Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

1182:. Every year, the burning of coal without the use of available pollution control technology causes thousands of preventable deaths in the United States. A study commissioned by the Maryland nurses association in 2006 found that emissions from just six of Maryland's coal-burning plants caused 700 deaths per year nationwide, including 100 in Maryland. Since installation of pollution abatement equipment on one of these six, the Brandon Shores plant, now "produces 90 percent less nitrogen oxide, an ingredient of smog; 95 percent less sulfur, which causes acid rain; and vastly lower fractions of other pollutants." In the United States, an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005–2014. 815: 602:

interrupted. What becomes of the land surface after mining is determined by the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to a land use condition is not equal to the original use. Existing land uses (such as livestock grazing, crop and timber production) are temporarily eliminated in mining areas. High-value, intensive-land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations. If mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area.

863:

production of aquatic organisms used as food by other species. These changes destroy the habitat of valued species and may enhance habitat for less-desirable species. Existing conditions are already marginal for some freshwater fish in the United States, and the sedimentation of their habitat may result in their extinction. The heaviest sediment pollution of drainage normally comes within 5 to 25 years after mining. In some areas, unvegetated spoil piles continue to erode even 50 to 65 years after mining.

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is caused when coal oxidizes and airflow is insufficient to dissipate heat; this more commonly occurs in stockpiles and waste piles, rarely in bedded coal underground. Where coal fires occur, there is attendant air pollution from emission of smoke and noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Coal seam fires may burn underground for decades, threatening destruction of forests, homes, roadways and other valuable infrastructure. The best-known coal-seam fire may be the one which led to the permanent evacuation of

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environment than does the normal operation of a similarly productive nuclear plant. This comparison does not consider the rest of the fuel cycle, i.e., coal and uranium mining and refining and waste disposal. The operation of a 1000-MWe coal-fired power plant results in a nuclear radiation dose of 490 person-rem/year, compared to 136 person-rem/year, for an equivalent nuclear power plant including uranium mining, reactor operation and waste disposal.

5667: 1435:, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the US in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US. 1439: 5603: 1020: 5591: 606:

a coal strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining. Paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to the disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic features, unless they are removed beforehand.

5655: 5627: 5615: 3740: 70: 665:; and increased infiltration of precipitation on spoil piles. Where coal or carbonaceous shale is present, increased infiltration may result in: increased runoff of poor-quality water and erosion from spoil piles, recharge of poor-quality water to shallow groundwater aquifers and poor-quality water flow to nearby streams. 38: 1100:

Fires sometimes occur in coal beds underground. When coal beds are exposed, the fire risk is increased. Weathered coal can also increase ground temperatures if it is left on the surface. Almost all fires in solid coal are ignited by surface fires caused by people or lightning. Spontaneous combustion

830:

leach into groundwater from unlined ponds or landfills, and can pollute aquifers for decades or centuries. The EPA classified 44 sites in the US as potential hazards to communities. Such a classification means that the waste sites could cause death and significant property damage if an event such as

605:

Strip mining eliminates existing vegetation, destroys the genetic soil profile, displaces or destroys wildlife and habitat, alters current land uses, and to some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area mined. Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in

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EPA. (2012-02-16). "National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants From Coal- and Oil-Fired Electric Utility Steam Generating Units and Standards of Performance for Fossil-Fuel-Fired Electric Utility, Industrial-Commercial-Institutional, and Small Industrial-Commercial-Institutional Steam

1295:

Coal mining releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Methane is the naturally occurring product of the decay of organic matter as coal deposits are formed with increasing depths of burial, rising temperatures, and rising pressure over geological time. A portion of the methane produced is absorbed

854:

The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or displacement of species in areas of excavation and spoil piling. Pit and spoil areas are not capable of providing food and cover for most species of wildlife. Mobile wildlife species like game animals, birds, and predators leave these areas. More

625:

Removal of soil and rock overburden covering the coal resource may cause burial and loss of topsoil, exposes parent material, and creates large infertile wastelands. Soil disturbance and associated compaction result in conditions conducive to erosion. Soil removal from the area to be surface-mined

1308:

potential 21 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year timeline. The process of mining can release pockets of methane. These gases may pose a threat to coal miners, as well as a source of air pollution. This is due to the relaxation of pressure and fracturing of the strata during

862:

The effects of sediment on aquatic wildlife vary with the species and the amount of contamination. High sediment levels can kill fish directly, bury spawning beds, reduce light transmission, alter temperature gradients, fill in pools, spread streamflows over wider, shallower areas, and reduce the

768:

due to the accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various transpiration and evaporation losses, become acute when many coal-fired boilers and power stations are installed in a river basin. River water sodicity affects downstream cultivated river basins located in China, India,

617:

Surface mining disrupts virtually all aesthetic elements of the landscape. Alteration of land forms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations. New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative

601:

in the surrounding land. The land surface is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed. If mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site; economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and medicinal plants are

1379:

Excluding contained waste and unintentional releases from nuclear plants, coal-plants carry more radioactive wastes into the environment than nuclear plants per unit of produced energy. Plant-emitted radiation carried by coal-derived fly ash delivers 100 times more radiation to the surrounding

660:

Surface mining may impair groundwater in numerous ways: by drainage of usable water from shallow aquifers; lowering of water levels in adjacent areas and changes in flow direction within aquifers; contamination of usable aquifers below mining operations due to infiltration (percolation) of

1171:(WHO) and other organizations calculated that coal particulates pollution cause approximately one million deaths annually across the world, which is approximately one third of all premature deaths related to all air pollution sources, for example in Istanbul by lung diseases and cancer. 866:

The presence of acid-forming materials exposed as a result of surface mining can affect wildlife by eliminating habitat and by causing direct destruction of some species. Lesser concentrations can suppress productivity, growth rate and reproduction of many aquatic species. Acids, dilute

858:

Degradation of aquatic habitats is a major impact by surface mining and may be apparent many miles from a mining site. Sediment contamination of surface water is common with surface mining. Sediment yields may increase a thousand times their former level as a result of strip mining.

1155:). As of 2008, mercury levels in bald eagles in the Catskills had reached new heights. "People are exposed to methylmercury almost entirely by eating contaminated fish and wildlife that are at the top of aquatic food chains." Ocean fish account for the majority of human exposure to 850:

Surface mining of coal causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The impact on wildlife stems primarily from disturbing, removing and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts are short-term and confined to the mine site however others have far-reaching, long-term effects.

703:

landfills. EPA promulgated more stringent requirements for ash ponds and landfills in its first national regulation in 2015. Subsequently, there has been litigation and several amendments or proposed revisions to the regulations. Final regulations are pending as of December 2020.

