
Enamels of the world, 1700-2000: the Khalili collections
399:
often included enamel plaques of the highest quality in
1391:
in Russia, with Moscow a centre of the Russian industry
1129:, where a silkscreen is used with 60–70in grade mesh.
906:
and pharmaceutical process tanks. Structures such as
1199:
Withstands extreme temperatures and is non-flammable
223:, while "enameled" and "enameling" are preferred in
4913:
4856:
4778:
4549:
4486:
4425:
4387:
4380:
4340:
4242:
4196:
4189:
4029:
3821:
3690:
3672:
3299:
3240:
3193:
3015:
2932:
2793:
2725:
2657:
2591:
2553:
2397:
2371:
2081:
2079:
1868:. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. 187–196.
1571:. London: Khalili Family Trust. pp. 149–156.
485:, especially the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and
94:, or "painted glass", and on pottery it is called
2146:. Standards Policy and Strategy Committee. 2008.
2102:. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Archived from
1202:Long lasting UV, climate and corrosion resistance
1859:
1857:
1855:
2196:The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1249:Silver, silver gilt and painted enamel beaker,
1721:. New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 181.
1472:, vol. 2019, no. 2, pp. 192–197
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
994:, with basse-taille enamel, partly fallen away
716:period, made a reference to an enamel work of
638:
616:
610:
600:
582:
576:
575:introduced a variety of techniques, including
552:
546:
533:
510:
358:, beginning with the Late Romans and then the
4007:
3279:
2909:
2803:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
2348:
836:, to produce enamel paints for artistic work.
748:, typical enamel cooking gear from the Dutch
8:
1432:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1091:
976:Turb-mixer in a glass-lined chemical reactor
867:The Buick automobile company was founded by
644:
628:
622:
2228:The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts
1653:
1651:
507:chrysanthemum crests of the Imperial family
389:Examples of art made of finift enamel from
370:style was widely adopted by the peoples of
208:
4384:
4193:
4014:
4000:
3992:
3286:
3272:
3264:
2916:
2902:
2894:
2355:
2341:
2333:
1945:
1943:
1511:
1509:
1047:Variants, and less common techniques are:
3559:Pauly & C. - Compagnia Venezia Murano
2210:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology
474:datable pieces are from the reign of the
239:Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, 2nd-century
142:bathtubs. It has also been used on some
122:enamel; height: 2.5 cm, diameter: 15.2 cm
1785:. Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford
964:View into a glass-lined chemical reactor
823:
815:
2100:Luce Foundation Center for American Art
1594:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1400:
1219:
954:
173:; these actually are very different in
1748:
1746:
1144:, where jewels are set in white enamel
884:, housing and interior walls of major
347:dish, mid-16th century, attributed to
3682:List of defunct glassmaking companies
1483:Мостовщикова, Дар'я Олегівна (2020),
7:
469:enamel bronze wine pot, 18th century
283:culture of the northern and central
2171:An Introduction to Medieval Enamels
1755:"How It's Made: Japanese Cloisonné"
1644:: 271 – via Internet Archive.
1285:appears to her friends in a vision.
1208:Resistant to abrasion and chemicals
1043:object for works with a metal base.
952:for producing colours are applied.
902:, and processing equipment such as
2957:Extrusion / Drawing (glass fibers)
2323:International Enamellers Institute
1301:, Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Avranches
1233:used to hold holy oils; most were
1068:is the surviving medieval example.
1014:enamel, about 1400. British Museum
517:Khalili Collection of Japanese Art
274:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt
114:dish with scalloped rim, from the
25:
2952:Blowing and pressing (containers)
2267:(5th ed.). New York: Dover.
1205:Dirt-repellent and graffiti-proof
287:, and was perhaps carried by the
2328:Vitreous Enamel Association (UK)
2308:Society of Dutch Enamellers (NL)
1359:
1342:
1329:A freehand enameled painting by
1322:
1306:
1290:
1262:
1242:
1222:
982:Techniques of artistic enameling
969:
957:
311:is a 2nd-century AD souvenir of
2873:Radioactive waste vitrification
2828:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
1847:The Mainichi Newspapers Co, Ltd
1277:enamels; weight 1.935 kg,
335:Medieval and Renaissance Europe
213:, first found in a 9th-century
1501:10.24919/2308-4863.1/30.212240
676:Enamel was established in the
515:to slightly raise the design;
1:
3619:Sterlite Optical Technologies
3469:Kokomo Opalescent Glass Works
2740:Chemically strengthened glass
1759:Dallas Museum of Art Uncrated
1753:Leonard, Loryn (2012-06-26).
