256:
perceive and extract social information from groups and how that extracted information influences downstream judgments and behaviors. In 2018, seminal research introducing the use ensemble coding in the field of social vision was conducted by Briana
Goodale. Goodale's research found that humans can accurately extract sex ratio summaries from ensembles of faces and that this sex ratio provides an early visual cue signaling sense of belonging and fit within group. Specifically, this research found that participants felt a stronger sense of belonging to a given ensemble as members of their own sex increased in the perceived ensemble.
192:
in size. Across all studies, participants were able to accurately encode the mean size of the ensemble of objects, but they were inaccurate when asked if a certain object was a part of the set. Ariely's findings were the first that found statistical summary information emerge in the visual perception of grouped objects.
195:
Consistent with Ariely's findings, follow-up research conducted by Sang Chul Chong and Anne
Treisman in 2003 provided evidence that participants are engaging in summary statistical processes. Their research revealed that participant's maintained high accuracy in encoding the mean size of the stimuli
165:
theorist, was addressing how humans perceive their visual world holistically rather than individually. Gestaltists argued that in object perception, the individual object features were either lost or difficult to perceive and therefore the grouped object was the favored percept. Although
Gestaltists
263:
In 2023, researchers found that people can accurately gauge the average trustworthiness of multiple faces presented together, even at very brief exposure times (as short as 250 ms). The findings suggest that our brains efficiently extract a summary statistic of facial features from crowds, enabling
191:
in 2001 were the first data to support the modern theories of ensemble coding. Ariely used novel experimental paradigms, which he labeled "mean discrimination" and "member identification", to examine how sets of objects are perceived. He conducted three studies involving shape ensembles that varied
135:
has noted that although humans take in large amounts of visual information, adults are only able to process, attend to, and retain up to roughly four items from the visual environment. Furthermore, scientists have found that this visual upper limit capacity exists across various phenomena including
259:
Additional research has uncovered that in as little as 75 milliseconds, participants are able to derive the average sex ratio of an ensemble of faces. Furthermore, within that 75 milliseconds, participants were able to form impressions based on the perceived sex ratio and make inferences about the
247:
Based on the early work of
Anderson, it appears that humans integrate semantic as well as social information into memory using ensemble coding. These findings suggest that social processes may hinge on the same sort of underlying mechanisms that allow people to perceive average object orientation
199:
Additional research has demonstrated that ensemble coding is not limited to the mean size of objects in the ensemble, but that additional content is extracted, such as average line orientation, average spatial location, average number, and statistical summaries such as the variances are detected.
74:
has become particularly sensitive. The brain exploits this redundancy and condenses the information. For example, the leaves of a tree or blades of grass give rise to the percept of 'tree-ness' and 'lawn-ness'. It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability to quickly and accurately
255:
has emerged. Social vision is a field of research that examines how people perceive one another. With the addition of ensemble coding, the field is able to explore people perception, or how people perceive groups of other people. This specific research area focuses on how observers accurately
173:
was one of the earliest to conduct explicit ensemble coding research. Anderson's research into social ensemble coding showed that individuals described by two positive terms were rated more favorably than individuals described by two positive terms and two negative terms. This research on
178:
demonstrated that a weighted mean or average captures how information is integrated rather than the summation. Additional research during this time explored ensemble coding in group attractiveness, shopping preferences, and the perceived badness of criminals.
79:, giving way to a complete and accurate picture of the visual world. Although the individual details of this accurate picture might be inaccessible, the 'gist' of the scene remains accessible. Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens the
70:. Ensemble coding is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. The world is filled with redundant information of which the human
75:
encode ensembles of objects, like leaves on a tree, and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli. Some research suggests that this process provides rough visual information from the entire
219:
ensemble coding has been observed in various psychophysical areas of research. For example, people accurately perceive the average size of objects, motion direction of grouped dots, number, line orientation, and spatial location.
148:
Additional theories in vision science propose that stimuli are represented in the brain individually as small, low resolution, icons stored in templates with limited capacities and are organized through associative links.