867:

concentrations of heavy metals, and high alkalinity can cause severe damage to wildlife in some areas. The duration of acidic-waste pollution can be long; estimates of the time required to leach exposed acidic materials in the Eastern United States range from 800 to 3,000 years.

1518:

explosions, which can engulf an entire pit. Most of these risks can be greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in some parts of the developed world. Modern mining in the US results in approximately 30 deaths per year due to mine accidents.

925:

generation, the latter could save 51,999 American lives per year if solar were to replace coal-based energy generation in the U.S. Due to the decline of jobs related to coal mining a study found that approximately one American suffers a premature death from coal

1309:

mining activity, which gives rise to safety concerns for the coal miners if not managed properly. The buildup of pressure in the strata can lead to explosions during (or after) the mining process if prevention methods, such as "methane draining", are not taken.

684:

the sulfuric-acid production continues, whether the mine is still operating or not. Also waste piles and coal storage piles can yield sediment to streams. Surface waters may be rendered unfit for agriculture, human consumption, bathing, or other household uses.

1408:. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). Rates may be higher than reported in some regions. 1194:

of Energy, over the decade from 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal would double over its present value, if external costs were taken into account. These external costs include damage to the environment and to human health from

920:

was about 52,000 each year. When compared to electricity produced from natural gas via hydraulic fracturing, coal electricity is 10–100 times more toxic, largely due to the amount of particulate matter emitted during combustion. When coal is compared to solar

613:

and hauling of soil and coal increase the quantity of dust around mining operations. Dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, has an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers and nearby residents.

580:, although work related coal deaths has declined substantially as safety measures have been enacted and underground mining has given up market share to surface mining. Underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and 2333: 831:

a storm, a terrorist attack or a structural failure caused a spill. EPA estimated that about 300 dry landfills and wet storage ponds are used around the country to store ash from coal-fired power plants. The storage facilities hold the

633:) has damaged thousands of houses, and the coal-mining industries have set aside large sums in funding for future subsidence damages as part of their insurance and state-subsidy schemes. In a particularly spectacular case in the German 618:

cover is removed and overburden dumped to the side. Dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created (affecting sight, sound, and smell). Residents of local communities often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant. In case of

1430:

However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions.

855:

sedentary animals like invertebrates, reptiles, burrowing rodents, and small mammals may be destroyed. The community of microorganisms and nutrient-cycling processes are upset by movement, storage, and redistribution of soil.

1215:, with coal being the main fossil fuel accountable, and this was before the external cost of global warming from these sources was even included. The study found that environmental and health costs of coal alone were €60/ 3349: 1373: 622:, tops are removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock removed is deposited in nearby valleys, hollows and depressions, resulting in blocked (and contaminated) waterways. 1376:'s 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/year for older plants or 1 μSv/year for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. 3037: 2171: 2398:

Caiazzo, F., Ashok, A., Waitz, I.A., Yim, S.H. and Barrett, S.R., 2013. Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part I: Quantifying the impact of major sectors in 2005. Atmospheric Environment, 79,

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ExternE-Pol, External costs of current and advanced electricity systems, associated with emissions from the operation of power plants and with the rest of the energy chain, final technical report.

629:

Mine collapses (or mine subsidences) have the potential to produce major effects above ground, which are especially devastating in developed areas. German underground coal-mining (especially in

626:

alters or destroys many natural soil characteristics, and reduces its biodiversity and productivity for agriculture. Soil structure may be disturbed by pulverization or aggregate breakdown.

3592: 2682:"EPA Issues First National Standards for Mercury Pollution from Power Plants/ Historic 'mercury and air toxics standards' meet 20-year old requirement to cut dangerous smokestack emissions" 5503: 1120:

which scatters solar radiation, hence their increase in the atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate that masks some of the warming caused by increased greenhouse gases. Release of SO

2260: 5171: 997:, which are dangerous if released into the environment. While these substances are trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released. 5344: 3029: 1234:

failures in China and India appear to be due to "sulfurous air pollution produced by coal that’s burned to generate electricity. It corrodes the copper circuitry," according to

4780: 4606: 3996: 3964: 3397: 311: 281: 2547: 2515: 5699: 4775: 645: 2178: 4643: 2671:

Human Impacts on Atmospheric Chemistry, by PJ Crutzen and J Lelieveld, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 29: 17 -45 (Volume publication date May 2001)

2207: 2958: 3155: 916:, concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States. More recently, an academic study estimated that the premature deaths from coal related 672:, toxic trace elements, high content of dissolved solids in mine drainage water, and increased sediment loads discharged to streams. When coal surfaces are exposed, 4580: 887:

In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principally coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might.

819: 346: 2629: 4289: 3129: 1892:, Washington, D.C.: Office of Indian Energy and Economic Development, Tribal Energy and Environmental Information Clearinghouse (TEEIC). Retrieved 9 March 2012. 913: 826:

The burning of coal leaves substantial quantities of fly ash, which is usually stored in ash ponds (wet storage) or landfills (dry storage). Pollutants such as

2723: 1392:

is long. The principal hazards are mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse and

4522: 3518: 4406: 3644: 2985: 2153: 1247: 2685: 912:

pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 10,000 lives annually worldwide. A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups, but contested by the

4665: 4623: 3422: 2352: 2934: 641:, causing some damage to houses. Previously, smaller earthquakes had become increasingly common and coal mining was temporarily suspended in the area. 5544: 4660: 4245: 1301: 2359:, Next Big Future, March 2011. Quote: "The World Health Organization and other sources attribute about 1 million deaths/year to coal air pollution." 1296:

by the coal and later released from the coal seam (and surrounding disturbed strata) during the mining process. Methane accounts for 10.5 percent of

4875: 4596: 4314: 4091: 1878: 1603: 1019: 5704: 5231: 5020: 3589: 4188: 1835:

Permanent Regulatory Program Implementing Section 01(b) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: Environmental Impact Statement

563: 3246: 2458: 1855:

The Strip Mining Handbook: A Coalfield Citizens' Guide To Using The Law To Fight Back Against The Ravages Of Strip Mining And Underground Mining

584:

explosions. Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions. Hundreds of people died in coal mine accidents in 2022.