1211:Easy cleaning and maintenance
1164:Old German enamel street sign
1156:Industrial enamel application
1150:Japanese shipōyaki techniques
712:, who toured Iran during the
279:The technique appears in the
3135:Machine drawn cylinder sheet
2573:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
1698:. Metropolitan Museum of Art
760:jewellers, for designers of
3248:Glossary of glass art terms
1806:The Decorator and Furnisher
1297:Limoges? grisaille painted
1229:Early 13th century Limoges
1170:Industrial porcelain enamel
864:well-matched to the metal.
639:
617:
611:
601:
583:
577:
553:
547:
534:
511:
309:Staffordshire Moorlands Pan
158:, and on marker boards and
5071:
2313:The Enamelist Society (US)
1908:"What is Vitreous Enamel?"
1783:jameelcentre.ashmolean.org
1167:
1093:Émail en résille sur verre
1058:is an outstanding example.
4951:
2604:Chemical vapor deposition
2525:Ultra low expansion glass
2415:Borophosphosilicate glass
2208:Ogden, Jack, "Metal", in
403:and other large works of
382:technique was developed.
169:and the polymers coating
3409:Firozabad glass industry
3404:Fenton Art Glass Company
3165:Satsuma Kiriko cut glass
2977:Overflow downdraw method
2972:Precision glass moulding
2967:Drawing (optical fibers)
2843:Glass-reinforced plastic
2505:Sodium hexametaphosphate
2264:Metalwork and Enamelling
2096:"Craft: Jewelry: Brooch"
1949:Andrews, Andrew Irving,
1804:"Japanese Art Enamels".
1717:Irvine, Gregory (2013).
1659:"Polished to Perfection"
672:Meenakaari art from Iran
51:, is a material made by
4516:Nickel silver (alpacca)
3713:Irving Wightman Colburn
3294:Glass makers and brands
3218:Shock metamorphic glass
2735:Anti-reflective coating
2609:Glass batch calculation
2490:Photochromic lens glass
2318:Guild of Enamellers, UK
1429:Encyclopædia Britannica
845:, stainless steel, and
708:. The French traveller
664:India and Islamic world
299:, which is used on the
207:, or from a Latin word
203:
190:
2226:Osborne, Harold (ed),
1251:Burgundian Netherlands
1165:
1092:
1015:
995:
837:
821:
783:, led by artists like
772:and other painters of
753:
752:, popular in the 1950s
673:
657:Ando Cloisonné Company
645:
629:
623:
615:(minimised wires) and
595:effect. Together with
519:
470:
427:the finest work is in
393:
351:
345:painted Limoges enamel
243:
209:
123:
118:; early 15th century;
76:Enamel can be used on
68:
41:
5025:Visual arts materials
4857:Other natural objects
3778:Henry William Stiegel
3509:Mats Jonasson Målerås
3449:Holmegaard Glassworks
2868:Prince Rupert's drops
2717:Transparent materials
2677:Gradient-index optics
2485:Phosphosilicate glass
1953:, Garrard Press, 1961
1890:"The Art of Minakari"
1632:Harada, Jiro (1911).
1470:Культура і Сучасність
1299:Stations of the Cross
1163:
1001:
989:
827:
819:
744:
671:
500:
464:
388:
342:
238:
110:
67:comes from the Latin
33:
4332:Wire wrapped jewelry
4312:Repoussé and chasing
3753:Michael Joseph Owens
3329:Aurora Glass Foundry
3080:Cylinder blown sheet
2833:Glass ionomer cement
2707:Photosensitive glass
2634:Liquidus temperature
2455:Fluorosilicate glass
1076:Holy Thorn Reliquary
1004:Dunstable Swan Jewel
764:such as the eggs of
548:Nagoya shippo kaisha
97:overglaze decoration
73:, meaning "glassy".