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Observers are also able to extract accurate perceptual summaries of high-level features such as the average direction of eye gaze of grouped faces and the average walking direction of a crowd.
208:
People have the ability to encode ensembles of objects along various dimensions. These dimensions have been divided into levels that vary from low-level to high-level feature information.
157:
Throughout its history, ensemble coding been known by many names. Interest in the theory began to emerge in the early 20th century. In its earliest years, ensemble coding was known as
1011:
Anderson, N. H., Lindner, R., & Lopes, L. L. (1973). Integration Theory
Applied to Judgments of Group Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(3), 400-408.
112:
58:. Nonetheless, it remains unclear the extent to which ensemble coding applies to high-level or non-visual stimuli, and the theory remains the subject of active research.
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David
Whitney and Allison Yamanashi Leib have developed an operational and flexible definition stating that ensemble coding should cover the following five concepts:
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Sweeny, Timothy D.; Haroz, Steve; Whitney, David (2013). "Perceiving group behavior: Sensitive ensemble coding mechanisms for biological motion of human crowds".
54:. Experimental evidence tends to support the theory for low-level visual information, such as shapes and sizes, as well as some high-level features such as face
403:
Alt NP, Goodale B, Lick DJ, Johnson KL (March 2019). "Threat in the
Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio".
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Leon, M., Oden, G. C., & Anderson, N. H. (1973). Functional
Measurement of Social Values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(3), 301-310.
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Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T (2014). "From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical perception.". In Werner JS, Chalupa LM (eds.).
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Watamaniuk SN, Sekuler R, Williams DW (1989-01-01). "Direction perception in complex dynamic displays: the integration of direction information".
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group's perceived threat. Specifically, this research found that groups were judged as more threatening as the ratio of men to women increased.
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helped define some of the central principles of object perception, research into modern ensemble coding did not occur until many years later.
853:
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O'Regan JK, Deubel H, Clark JJ, Rensink RA (2000-01-01). "Picture
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Ensemble information at each level of representation can be precise relative to the processing of single objects at that level.
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Ensemble representations can be extracted with a temporal resolution at or beyond the temporal resolution of individual
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even with short stimuli presentations as low as 50 milliseconds, memory delays, and object distribution differences.
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Halberda J, Sires SF, Feigenson L (July 2006). "Multiple spatially overlapping sets can be enumerated in parallel".
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Some findings suggest lower-level and higher-level information may be processed by independent cognitive mechanisms
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612:"The capacity of visual short-term memory is set both by visual information load and by number of objects"
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For the approach to creating consistent software applications across various devices and interfaces, see
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Koffka, K. (1935). The Principles of Gestalt Psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.
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1524:"Independent ensemble processing mechanisms for high-level and low-level perceptual features"
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Goodale, Brianna M.; Alt, Nicholas P.; Lick, David J.; Johnson, Kerri L. (November 2018).
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Haberman J, Whitney D (May 2012). "Ensemble Perception". In Wolfe J, Robertson L (eds.).
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1652:"Ensemble perception: Trust judgments of crowds of faces happen at the blink of an eye"
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1190:"The representation of simple ensemble visual features outside the focus of attention"
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Ensemble perception is the ability to discriminate or reproduce a statistical moment.
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Ariely D (March 2001). "Seeing sets: representation by statistical properties".
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ensemble coding extends to more complex, higher level objects including faces.
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Some research has found countering evidence to the theory of ensemble coding.
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in the processing and storing of visual representations through the use of
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440:"Representing multiple objects as an ensemble enhances visual cognition"
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Anderson, Norman H. (1971). "Integration theory and attitude change".
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1557:"Independence of viewpoint and identity in face ensemble processing"
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Haberman, Jason; Brady, Timothy F; Alvarez, George A (August 2014).
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
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Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance
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1334:"Perceiving Crowd Attention: Ensemble Perception of a Crowd's Gaze"
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108:
Single-item recognition is not a prerequisite for ensemble coding.