4880: 4843: 4697: 4682: 4601: 4250: 4194: 2244: 489: 5539: 4677: 3371: 2659: 1951: 1811: 1773: 3466: 2863: 2573: 2125: 5561: 4517: 4512: 3182: 1251: 3562: 1975: 5042: 4820: 4638: 4570: 4560: 4543: 4450: 4257: 3441: 1411:

In the United States, an average of 23 coal miners per year died in the decade 2007–2016. Recent U.S. coal-mining disasters include the

3497: 668:

The contamination of both groundwater and nearby streams may be for long periods of time. Deterioration of stream quality results from

609:

The removal of vegetative cover and activities associated with the construction of haul roads, stockpiling of topsoil, displacement of

5471: 5332: 5289: 4785: 3991: 3075: 752:. Also, water-soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the sodium content in water further. Thus river water is converted into 644:

In response to negative land effects of coal mining and the abundance of abandoned mines in the US the federal government enacted the

301: 3273: 3104: 1885: 1643: 5398: 5274: 5091: 4294: 2917: 2320: 814: 181: 3394: 2826: 2603: 2539: 1747: 5631: 5269: 5249: 5196: 5148: 4210: 3012: 2484: 1133: 186: 1665:

Henneman, Lucas; Choirat, Christine; Dedoussi, Irene; Dominici, Francesca; Roberts, Jessica; Zigler, Corwin (24 November 2023).

1093:. In case of cooling towers with sea water makeup, sodium salts are deposited on nearby lands which would convert the land into 5388: 5339: 4765: 4727: 4672: 4142: 3819: 3530: 1857: 1273: 206: 2979:"New research reveals the real costs of electricity in Europe (press release), EC, Research Directorate-General, 25 July 2001" 5456: 4740: 4497: 3672: 2203: 1563: 1424: 1196: 2901: 1465:

in a mine can cause suffocation. The anoxic condition results of depletion of oxygen in enclosed spaces, e.g. by corrosion.

2282: 637:

region (another historical coal-mining area), a suspected mine collapse in 2008 created an earthquake measuring 4.0 on the

5566: 5101: 4633: 3159: 2845: 2771: 1639: 1365: 1212: 1090: 5645: 1139:

In New York State winds deposit mercury from the coal-fired power plants of the Midwest, contaminating the waters of the

1078:

and are transported long distances, making it difficult for other states to achieve healthy levels of pollution control.

5549: 5221: 4750: 4745: 4650: 4527: 4084: 3336:

The estimated 50-year dose commitments to the whole body in millirems per year of plant operation were: coal plant - 1.9

1591: 2103: 652:

plans for future coal mining sites. These plans must be approved by federal or state authorities before mining begins.

4760: 4613: 4575: 2625: 2082:

EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities." 80

3133: 2719: 5619: 5383: 5186: 5143: 4916: 4838: 4692: 4011: 2295:

Permanent Regulatory Program Implementing Section 501(b) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.

1211:

emissions produced by coal. It was estimated that external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1–2% of the

809: 482: 306: 42: 695:

In the United States, due to few federal and state regulations concerning ash ponds, most power plants do not use

5488: 5163: 5138: 5111: 5073: 4990: 4808: 4655: 4618: 4368: 4137: 4132: 4127: 3809: 2894: 2745: 2329:"Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China's Huai River policy" 1551: 1528: 1357: 1168: 905: 416: 3615: 2978: 2150: 1132:

In 2011 U.S. power plants emitted half of the nation's mercury air pollutants. In February 2012, EPA issued the

1027:

During combustion, the reaction between coal and the air produces oxides of carbon, including carbon dioxide (CO

5498: 5493: 5424: 5264: 4770: 4735: 4628: 4555: 4396: 4225: 4161: 4122: 3881: 3794: 3789: 2377: 1443: 1297: 1086: 832: 539: 316: 196: 109: 104: 5483: 3419: 1332:

peaks at 563 parts per million (ppm) in the year 2100. Under the four coal phase-out scenarios, atmospheric CO

2349: 1023:

Illustration of air pollutants generated by U.S. power plants (includes both coal-fired and oil-fired plants)

5607: 5529: 5439: 5181: 5153: 4833: 4470: 4077: 4041: 3638: 2930: 2909: 1102: 638: 373: 2001:

Tiwary, R. K. (1 November 2001). "Environmental Impact of Coal Mining on Water Regime and Its Management".

692:(surface impoundments), groundwater pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers. 5206: 5026: 4968: 4885: 4870: 4755: 4401: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4016: 3824: 2802: 1368:

estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19

748:(washing soda) further reacts with the remaining Ca and Mg in the water to remove / precipitate the total 630: 451: 213: 5683: 5595: 5241: 5118: 4926: 4386: 4309: 3871: 3769: 1903: 1610: 1545: 1265: 1008:

is the most polluted area in the world due to the mining industry and coal plant power stations and the

700: 475: 436: 2873: 2129: 1324:

levels. Their baseline mitigation scenario was a phaseout of global coal emissions by 2050. Under the

1281: 1256: 3250: 680:. As water drains from the mine, the acid moves into the waterways; as long as rain falls on the mine 5434: 5312: 5003: 4973: 4548: 4475: 3876: 3851: 3288: 3208: 3067: 2422: 2010: 1420: 1353: 756:

by eliminating Ca and Mg ions and enhancing Na ions by coal-fired boilers. Soft water application in

446: 296: 176: 154: 5451: 5226: 4460: 4455: 4062:

Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.

3954: 3814: 3714: 3406: 3071: 2485:"Potential lives saved by replacing coal with solar photovoltaic electricity production in the U.S" 1572: 1432: 1136:(MATS) regulation, which requires all coal-fired plants to substantially reduce mercury emissions. 688:

There are five principal technologies used to control water flow at mine sites: diversion systems,

619: 598: 201: 3626: 1438: 527: 5671: 5279: 5211: 5128: 4978: 4943: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4465: 4026: 3969: 3939: 3929: 3886: 3665: 3458: 3312: 3224: 3198: 2577: 2507: 2034: 1803: 1412: 1151:. The mercury is consumed by worms, which are eaten by fish, which are eaten by birds (including 1140: 1075: 741: 669: 441: 271: 233: 191: 5678: 3232: 740:

process precipitates Ca and Mg ions / removes temporary hardness in the water and also converts

3363: 3357: 569:

There are severe health effects caused by burning coal. Worldwide 25 people die early for each

5513: 5176: 4921: 4687: 4480: 4443: 4230: 4184: 4031: 3959: 3906: 3759: 3566: 3367: 3304: 3156:"Where Greenhouse Gases Come From — Energy Explained, Your Guide To Understanding Energy" 2913: 2655: 2440: 2316: 2252: 2026: 1979: 1957: 1947: 1807: 1688: 1533: 1496: 1388:

Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity, and the list of historical coal

1364:, which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from 950: 781: 543: 368: 351: 256: 124: 29: 3438: 3158:. Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy. 13 October 2010. Archived from 17: 5666: 5556: 5123: 5106: 5047: 4938: 4702: 4426: 4299: 4235: 4021: 3774: 3489: 3296: 3216: 2704: 2499: 2430: 2083: 2065: 2018: 1944:

Averting a global environmental collapse : the role of anthropology and local knowledge