4874:Ebonite (vulcanite)
3841:Bomex/Duran/Endural
3758:Alastair Pilkington
3434:Guardian Industries
3339:Barovier & Toso
3203:Radiative processes
3018:historic techniques
2942:Float glass process
2853:Glass-to-metal seal
2775:Self-cleaning glass
2697:Optical lens design
2192:Lucie-Smith, Edward
1665:. 5 November 2017.
1663:Asian Art Newspaper
1599:Earle, Joe (1999).
1515:Sullivan, Michael,
992:Death of the Virgin
774:portrait miniatures
700:Enamel was used in
695:Bengal Enamel Works
448:portrait miniatures
362:, who began to use
269:Tomb of Tutankhamun
138:, steel sinks, and
5040:Glass compositions
5035:Glass applications
4219:Jewellery designer
3703:Richard M. Atwater
3524:Nippon Sheet Glass
3464:Kingdom of Crystal
3384:Dartington Crystal
2997:Chemical polishing
2838:Glass microspheres
2760:Hydrogen darkening
2682:Hydrogen darkening
2430:Chalcogenide glass
2420:Borosilicate glass
2292:Enamels on jewelry
2169:Campbell, Marian.
2055:Campbell, 7, 33-41
2025:Campbell, 7, 17-32
2016:Campbell, 6, 10-17
1166:
1136:Counter-enamelling
1016:
996:
886:kitchen appliances
869:David Dunbar Buick
838:
822:
795:, abstract artist
766:Peter Carl Fabergé
754:
693:in 1921, with the
674:
597:Hattori Tadasaburō
554:Kiriu kosho kaisha
520:
501:Imperial vases by
471:
394:
352:
244:
124:
63:coating. The word
42:
4992:
4991:
4909:
4908:
4779:Organic gemstones
4376:
4375:
3989:
3988:
3798:Tomasz Urbanowicz
3788:Lino Tagliapietra
3783:S. Donald Stookey
3634:Val Saint Lambert
3529:Nižbor glassworks
3444:Hardman & Co.
3261:
3260:
3195:Natural processes
3110:Fourcault process
2891:
2890:
2808:Glass-coated wire
2780:sol–gel technique
2765:Insulated glazing
2702:Photochromic lens
2687:Optical amplifier
2639:sol–gel technique
2220:, 9780521452571,
2153:978-0-580-72284-4
1875:978-1-874780-17-5
1728:978-0-500-23913-1
1696:www.metmuseum.org
1578:978-1-874780-17-5
1533:978-0-520-21877-2
1517:The arts of China
1354:enamel watch dial
1315:Gregory the Great
1187:Building cladding
1033:Stavelot Triptych
990:Medallion of the
904:chemical reactors
862:thermal expansion
858:ultraviolet light
599:he developed the
569:Tsukamoto Kaisuke
565:Namikawa Yasuyuki
561:Gottfried Wagener
175:materials science
16:(Redirected from
5062:
5030:Jewellery making
4436:Britannia silver
4385:
4194:
4016:
4009:
4002:
3993:
3738:Edward D. Libbey
3708:Frederick Carder
3288:
3281:
3274:
3265:
2925:Glass production
2918:
2911:
2904:
2895:
2629:Ion implantation
2384:Glass transition
2357:
2350:
2343:
2334:
2278:
2158:
2157:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2074:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1960:
1954:
1947:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1861:
1850:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1812:(5): 170. 1893.
1801:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1655:
1646:
1645:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1596:
1583:
1582:
1564:
1539:
1513:
1504:
1503:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1434:
1433:
1425:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1363:
1346:
1331:Einar Hakonarson
1326:
1310:
1294:
1266:
1253:, c. 1425–1450,
1246:
1226:
1095:
973:
961:
908:filling stations
876:signs, interior
650:
642:
632:
626:
620:
614:
604:
586:
580:
573:Kawade Shibatarō
556:
550:
537:
514:
372:Migration Period
368:Byzantine enamel
293:Battersea Shield
225:American English
212:
206:
193:
152:laundry machines
49:porcelain enamel
21:
5070:
5069:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5015:Decorative arts
5005:Vitreous enamel
4995:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4947:
4905:
4894:Spondylus shell
4852:
4774:
4545:
4531:Stainless steel
4482:
4466:Sterling silver
4426:Precious metal
4421:
4389:Precious metals
4372:
4336:
4238:
4185:
4025:
4020:
3990:
3985:
3823:
3817:
3808:John M. Whitall
3793:W. E. S. Turner
3686:
3674:
3668:
3649:Watts & Co.