42:. Ensemble coding proposes that such information is recorded via
1483:"Simultaneous encoding of direction at a local and global scale"
1146:"The computation of orientation statistics from visual texture"
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Ensemble perception requires the integration of multiple items.
586:
From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman
38:
about the internal representation of groups of objects in the
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Sama, Marco A; Nestor, Adrian; Cant, Jonathan S (May 2019).
1285:"Efficiencies for the statistics of size discrimination"
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Extensive amounts of information are available to the
531:"Seeing the mean: ensemble coding for sets of faces"
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quick social judgments that may influence behavior.
1332:Sweeny, Timothy D.; Whitney, David (October 2014).
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Low resolution representations and limited capacity
251:In recent years, ensemble coding in the field of
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235:Independence of low- and high-level information
140:, object tracking, and feature representation.
1283:Solomon JA, Morgan M, Chubb C (October 2011).
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367:. Oxford University Press. pp. 339–349.
343:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 695–710.
8:
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405:Social Psychological and Personality Science
290:Whitney D, Yamanashi Leib A (January 2018).
1607:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
373:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199734337.003.0030
1100:"Representation of statistical properties"
487:"Representation of statistical properties"
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1481:Watamaniuk SN, McKee SP (February 1998).
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610:Alvarez GA, Cavanagh P (February 2004).
248:and average object direction of motion.
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1098:Chong SC, Treisman A (February 2003).
583:Wolfe J, Robertson L (December 2011).
485:Chong SC, Treisman A (February 2003).
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1144:Dakin SC, Watt RJ (November 1997).
628:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502006.x
529:Haberman J, Whitney D (June 2009).
309:10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232
1188:Alvarez GA, Oliva A (April 2008).
971:Journal of Experimental Psychology
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243:Social vision and ensemble coding
1254:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01746.x
1206:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02098.x
844:. In Adler K, Pointon M (eds.).
365:From Perception to Consciousness
1487:Perception & Psychophysics
848:. Cambridge University Press.
341:In The New Visual Neuroscience
224:High-level feature information
1:
1650:Dolan, Eric W. (2024-02-24).
1163:10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00133-8
1117:10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5
846:Vision: Coding and efficiency
504:10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5
212:Low-level feature information
161:. In 1923, Max Wertheimer, a
1449:10.1016/0042-6989(89)90173-9
444:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
589:. Oxford University Press.
296:Annual Review of Psychology
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873:. New York: Appleton-Cent.
456:10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003
15:
1656:PsyPost - Psychology News
840:Nakayama K (1993-05-13).
438:Alvarez GA (March 2011).
204:Levels of ensemble coding
1350:10.1177/0956797614544510
417:10.1177/1948550617731498
1058:10.1111/1467-9280.00327
725:10.1080/135062800394766
128:Limited visual capacity
886:Psychological Research
811:10.1006/cogp.1998.0698
91:Operational definition
36:cognitive neuroscience
32:summary representation
1567:(2): 10.1167/19.5.2.
1338:Psychological Science
1242:Psychological Science
1194:Psychological Science
1046:Psychological Science
616:Psychological Science
292:"Ensemble Perception"
1682:Cognitive psychology
933:Psychological Review
871:Cognitive Psychology
799:Cognitive Psychology
176:impression formation
18:ensemble programming
674:1997Natur.390..279L
46:, particularly the
28:ensemble perception
1620:10.1037/xge0000450
1541:10.1167/14.10.1322
1500:10.3758/BF03206028
898:10.1007/BF00410640
869:Neisser U (1967).
163:Gestalt psychology
113:object recognition
44:summary statistics
1613:(11): 1660–1676.
1561:Journal of Vision
1528:Journal of Vision
1344:(10): 1903–1913.
1289:Journal of Vision
855:978-0-521-44769-0
596:978-0-19-990984-1
382:978-0-19-973433-7
120:Opposing theories
34:, is a theory in
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