1696: 1678: 1492: 1389: 1097:, reducing the fertility of vegetative lands and also cause corrosion of nearby structures. 1056: 745: 649: 577: 511: 363: 3353: 3060: 2102:. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 14 December 2020. 1112:) is released from burning coal. After release, the Sulfur Dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H 1055:

of carbon and sulfur are also produced during the combustion of coal in air. These include

5508: 5429: 5393: 5322: 5296: 5284: 5201: 5133: 5008: 4865: 4487: 4438: 4416: 3719: 3620: 3596: 3445: 3426: 3401: 3320: 3100: 3016: 2965: 2905: 2868: 2849: 2830: 2356: 2157: 1889: 1882: 1861: 1635: 1502: 1472: 1405: 1316:

and Pushker Kharecha published a peer-reviewed scientific study analyzing the effect of a

1313: 1200: 1148: 797: 515: 164: 94: 2823: 1539: 3292: 3212: 2426: 2014: 1751: 1701: 5461: 5317: 5259: 5254: 5096: 4985: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4565: 4502: 4240: 4220: 4179: 4100: 3901: 3829: 3804: 2599: 2086: 1716: 1557: 1458: 1401: 1317: 1305: 1285: 1071: 1036: 1032: 881: 737: 421: 411: 341: 159: 149: 144: 134: 129: 3009: 2707: 1724: 1666: 1089:, etc. emit drift and fog which are also an environmental concern. The drift contains 573:

of electricity generated by coal, around a thousand times more than nuclear or solar.

5693: 5659: 5534: 5466: 5191: 5013: 4998: 4933: 4828: 3658: 3632: 3537: 2511: 2312: 1928: 1854: 1220: 1216: 1156: 1144: 1082: 917: 725: 677: 570: 519: 401: 396: 139: 53: 3316: 3228: 2328: 2038: 736:) which is carried by rainwater to rivers/irrigation water from the ash dump areas. 5419: 5216: 4860: 4850: 4507: 4391: 4304: 4046: 3272:

McBride, J. P.; Moore, R. E.; Witherspoon, J. P.; Blanco, R. E. (8 December 1978).

2411:"Comparative Human Toxicity Impact of Electricity Produced from Shale Gas and Coal" 2304: 1486: 1159:; the full range of sources of methylmercury in ocean fish is not well understood. 1094: 1005: 922: 909: 892: 827: 761: 559: 426: 3300: 2799:"Mercury in stream ecosystems—new studies initiated by the U.S. Geological Survey" 1750:. Arlington, VA: U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Archived from 530:

produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including

2898: 526:, processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, 5446: 4963: 4955: 4215: 3979: 3974: 3916: 3866: 3841: 2899:

What Will Work: Fighting Climate Change with Renewable Energy, Not Nuclear Power

2842: 1774:"China shifts approach to fatal coal mining accidents to ensure supply security" 1289: 1231: 1204: 1191: 1152: 1013: 729: 696: 523: 461: 431: 291: 286: 223: 171: 2775: 2503: 2334:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2245:"Most US coal plants are contaminating groundwater with toxins, analysis finds" 1864:, Washington, D.C.: Environmental Policy Institute, Friends of the Earth, 1990. 5478: 4855: 4492: 3739: 3724: 2022: 1566: – Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere 1454: 1224: 1001: 982: 938: 765: 757: 753: 749: 662: 610: 535: 89: 2256: 2030: 1961: 1692: 1485:, a highly flammable gas that explodes between 5% and 15% – at 25% it causes 941:

and boiler slag) release approximately 20 toxic-release chemicals, including

5654: 4433: 4051: 4036: 3984: 3934: 3924: 3519:

Deconstructing deadly details from China's coal mine safety statistics | CLB

2435: 2410: 2099: 1720: 1683: 1515: 1468: 962: 927: 839: 835:, including the ash captured by equipment designed to reduce air pollution. 717: 456: 378: 276: 266: 3420:

https://www.ornl.gov/sites/default/files/ORNL%20Review%20v26n3-4%201993.pdf

3308: 2444: 2100:"Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities Rulemakings" 2069: 1505:: air containing carbon monoxide which is toxic, even at low concentrations 597:

Strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the

69: 2652:

Unseen Danger: A Tragedy of People, Government and the Centralia Mine Fire

2056:

Kessler, K. A. (1981). "Wet Disposal of Fossil Plant Waste Case History".

1284:. Electric generation using coal burning produces approximately twice the 796:. In the US, discharges to surface waters are regulated by permits in the 4001: 3949: 3856: 3834: 3799: 3779: 3754: 3729: 3220: 2369: 1511: 1478: 1462: 1336:

peaks at 422–446 ppm between 2045 and 2060 and declines thereafter.

990: 974: 958: 789: 785: 689: 681: 634: 507: 406: 358: 251: 218: 114: 99: 2323:). This sentence of the book has a note citing the reference: Yuyu Chen 1802:. Ashgate studies in environmental policy and practice. Burlington, VT: 772:

Pollutant discharges from ash ponds to surface waters typically include

4411: 3861: 3709: 1482: 1361: 1349: 1345: 1208: 1052: 1048: 1009: 966: 942: 934: 793: 773: 721: 713: 555: 551: 547: 531: 84: 3395:"Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste: Scientific American" 3350:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

3274:"Radiological impact of airborne effluents of coal and nuclear plants" 2798: 2749: 2459:"The US could prevent a lot of deaths by switching from coal to solar" 1560: – Gas in an atmosphere with certain absorption characteristicses 1374:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1264:

have been caused by different sources ramping up one after the other (

5414: 3846: 3764: 2204:"Steam Electric Power Generating Effluent Guidelines—2015 Final Rule" 1143:. Mercury is concentrated up the food chain, as it is converted into 994: 978: 970: 954: 699:, leachate collection systems, or other flow controls often found in 673: 261: 228: 1536: – Chemical process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons 1369: 1147:, a toxic compound which harms both wildlife and people who consume 1548: – Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels 4421: 3699: 3645:

Emissions Of Hazardous Air Pollutants From Coal-Fired Power Plants

3610: 3203: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1437: 1255: 1235: 1179: 1175: 1047:). Because of the hydrogenous and nitrogenous components of coal, 1018: 336: 36: 28: 4069: 3247:"Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash, USGS Factsheet 163-97" 3944: 3896: 3784: 3704: 3681: 3579:

possibly from the German word "Dampf" which means steam or vapor

1929:"Impact of Mining Activity on Water Resource: An Overview study" 1416: 1397: 1124:

also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.

986: 946: 777: 562:. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of 331: 119: 61: 5365: 5070: 4806: 4366: 4278: 4159: 4111: 4073: 3654: 3612:

online tool for identifying deaths from particular coal plants.