3369:Caithness Glass
3301:
3295:
3292:
3262:
3257:
3253:Glass recycling
3236:
3189:
3095:Enamelled glass
3017:
3011:
3002:Diamond turning
2992:Flame polishing
2934:
2928:
2922:
2892:
2887:
2823:Glass electrode
2818:Glass databases
2795:
2789:
2727:
2721:
2653:
2587:
2563:Bioactive glass
2549:
2535:Vitreous enamel
2520:Thoriated glass
2515:Tellurite glass
2500:Soda–lime glass
2470:Gold ruby glass
2440:Cranberry glass
2393:
2367:
2361:
2288:
2275:
2255:Maryon, Herbert
2253:
2244:
2242:Further reading
2166:
2161:
2154:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:Lucie-Smith, 84
2123:
2119:
2109:
2107:
2106:on 13 July 2009
2094:
2093:
2089:
2085:Lucie-Smith, 83
2084:
2077:
2073:Campbell, 7, 42
2072:
2068:
2064:Campbell, 38-42
2063:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1948:
1941:
1932:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1863:
1862:
1853:
1840:
1836:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1772:
1763:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1729:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1701:
1699:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1673:
1657:
1656:
1649:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1611:
1598:
1597:
1586:
1579:
1566:
1565:
1542:
1514:
1507:
1495:(30): 173–180,
1482:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1448:
1437:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1384:Oskar Schindler
1374:
1367:
1364:
1355:
1347:
1338:
1327:
1318:
1311:
1302:
1295:
1286:
1267:
1258:
1247:
1238:
1227:
1218:
1189:
1172:
1158:
1109:Enamelled glass
984:
977:
974:
965:
962:
814:
797:Bernard Hesling
739:
666:
637:introduced the
607:Namikawa Sōsuke
540:Kaji Tsunekichi
495:
487:Jingtai Emperor
459:
397:Mosan metalwork
337:
321:Anglo-Saxon art
305:Pliny the Elder
303:(400–300 BC).
249:
233:
221:British English
186:Old High German
184:comes from the
136:cooking vessels
91:enamelled glass
45:Vitreous enamel
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5068:
5066:
5058:
5057:
5055:Ceramic glazes
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
4997:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4955:Related topics
4952:
4949:
4948:
4946:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4929:
4923:
4917:
4915:
4911:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4897:
4896:
4886:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4819:
4818:
4813:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4782:
4780:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
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4667:
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4657:
4652:
4647:
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4637:
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4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
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4592:
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4327:Wire sculpture
4324:
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4309:
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4299:
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3968:
3963:
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3948:
3943:
3941:Satsuma Kiriko
3938:
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3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
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3898:
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3616:
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3606:
3601:
3596:
3594:Royal Brierley
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3574:PPG Industries
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
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3499:Johns Manville
3496:
3491:
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3484:Liuli Gongfang
3481:
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3376:
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3359:Bormioli Rocco
3356:
3351:
3346:
3344:Berengo Studio
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3309:Anchor Hocking
3305:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3276:
3268:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3250:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3232:Volcanic glass
3229:
3227:Vitrified sand
3224:
3215:
3210:
3208:Opal formation
3205:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3185:Tempered glass
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3150:Polished plate
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
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3107:
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3097:
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2825:
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2805:
2799:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2785:Tempered glass
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2755:DNA microarray
2752:
2750:Dealkalization
2747:
2742:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2723:
2722:
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2719:
2714:
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2624:Glass modeling
2621:
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2606:
2601:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2588:
2586:
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2580:
2575:
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2557:
2555:Glass-ceramics
2551:
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2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2495:Silicate glass
2492:
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2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
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2437:
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2399:
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2369:
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2366:science topics
2362:
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2330:
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2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2287:
2286:External links
2284:
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2279:
2273:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2224:
2206:
2189:
2179:V&A Museum
2165:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2152:
2135:
2126:
2117:
2087:
2075:
2066:
2057:
2048:
2044:British Museum
2036:
2027:
2018:
2009:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1973:
1964:
1955:
1939:
1917:
1899:
1894:iranreview.org
1881:
1874:
1851:
1845:, pp.182-188,
1834:
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1770:
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1727:
1709:
1683:
1647:
1624:
1609:
1584:
1577:
1540:
1505:
1475:
1460:
1451:
1435:
1423:"Enamel"
1420:, ed. (1911).
1418:Chisholm, Hugh
1409:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1386:
1381:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1366:Iranian enamel
1365:
1358:
1356:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1335:In the forest,
1328:
1321:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1303:
1296:
1289:
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1279:British Museum
1271:Royal Gold Cup
1268:
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1221:
1217:
1214:
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1168:Main article:
1157:
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1124:
1118:
1112:
1102:
1101:
1098:Margret Craver
1085:
1079:
1069:
1059:
1056:Royal Gold Cup
1045:
1044:
1040:Limoges enamel
1036:
1035:is an example.
1026:
983:
980:
979:
978:
975:
968:
966:
963:
956:
916:Lustron Houses
813:
810:
785:Alexei Maximov
738:
735:
665:
662:
494:
491:
476:Xuande Emperor
458:
455:
409:Limoges enamel
336:
333:
313:Hadrian's Wall
248:
245:
232:
229:
216:Life of Leo IV
132:decorative art
47:, also called
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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4985:
4982:
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4977:
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4965:
4962:
4960:
4959:Body piercing
4957:
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4848:Tortoiseshell
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4207:
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4204:Bench jeweler
4202:
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4192:
4188:
4180:
4177:
4175:
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3814:
3813:Caspar Wistar
3811:
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3743:Dante Marioni
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3733:Deming Jarves
3731:
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3718:Henry Crimmel
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3654:World Kitchen
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3554:Owens Corning
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3204:
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3200:
3198:
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3192:
3186:
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3181:
3178:
3176:
3175:Stained glass
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3160:Rippled glass
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
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3128:
3126:
3123:
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3108:
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3101:
3100:Flashed glass
3098:
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3093:
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2973:
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2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
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2948:
2947:Fritted glass
2945:
2943:
2940:
2939:
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2914:
2912:
2907:
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2730:
2724:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:Optical fiber
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2649:Vitrification
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:Glass melting
2617:
2615:
2614:Glass forming
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2579:
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2560:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:Uranium glass
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2510:Soluble glass
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
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2491:
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2486:
2483:
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2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2425:Ceramic glaze
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2396:
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2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2274:0-486-22702-2
2270:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2230:, 1975, OUP,
2229:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2187:0-11-290385-1