1667:"Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation" 1609:(Report). American Lung Association. March 2011. Archived from 1554: – Facility that burns fossil fuels to produce electricity 1475:, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion. 37: 3891: 2151:

Managing irrigation water quality, Oregon State University, US

1393: 1174:

Pollutants emitted by burning coal include fine particulates (

581: 326: 5328:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

3410:, Nature America, Inc., 13 December 2007. Web. 18 March 2011. 1219:, with the energy sources of the lowest external costs being 2172:"River basin development phases and implications of closure" 1800:

Mining environmental policy: Comparing Indonesia and the USA

1404:(black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced 2229: 1604:

Toxic Air: The Case for Cleaning Up Coal-fired Power Plants

1372:/year to their immediate neighbours in a 500 m radius. The 2720:"Basic Information about Mercury and Air Toxics Standards" 2337:, volume 110, number 32, 6 August 2013, pages 12936-12941. 760:(surface or ground water) converts the fertile soils into 5504:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

1272:

The combustion of coal is the largest contributor to the

2540:"These Two Industries Kill More People Than They Employ" 1360:. Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive 769:

Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia, western US, etc.

3650: 1568:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

3616:

EPA fact sheet: Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR)

3490:"No Survivors Found After West Virginia Mine Disaster" 3061:"Testimony of James E. Hansen at Iowa Utilities Board" 2684:. EPA. 21 December 2011. Press Release. Archived from 5643: 5345:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

2409:

Chen, Lu; Miller, Shelie A.; Ellis, Brian R. (2017).

1725:"What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?" 1356:

which, if released into the environment, may lead to

822:

site taken the day after the event (23 December 2008)

4007:

Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

3101:"Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution" 2626:"Much objection against mining next to Marloth Park" 1636:"Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution" 1108:

Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of Sulfur Dioxide (SO

504:

health and environmental impact of the coal industry

5522: 5407: 5376: 5305: 5240: 5162: 5084: 5035: 4952: 4909: 4819: 4726: 4589: 4536: 4379: 4203: 4172: 3997:

Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia

3915: 3747: 3688: 3030:"Scientists studying pollution damage to computers" 2843:

Fact Sheet 146-00 : Mercury in the Environment

2309:

Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis

2064:(2). American Society of Civil Engineers: 199–208. 1499:

gas, stink damp can explode and is also very toxic.