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2167:
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2155:
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2139:
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2067:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1929:. Daao.org.au
1928:
1921:
1918:
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1534:
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1526:
1525:0-520-21877-9
1522:
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1395:
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1387:
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1382:
1379:
1378:Fred Uhl Ball
1376:
1375:
1371:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1345:
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1336:
1332:
1325:
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1304:
1300:
1293:
1288:
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1280:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1255:The Cloisters
1252:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
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1186:
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1155:
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1151:
1143:
1142:Safed chalwan
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1104:Other types:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1062:Plique-à-jour
1060:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
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981:
972:
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949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
930:
928:
923:
919:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:storage silos
898:
894:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
870:
865:
863:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
835:
831:
826:
818:
811:
809:
806:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
777:
775:
771:
770:George Stubbs
767:
763:
759:
751:
747:
743:
736:
734:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
698:
696:
692:
687:
683:
679:
678:Mughal Empire
670:
663:
661:
658:
654:
653:stained glass
649:
648:
647:plique-à-jour
641:
636:
631:
625:
619:
613:
608:
603:
598:
594:
590:
585:
579:
578:nagare-gusuri
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
555:
549:
543:
541:
536:
530:
526:
518:
513:
508:
504:
499:
492:
490:
488:
484:
479:
477:
468:
463:
456:
454:
451:
449:
445:
441:
436:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
392:
387:
383:
381:
380:finift enamel
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
350:
349:Jean de Court
346:
341:
334:
332:
329:
324:
322:
318:
317:hanging bowls
314:
310:
306:
302:
301:Witham Shield
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
270:
266:
262:
257:
255:
246:
242:
241:Roman Britain
237:
230:
228:
226:
222:
218:
217:
211:
205:
201:
197:
192:
187:
183:
178:
176:
172:
171:enameled wire
168:
163:
161:
157:
156:refrigerators
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
103:
99:
98:
93:
92:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
39:
36:
32:
19:
4984:Wearable art
4979:Phaleristics
4974:Metalworking
4879:Gutta-percha
4655:Lapis lazuli
4441:Colored gold
4322:Stonesetting
4276:
3851:Chevron bead
3803:Paolo Venini
3748:Antonio Neri
3728:A. H. Heisey
3639:Vallérysthal
3599:Saint-Gobain
3519:Mosser Glass
3349:Blenko Glass
3319:Ardagh Group
3314:Arc Holdings
3180:Studio glass
3155:Porous glass
3120:Glass mosaic
3105:Forest glass
3016:Artistic and
2858:Porous glass
2813:Safety glass
2770:Porous glass
2728:modification
2540:Wood's glass
2534:
2460:Fused quartz
2435:Cobalt glass
2389:Supercooling
2294:– historical
2263:
2259:"Enamelling"
2227:
2222:google books
2209:
2195:
2170:
2143:
2138:
2129:
2120:
2108:. Retrieved
2104:the original
2099:
2090:
2069:
2060:
2051:
2039:
2030:
2021:
2012:
2003:
1994:
1985:
1976:
1967:
1958:
1950:
1931:. Retrieved
1920:
1911:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1865:
1842:
1837:
1829:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1787:. Retrieved
1782:
1773:
1762:. Retrieved
1758:
1718:
1712:
1700:. Retrieved
1695:
1686:
1674:. Retrieved
1662:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1600:
1568:
1537:Google books
1516:
1492:
1488:
1478:
1469:
1463:
1454:
1449:Osborne, 331
1427:
1412:
1403:
1351:Louis George
1349:
1334:
1275:basse-taille
1274:
1190:
1177:
1173:
1147:
1135:
1103:
1052:Basse-taille
1046:
1017:
950:
938:praseodymium
931:
924:
920:
912:bus stations
882:cooking pots
866:
851:
839:
834:lavender oil
801:
789:Leonid Efros
781:Soviet Union
778:
755:
745:
730:
710:Jean Chardin
699:
681:
675:
640:shōtai-jippō
559:
544:
521:
483:Ming dynasty
480:
472:
452:
437:
429:basse-taille
411:was made in
405:goldsmithing
395:
353:
325:
278:
258:
250:
214:
181:
179:
167:enamel paint
164:
125:
116:Ming dynasty
101:
95:
89:
75:
64:
48:
44:
43:
5050:Ceramic art
4921:Art jewelry
4745:Tiger's eye
4650:Labradorite
4600:Chrysocolla
4595:Chrysoberyl
4511:Mokume-gane
4488:Base metals
4260:centrifugal
4229:Silversmith
4104:Ferronnière
4054:Belt buckle
4049:Belly chain
3876:Dragontrail
3861:CorningWare
3773:Otto Schott
3763:Flavio Poli
3691:Glassmakers
3659:Xinyi Glass
3604:Saint-Louis
3514:Moser Glass
3414:Franz Mayer
3130:Lampworking
3070:Crown glass
3065:Cased glass
3060:Caneworking
3055:Broad sheet
3050:Blown plate
2883:Glass fiber
2848:Glass cloth
2592:Preparation
2568:CorningWare
2450:Flint glass
2445:Crown glass
2398:Formulation
2034:Campbell, 7
1407:Campbell, 6
1283:Saint Agnes
1235:reliquaries
1072:Ronde bosse
1012:ronde bosse
874:advertising
758:Art Nouveau
750:DRU factory
746:Grey clouds
505:, with the
433:ronde-bosse
423:period. In
401:reliquaries
356:Middle Ages
263:rings from
254:Mesopotamia
148:dishwashers
4999:Categories
4755:Tourmaline
4700:Prasiolite
4575:Aventurine
4446:Crown gold
4348:Draw plate
4297:Metal clay
4234:Watchmaker
4224:Lapidarist
4209:Clockmaker
4084:Collar pin
4079:Chatelaine
3906:Millefiori
3824:and brands
3822:Trademarks
3698:John Adams
3569:Pilkington
3474:Kosta Boda
3140:Millefiori
3040:Beadmaking
2962:Glass wool
2935:techniques
2933:Commercial
2927:techniques
2878:Windshield
2712:Refraction
2672:Dispersion
2480:Milk glass
2475:Lead glass
2236:0198661134
2218:0521452570
2204:0500203652
2164:References
1933:2013-12-25
1912:vea.org.uk
1764:2020-10-16
1638:The Studio
1610:1874780137
1458:Ogden, 166
1115:Stenciling
1088:En résille
1066:Mérode Cup
854:Mohs scale
812:Properties
686:Shah Jahan
635:Ando Jubei
503:Ando Jubei
425:Gothic art
421:Romanesque
391:Kievan Rus
376:Kievan Rus
343:Detail of
289:Sarmatians
200:Old French
198:) via the
146:, such as
144:appliances
102:enamelling
5045:Glass art
4901:Toadstone
4838:Operculum
4765:Variscite
4760:Turquoise
4740:Tanzanite
4675:Moonstone
4670:Marcasite
4665:Malachite
4590:Carnelian
4565:Amazonite
4552:gemstones
4526:Pinchbeck
4471:Argentium
4461:Shibuichi
4402:Palladium
4381:Materials
4317:Soldering
4307:Polishing
4282:Engraving
4277:Enameling
4243:Processes
4214:Goldsmith
4149:Tie chain
4124:Neck ring
4114:Lapel pin
4023:Jewellery
3971:Waterford
3961:Vitrolite
3936:Ravenhead
3886:Fire-King
3871:Cristallo
3866:Cranberry
3723:Friedrich
3675:companies
3644:Waterford
3629:Swarovski
3564:Phu Phong
3534:O-I Glass
3454:Holophane
3429:Glaverbel
3379:Crystalex
3302:companies
3222:Impactite
3213:Sea glass
3125:Glassware
3085:Engraving
3075:Cut glass
3035:Glass art
3030:Art glass
3025:Āina-kāri
2745:Corrosion
2644:Viscosity
2599:Annealing
1818:2150-6256
1737:853452453
1671:1475-1372
1148:See also
1127:Serigraph
1121:Sgraffito
1082:Grisaille
1029:Champlevé
1023:Cloisonné
1010:badge in
946:neodymium
890:cast iron
847:cast iron
843:aluminium
793:Australia
706:Meenakari
697:Limited.
584:uchidashi
467:cloisonné
440:Mannerist
417:champlevé
364:cloisonné
360:Byzantine
328:champlevé
319:of early
261:Mycenaean
180:The word
140:cast-iron
128:jewellery
120:cloisonné
55:powdered
18:Enameling
5020:Coatings
4969:Gemology
4943:Fineness
4934:(purity)
4869:Bog-wood
4816:Precious
4796:Ammolite
4735:Sunstone
4725:Sodalite
4720:Sapphire
4680:Obsidian
4620:Fluorite
4610:Diopside
4570:Amethyst
4550:Mineral
4541:Tungsten
4536:Titanium
4451:Electrum
4407:Platinum
4292:Kazaziye
4287:Filigree
4265:lost-wax
4164:Toe ring
4154:Tie clip
4129:Pectoral
4119:Necklace
4094:Cufflink
4069:Bracelet
4064:Bolo tie
4044:Barrette
3836:Bohemian
3768:Salviati
3579:Preciosa
3544:Orrefors
3439:Hadeland
3334:Baccarat
3170:Slumping
2982:Pressing
2863:Pre-preg
2667:Achromat
2410:Bioglass
2405:AgInSbTe
2257:(1971).