1074:react in the atmosphere to form fine particles and 3621:Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution 3531:"Coal Mining Fatalities by State by Calendar Year" 3132:. The Coal Authority. October 2007. Archived from 646:Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 2824:"Bald Eagles in Catskills Show Increasing Mercury 2230:"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System" 1450:Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps: 1427:in West Virginia killed 29 miners in April 2010. 1300:created through human activity. According to the 5545:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 3359:Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation 2797:Brigham ME, Krabbenhoft DP, Hamilton PA (2003). 1564:Health effects of atmospheric particulate matter 1471:: similar to black damp, after damp consists of 3639:Map of Death and Disease from U.S. Power Plants 2959:A Coal-Fired Plant That Is Eager for U.S. Rules 2576:. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 2126:"Precipitation softening, GE Power & Water" 1514:explosions can trigger the much more dangerous 885: 820:Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill 798:National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 3183:"Implications of "peak oil" for atmospheric CO 2954: 2952: 1016:is under threat of new mine projects as well. 728:(CaO). CaO readily dissolves in water to form 676:comes in contact with water and air and forms 4290:History of climate change policy and politics 4085: 3666: 2968:by Matthew L. Wald, published 5 January 2012. 2933:. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung Gizlilik Impressum. 2574:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger" 2483:Prehoda, Emily W.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2017), 1415:of January 2006. In 2007, a mine accident in 914:United States Environmental Protection Agency 483: 8: 1904:"Mining Sets Off Earthquake in West Germany" 1874: 1872: 1870: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1190:A 2001 EU-funded study known as ExternE, or 4407:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 1542: – Climate justice movement in Germany 1495:: so named for the rotten egg smell of the 1423:killed nine miners, with six entombed. The 1248:Environmental impact of the energy industry 5626: 5614: 5373: 5362: 5081: 5067: 4816: 4803: 4376: 4363: 4275: 4169: 4156: 4108: 4092: 4078: 4070: 3673: 3659: 3651: 3627:Air pollution from coal-fired power plants 3124: 3122: 2654:. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. 2567: 2565: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1575: – Decrease of pH levels in the ocean 1288:per kilowatt compared to generation using 838:In the low-coal-content areas waste forms 490: 476: 282:Coal mining disasters in the United States 48: 33:A coal surface mining site in Bihar, India 5700:Environmental impact of the coal industry 5172:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 4315:United Nations Climate Change conferences 3202: 2931:"AIR POLLUTION AND ISTANBUL; Alarm bells" 2434: 2370:"Deadly Power Plants? Study Fuels Debate" 1700: 1682: 1302:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 712:Coal-fired boilers, using either coal or 4876:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 3563:"World Coal Institute – Coal Production" 2492:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 1879:United States Department of the Interior 1213:EU's entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 933:Coal and coal waste products (including 930:for every job remaining in coal mining. 813: 5650: 5232:National Adaptation Programme of Action 5021:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 3590:"Respiratory Protection in Coal Mines." 3536:. MSHA. 24 October 2017. Archived from 3459:"Panel to Explore Deadly Mine Accident" 2852:, U.S. Geological Survey, October 2000. 2600:"We have the dirtiest air in the world" 1833:U.S. Department of the Interior. 1979. 1748:"Coal Fatalities for 1900 Through 2016" 1584: 1091:respirable suspended particulate matter 576:In addition, there have been many coal 60: 4881:Economics of climate change mitigation 4844:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 4195:Scientific consensus on climate change 3465:. Associated Press. 4 September 2007. 2991:from the original on 24 September 2015 2937:from the original on 29 September 2018 2415:Environmental Science & Technology 2345: 2343: 1978:. World Coal Institute. Archived from 1976:"Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining" 744:in river water into sodium carbonate. 5540:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 3965:mining disasters in the United States 3107:from the original on 11 November 2005 2380:from the original on 12 February 2020 1883:Coal: Construction and Mining Impacts 1646:from the original on 11 November 2005 1163:Annual excess mortality and morbidity 1043:), and various oxides of nitrogen (NO 7: 5562:Representative Concentration Pathway 4513:Tipping points in the climate system 4189:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 3362:. New York: United Nations. p. 3130:"Methane Associated with Coal Seams" 3081:from the original on 3 February 2009 3040:from the original on 28 October 2013 3019:2006, See figure 9, 9b and figure 11 2521:from the original on 15 October 2019 2106:from the original on 24 January 2020 1942:Reuter, Thomas Herausgeber. (2015). 1252:Attribution of recent climate change 564:carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 5333:Nationally determined contributions 5043:Individual action on climate change 4258:World energy supply and consumption 3181:Kharecha P.A.; Hansen J.E. (2008). 5472:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 3992:Environmental issues in Appalachia 3500:from the original on 28 March 2019 2606:from the original on 23 March 2021 2210:from the original on 29 April 2017 1446:kills 78. West Virginia, US, 1968. 833:noncombustible ingredients of coal 25: 5399:Satellite temperature measurement 5004:forestry for carbon sequestration 4295:History of climate change science 3469:from the original on 4 April 2020 3103:. Union of Concerned Scientists. 2833:New York Times, 24 November 2008. 2726:from the original on 7 March 2020 2572:Gabbard, Alex (5 February 2008). 2550:from the original on 29 July 2019 2263:from the original on 16 June 2020 2170:J. Keller; A. Keller; G. Davids. 1902:Barkin, Noah (24 February 2008). 1344:Coal also contains low levels of 5677: 5665: 5653: 5625: 5613: 5602: 5601: 5589: 5250:Climate Change Performance Index 3738: 2632:from the original on 3 June 2019 2003:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 1352:, and other naturally occurring 1134:Mercury and Air Toxics Standards 297:Environmental problems involving 68: 5389:Instrumental temperature record 5340:Sustainable Development Goal 13 2699:Generating Units." Final rule. 2350:Deaths per TWH by Energy Source 2243:Milman, Oliver (4 March 2019). 593:Impact to land and surroundings 5705:Environmental impact of mining 5457:Climate variability and change 4498:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 2772:"Atmospheric Mercury Modeling" 2283:"Associated Press – June 2009" 2160:, Retrieved on 4 October 2012. 2058:Journal of the Energy Division 1425:Upper Big Branch Mine disaster 1063:) and other toxic substances. 45:operation in the United States 1: 5567:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 5102:Climate emergency declaration 3633:Environmental impacts of coal 3623:Union of Concerned Scientists 3301:10.1126/science.202.4372.1045 2862:Jaffe E (27 September 2007). 1798:Hamilton, Michael S. (2005). 1640:Union of Concerned Scientists 1444:Farmington coal mine disaster 1366:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 904:According to a report by the 764:. River water alkalinity and 18:Environmental effects of coal 5550:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 4776:Middle East and North Africa 3488:Urbina, Ian (9 April 2010). 1035:), oxides of sulfur (mainly 1197:airborne particulate matter 5721: 5384:Global surface temperature 5275:Popular culture depictions 5187:Ecosystem-based adaptation 4917:Carbon capture and storage 4839:Carbon offsets and credits 4012:Health effects of coal ash 3820:power in the United States 3448:, "Fossil fuel disasters". 2895:Shrader-Frechette, Kristin 2504:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.119 1245: 1059:(HCN), sulfur nitrate (SNO 879: 810:Health effects of coal ash 807: 43:mountaintop removal mining 5596:Climate change portal 5583: 5489:Extreme event attribution 5372: 5361: 5112:School Strike for Climate 5080: 5066: 4991:Climate-smart agriculture 4815: 4802: 4375: 4362: 4285: 4274: 4168: 4155: 4138:Climate change adaptation 4133:Climate change mitigation 4128:Effects of climate change 4118: 4107: 4060: 3736: 3647:American Lung Association 3588:OccupationalHazards.com. 3191:Global Biogeochem. Cycles 1552:Fossil fuel power station 1529:Coal pollution mitigation 1358:radioactive contamination 1169:World Health Organization 1087:coal-fired power stations 906:World Health Organization 417:Coal pollution mitigation 312:coal mining in Appalachia 5499:Global warming potential 5306:International agreements 4953:Preserving and enhancing 4397:Arctic methane emissions 4319:Years in climate change 4226:Greenhouse gas emissions 4123:Causes of climate change 3882:Greenhouse gas emissions 2904:29 December 2019 at the 2232:. EPA. 14 December 2020. 