2173:, 1983,
2110:29 March
1826:25582341
1619:42476594
1372:See also
893:bathtubs
762:bibelots
691:Calcutta
630:cloisons
624:cloisons
589:repoussé
509:, using
465:Chinese
444:inkwells
285:Caucasus
86:ceramics
65:vitreous
61:vitreous
5010:Pottery
4964:Fashion
4938:Finding
4786:Abalone
4695:Peridot
4660:Larimar
4645:Kyanite
4630:Howlite
4615:Emerald
4605:Diamond
4478:Tumbaga
4456:Shakudō
4412:Rhodium
4363:Mandrel
4302:Plating
4255:Casting
4250:Carving
4159:Tie pin
4134:Pendant
4109:Genital
4099:Earring
3981:Zerodur
3956:Vitrite
3951:Visions
3946:Tiffany
3916:Opaline
3896:Gorilla
3881:Favrile
3856:Corelle
3846:Burmese
3673:Defunct
3664:Zwiesel
3624:Steuben
3494:Luoyang
3489:Iittala
3399:Fanavid
3394:Duralex
3374:Corning
3364:Borosil
3300:Current
3241:Related
3090:Etching
3045:Blowing
3007:Rolling
2987:Casting
2794:Diverse
2726:Surface
2583:Zerodur
1789:16 July
1702:16 July
1676:16 July
1216:Gallery
1196:Durable
880:walls,
718:Isfahan
714:Safavid
682:mīnākār
602:moriage
512:moriage
413:Limoges
247:Ancient
231:History
210:smaltum
191:smelzan
177:terms.
160:signage
112:Chinese
70:vitreus
4928:(mass)
4864:Bezoar
4770:Zircon
4730:Spinel
4705:Quartz
4640:Jasper
4625:Garnet
4521:Pewter
4506:Copper
4501:Bronze
4428:alloys
4417:Silver
4368:Pliers
4358:Hammer
4270:vacuum
4197:People
4190:Making
4174:pocket
4074:Brooch
4039:Anklet
3976:Wood's
3921:Peking
3911:Murano
3891:Forest
3614:Schott
3609:Seguso
3584:Riedel
3504:Mannok
3479:Libbey
3145:Mirror
3115:Fusing
2796:topics
2659:Optics
2465:GeSbTe
2372:Basics
2271:
2234:
2216:
2202:
2185:
2150:
1872:
1849:, 2017
1824:
1816:
1735:
1725:
1669:
1617:
1607:
1575:
1531:
1523:
1389:Rostov
1231:chasse
1181:nickel
1008:livery
934:cobalt
737:Modern
731:kundan
726:Copper
722:Silver
655:. The
612:shosen
593:relief
535:shippo
529:Taishō
265:Cyprus
204:esmail
182:enamel
154:, and
53:fusing
38:châsse
35:Gothic
4932:Carat
4926:Carat
4914:Terms
4889:Shell
4843:Pearl
4833:Nacre
4823:Ivory
4811:Black
4806:Coral
4801:Copal
4791:Amber
4750:Topaz
4709:smoky
4580:Beryl
4560:Agate
4496:Brass
4341:Tools
4179:strap
4169:Watch
4144:Tiara
4089:Crown
4059:Bindi
4031:Forms
3966:Vycor
3926:Pyrex
3901:Macor
3831:Activ
3549:Osram
3539:Ohara
3424:Glava
3419:Fuyao
3354:Bodum
3324:Asahi
2578:Macor
2545:ZBLAN
2379:Glass
2364:Glass
1822:JSTOR
1396:Notes
1273:with
1257:, nyc
944:, or
830:agate
791:. In
618:musen
525:Meiji
493:Japan
457:China
297:coral
281:Koban
196:smelt
188:word
82:glass
78:metal
57:glass
4884:Hair
4715:Ruby
4690:Opal
4685:Onyx
4635:Jade
4397:Gold
4353:File
4139:Ring
3931:Rona
3589:Rona
3459:Hoya
3389:Daum
2269:ISBN
2232:ISBN
2214:ISBN
2200:ISBN
2183:ISBN
2177:for
2175:HMSO
2148:ISBN
2112:2013
1870:ISBN
1814:ISSN
1791:2020
1733:OCLC
1723:ISBN
1704:2020
1678:2020
1667:ISSN
1615:OCLC
1605:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1529:ISBN
1521:ISBN
1337:1989
1313:St.
1269:The
1006:, a
1002:The
942:iron
927:frit
914:and
897:farm
878:oven
805:frit
787:and
702:Iran
527:and
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