2206:. EPA. 6 November 2019. 1328:scenario, atmospheric CO 1298:greenhouse-gas emissions 1242:Greenhouse gas emissions 540:flue-gas desulfurization 506:includes issues such as 317:Greenhouse gas emissions 110:Coal-fired power station 105:Coal combustion products 5530:Climate change scenario 5182:Disaster risk reduction 4834:Carbon emission trading 4644:U.S. insurance industry 4624:Civilizational collapse 4471:sea surface temperature 4042:Problems in coal mining 3444:13 January 2018 at the 3425:31 January 2017 at the 2910:Oxford University Press 2436:10.1021/acs.est.7b03546 2156:19 October 2013 at the 2043:(subscription required) 2023:10.1023/A:1012083519667 1684:10.1126/science.adf4915 1103:Centralia, Pennsylvania 639:Richter magnitude scale 374:Problems in coal mining 5523:Research and modelling 5207:Nature-based solutions 5027:Nature-based solutions 4969:Carbon dioxide removal 4886:Fossil fuel divestment 4871:Climate risk insurance 4781:Small island countries 4402:Arctic sea ice decline 4017:History of coal mining 2803:U.S. Geological Survey 2070:10.1061/JDAEDZ.0000063 1447: 1269: 1024: 902: 823: 631:North Rhine-Westphalia 452:History of coal mining 347:the petroleum industry 214:Coal preparation plant 46: 34: 5484:Earth's energy budget 5367:Background and theory 5255:Climate crisis (term) 4927:Fossil fuel phase-out 4821:Economics and finance 4786:by individual country 4728:By country and region 4703:Security and conflict 4698:Psychological impacts 4387:Abrupt climate change 4310:Charles David Keeling 4143:By country and region 3872:Fossil fuel phase-out 3770:Black coal equivalent 3635:Global Energy Monitor 3629:Global Energy Monitor 3595:23 April 2008 at the 3235:on 13 September 2008. 3059:James Hansen (2007). 3015:15 April 2016 at the 2964:24 March 2017 at the 2829:15 April 2016 at the 2746:"Atmospheric Mercury" 1546:Fossil fuel phase-out 1481:: consists of mostly 1441: 1266:Global Carbon Project 1259: 1022: 818:Aerial photograph of 817: 701:municipal solid waste 542:sludge, that contain 437:Fossil fuel phase-out 40: 32: 5313:Glasgow Climate Pact 4974:Carbon sequestration 4549:Mass mortality event 3877:Great Smog of London 3810:pollution mitigation 3641:Clean Air Task Force 3400:12 June 2013 at the 3393:Hvistendahl, Mara. 3326:on 27 September 2012 3221:10.1029/2007GB003142 3068:Iowa Utilities Board 2848:18 July 2015 at the 2722:. EPA. 8 June 2017. 2688:on 24 December 2011. 2355:24 July 2015 at the 1888:1 March 2012 at the 1723:(28 December 2023). 1592:RadTown USA | US EPA 1421:Crandall Canyon Mine 1396:explosions. Chronic 1354:radioactive isotopes 762:alkaline sodic soils 447:Great Smog of London 5452:Climate sensitivity 5227:The Adaptation Fund 4683:Infectious diseases 4590:Social and economic 3795:fired power station 3790:combustion products 3715:Sub-bituminous coal 3692:(lowest to highest) 3689:Coal types by grade 3543:on 23 February 2011 3407:Scientific American 3293:1978Sci...202.1045M 3213:2008GBioC..22.3012K 3162:on 18 February 2010 3072:Columbia University 3036:. 27 October 2013. 2427:2017EnST...5113018C 2421:(21): 13018–13027. 2015:2001WASP..132..185T 1860:4 June 2012 at the 1573:Ocean acidification 1178:) and ground level 742:sodium bicarbonates 620:mountaintop removal 599:natural environment 588:Land use management 5023:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 4995:Forest management 4979:Direct air capture 4944:Sustainable energy 4901:Net zero emissions 4896:Low-carbon economy 4891:Green Climate Fund 4678:Indigenous peoples 4581:Plant biodiversity 4369:Effects and issues 3930:Black lung disease 3907:Toxic heavy metals 3887:Metallurgical coal 3253:on 9 December 2006 3136:on 13 October 2008 2876:on 17 January 2008 2778:on 5 February 2012 2752:on 5 February 2012 2580:on 5 February 2007 2315:, 2015, pages 28 ( 2184:on 19 October 2013 2132:on 24 January 2013 1982:on 23 October 2008 1837:. Washington, D.C. 1804:Ashgate Publishing 1448: 1413:Sago Mine disaster 1400:diseases, such as 1340:Radiation exposure 1270: 1141:Catskill Mountains 1083:wet cooling towers 1076:ground level ozone 1025: 897:Atmosphere of Hope 824: 670:acid mine drainage 442:Fossil fuels lobby 364:Hydrosulfuric acid 352:toxic heavy metals 272:Black lung disease 234:Metallurgical coal 192:Coal-mining region 47: 35: 5641: 5640: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5514:Radiative forcing 5357: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5177:Adaptive capacity 5062: 5061: 5058: 5057: 4922:Energy transition 4798: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4518:Tropical cyclones 4444:Urban heat island 4358: 4357: 4270: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4231:Carbon accounting 4185:Greenhouse effect 4151: 4150: 4067: 4066: 3825:preparation plant 3760:Asian brown cloud 3693: 3569:on 30 April 2008. 3373:978-92-1-142143-9 3287:(4372): 1045–50. 2822:Anthony De Palma, 2701:Federal Register, 2660:978-0-8122-8022-7 2602:. November 2018. 1953:978-1-4438-7597-4 1853:Squillace, Mark. 1813:978-0-7546-4493-4 1754:on 3 October 2015 1729:Our World in Data 1677:(6673): 941–946. 1534:Coal liquefaction 1497:hydrogen sulphide 1384:Dangers to miners 1326:Business as Usual 1320:on atmospheric CO 1286:greenhouse gasses 1128:Mercury emissions 1105:, United States. 648:, which requires 500: 499: 257:Asian brown cloud 16:(Redirected from 5712: 5682: 5681: 5670: 5669: 5658: 5657: 5649: 5629: 5628: 5617: 5616: 5605: 5604: 5594: 5593: 5592: 5557:Paleoclimatology 5374: 5363: 5124:Ecological grief 5107:Climate movement 5082: 5068: 5048:Plant-based diet 4939:Renewable energy 4817: 4804: 4639:Economic impacts 4571:Invasive species 4427:Coastal flooding 4377: 4364: 4300:Svante Arrhenius 4276: 4246:from agriculture 4236:Carbon footprint 4221:Greenhouse gases 4170: 4157: 4109: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4071: 4022:Hydrogen sulfide 3742: 3691: 3675: 3668: 3661: 3652: 3599: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3565:. 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Archived from 2122: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2096: 2090: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2044: 2009:(1–2): 185–199. 1998: 1992: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1939: 1933: 1932: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1899: 1893: 1876: 1865: 1851: 1838: 1831: 1818: 1817: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1744: 1733: 1732: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1704: 1686: 1662: 1656: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1632: 1626: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1615: 1608: 1600: 1594: 1589: 1569: 1390:mining disasters 1304:, methane has a 1057:hydrogen cyanide 1012:near the famous 900: 804:Waste management 746:Sodium carbonate 656:Water management 578:mining disasters 522:, caused by the 512:waste management 492: 485: 478: 391:Related articles 72: 49: 21: 5720: 5719: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5676: 5664: 5652: 5644: 5642: 5637: 5590: 5588: 5571: 5518: 5509:Orbital forcing 5403: 5368: 5349: 5323:Paris Agreement 5301: 5297:Warming stripes 5236: 5202:Managed retreat 5197:Loss and damage 5158: 5092:Business action 5076: 5054: 5031: 4954: 4948: 4905: 4866:Climate finance 4811: 4790: 4722: 4585: 4561:Extinction risk 4537:Flora and fauna 4532: 4493:Permafrost thaw 4488:Ozone depletion 4417:Extreme weather 4371: 4354: 4281: 4262: 4199: 4164: 4147: 4114: 4103: 4098: 4068: 4063: 4056: 3911: 3748:Coal combustion 3743: 3734: 3720:Bituminous coal 3690: 3684: 3679: 3607: 3602: 3597:Wayback Machine 3587: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3533: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3517: 3513: 3503: 3501: 3487: 3486: 3482: 3472: 3470: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3446:Wayback Machine 3437: 3433: 3427:Wayback Machine 3418: 3414: 3402:Wayback Machine 3392: 3388: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3276: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3256: 3254: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3120: 3110: 3108: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3084: 3082: 3078: 3063: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3028: 3027: 3023: 3017:Wayback Machine 3008: 3004: 2994: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2966:Wayback Machine 2957: 2950: 2940: 2938: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2906:Wayback Machine 2893: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2869:Smithsonian.com 2861: 2860: 2856: 2850:Wayback Machine 2841: 2837: 2831:Wayback Machine 2821: 2817: 2807: 2805: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2781: 2779: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2755: 2753: 2744: 2743: 2739: 2729: 2727: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2697: 2693: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2670: 2666: 2649: 2645: 2635: 2633: 2628:. 31 May 2019. 2624: 2623: 2619: 2609: 2607: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2583: 2581: 2571: 2570: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2538: 2537: 2533: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2487: 2482: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2376:. 9 June 2004. 2368: 2367: 2363: 2357:Wayback Machine 2348: 2341: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2266: 2264: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2213: 2211: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2187: 2185: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2158:Wayback Machine 2149: 2145: 2135: 2133: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2109: 2107: 2098: 2097: 2093: 2081: 2077: 2055: 2054: 2050: 2042: 2000: 1999: 1995: 1985: 1983: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1954: 1941: 1940: 1936: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1890:Wayback Machine 1877: 1868: 1862:Wayback Machine 1852: 1841: 1832: 1821: 1814: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1772: 1771: 1767: 1757: 1755: 1746: 1745: 1736: 1717:Ritchie, Hannah 1715: 1714: 1710: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1649: 1647: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1567: 1525: 1473:carbon monoxide 1457:: a mixture of 1406:life expectancy 1386: 1342: 1335: 1331: 1323: 1314:James E. Hansen 1279: 1263: 1260:Emissions of CO 1254: 1244: 1201:nitrogen oxides 1188: 1165: 1149:freshwater fish 1130: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1069: 1062: 1046: 1042: 1031:, an important 1030: 901: 891: 884: 878: 873: 848: 812: 806: 735: 710: 708:Water pollution 658: 595: 590: 496: 467: 466: 392: 384: 383: 247: 239: 238: 95:Bituminous coal 80: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5718: 5716: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5686: 5684:Global warming 5674: 5662: 5639: 5638: 5636: 5635: 5623: 5611: 5599: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5526: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5475: 5474: 5464: 5462:Cloud feedback 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5417: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5380: 5378: 5370: 5369: 5366: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5320: 5318:Kyoto Protocol 5315: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5299: 5294: 5293: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5272: 5270:Media coverage 5267: 5262: 5260:Climate spiral 5257: 5252: 5246: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5168: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5156: 5151: 5149:Public opinion 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5104: 5099: 5097:Climate action 5094: 5088: 5086: 5078: 5077: 5071: 5064: 5063: 5060: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5011: 5009:REDD and REDD+ 5006: 5001: 4993: 4988: 4986:Carbon farming 4983: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4966: 4960: 4958: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4930: 4929: 4919: 4913: 4911: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4836: 4831: 4825: 4823: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4732: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4720: 4718:Water security 4715: 4713:Water scarcity 4710: 4708:Urban flooding 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4669: 4668: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4604: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4566:Forest dieback 4563: 4558: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4533: 4531: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4503:Sea level rise 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4476:stratification 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4448: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4431: 4430: 4429: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4383: 4381: 4373: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4352: 4351: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4279: 4272: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4260: 4255: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4241:Carbon leakage 4238: 4233: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4207: 4205: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4182: 4180:Climate system 4176: 4174: 4166: 4165: 4160: 4153: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4146: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4119: 4116: 4115: 4112: 4105: 4104: 4101:Climate change 4099: 4097: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4074: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4027:Mining regions 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3955:homogenization 3952: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3921: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3909: 3904: 3902:Sulfur dioxide 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3815:power in China 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3694: 3686: 3685: 3680: 3678: 3677: 3670: 3663: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3624: 3618: 3613: 3606: 3605:External links 3603: 3601: 3600: 3581: 3572: 3554: 3522: 3511: 3494:New York Times 3480: 3463:New York Times 3450: 3431: 3412: 3386: 3372: 3341: 3264: 3238: 3184: 3173: 3147: 3118: 3092: 3051: 3021: 3002: 2970: 2948: 2922: 2912:, 2011, pg.9, 2887: 2854: 2835: 2815: 2789: 2763: 2737: 2711: 2691: 2673: 2664: 2650:DeKok, David, 2643: 2617: 2591: 2561: 2531: 2475: 2450: 2401: 2391: 2361: 2339: 2297: 2288: 2274: 2235: 2221: 2195: 2162: 2143: 2117: 2091: 2075: 2048: 1993: 1967: 1952: 1934: 1920: 1894: 1866: 1839: 1819: 1812: 1790: 1765: 1734: 1708: 1657: 1627: 1616:on 15 May 2012 1595: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1570: 1561: 1558:Greenhouse gas 1555: 1549: 1543: 1537: 1531: 1524: 1521: 1509: 1508: 1500: 1490: 1476: 1466: 1459:carbon dioxide 1402:pneumoconiosis 1385: 1382: 1341: 1338: 1333: 1329: 1321: 1318:coal phase-out 1306:global warming 1277: 1276:increase of CO 1261: 1243: 1240: 1230:High rates of 1227:at €0.90/MWh. 1223:€1.9/MWh, and 1187: 1186:Economic costs 1184: 1164: 1161: 1129: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1072:nitrogen oxide 1067: 1060: 1044: 1040: 1037:sulfur dioxide 1033:greenhouse gas 1028: 908:in 2008, coal 889: 882:Coal-seam fire 877: 874: 872: 869: 847: 844: 805: 802: 738:Lime softening 733: 709: 706: 657: 654: 594: 591: 589: 586: 498: 497: 495: 494: 487: 480: 472: 469: 468: 465: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 422:Coal-seam fire 419: 414: 412:Coal phase-out 409: 404: 399: 393: 390: 389: 386: 385: 382: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 355: 354: 349: 344: 342:sulfur dioxide 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 248: 245: 244: 241: 240: 237: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 210: 209: 204: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 168: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 81: 78: 77: 74: 73: 65: 64: 58: 57: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5717: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5647: 5634: 5633: 5624: 5622: 5621: 5612: 5610: 5609: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5535:Climate model 5533: 5531: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5473: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5467:Cloud forcing 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5364: 5360: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5298: 5295: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5242:Communication 5239: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5222:Vulnerability 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5192:Flood control 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5165: 5161: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5065: 5049: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5028: 5025: 5022: 5019: 5015: 5014:reforestation 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4999:afforestation 4997: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4934:Nuclear power 4932: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4829:Carbon budget 4827: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4805: 4801: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4667: 4666:Mental health 4664: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4642: 4641: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4607:United States 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4461:deoxygenation 4459: 4457: 4456:acidification 4454: 4453: 4452: 4449: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4432: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4284: 4277: 4273: 4259: 4256: 4252: 4251:from wetlands 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4211:Deforestation 4209: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4196: 4193: 4190: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4090: 4088: 4083: 4081: 4076: 4075: 4072: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3970:mining region 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3741: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3669: 3664: 3662: 3657: 3656: 3653: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3576: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3539: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3515: 3512: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3481: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3440: 3435: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3421: 3416: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3390: 3387: 3375: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3337: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3268: 3265: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3197:(3): GB3012. 3196: 3192: 3188: 3177: 3174: 3161: 3157: 3151: 3148: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3106: 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