254:
316:
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use-case. Lithium-ion batteries from cars can sometimes be re-used for a second-life in factories or as stationary batteries. Some electric vehicle manufacturers, such as Tesla, claim that a lithium-ion battery that no longer fulfills the requirements of its intended use can be serviced by them directly, thereby lengthening its first-life. Reused electric vehicle batteries can potentially supply 60-100% of the grid-scale lithium-ion energy storage by 2030. The carbon footprint of an electric vehicle lithium-ion battery can be reduced by up to 17% if reused rather than immediately retired. After retirement,
828:. When lithium-ion batteries are recycled, if they are not handled properly, the harmful substances inside will cause secondary pollution to the environment. These same processes can also endanger workers and damage their health. Lithium-ion batteries, when disposed of in household trash, can present fire hazards in transport and in landfills, resulting in trash fires that can destroy other recyclable materials and create increased carbon dioxide and particulate matter emissions. Vehicle fires cause local pollution.
41:
748:
428:
836:
Electric motors are an essential component of electric cars that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy to move the wheels, where neodymium magnets are commonly used in the manufacturing process. There is currently no cost-effective way for the industry to recycle electric motors due to the
479:
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare-earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare-earth production, but since the mid-1990s China has controlled the world market for these elements. The
275:
said (with medium confidence) "Emerging national strategies on critical minerals and the requirements from major vehicle manufacturers are leading to new, more geographically diverse mines. The standardisation of battery modules and packaging within and across vehicle platforms, as well as increased
840:
Two primary efforts to remedy this dilemma include the DEMETER project and a joint venture between Nissan Motors and Waseda
University to lessen the environment impact of electric motors. The DEMETER project was a research initiative between the European Union and private entities, which culminated
679:
such as brake dust, airborne road dust, and tire erosion, which contribute to particulate matter in the air. Particulate matter is dangerous for respiratory health. In the UK non-tailpipe particulate emissions from all types of vehicles (including electric vehicles) may be responsible for between
610:
of electric vehicles. This impact, however, is still less than that of traditional vehicles, as the large size of power plants allow them to generate less emissions per unit power than internal combustion engines, and electricity generation continues to become greener as renewables such as wind,
691:
have lower maintenance costs compared to internal combustion vehicles since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems onboard last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. Electric cars do not
819:
Current retirement criteria for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles cite 80% capacity for end-of-first-life, and 65% capacity for end-of-second-life. The first-life defines the lifespan of the battery's intended use, while the second-life defines the lifespan of the battery's subsequent
182:
compared to fossil-fueled cars. This is sometimes caused by the fact that most electric cars have a heavy battery, which means the car's tires are subjected to more wear. Devices to capture tyre particulates are being developed, and under Euro 7 all new cars will have to meet the same tyre
606:, depending on the method by which the electricity used to recharge the batteries is generated. This shift of environmental impact from the vehicle itself (in the case of internal combustion engine vehicles) to the source of electricity (in the case of electric vehicles) is referred to as
92:
requires additional resources and energy, so they may have a larger environmental footprint in the production phase. Electric vehicles also generate different impacts in their operation and maintenance. Electric vehicles are typically heavier and could produce more
476:) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term. It is estimated that there are sufficient lithium reserves to power 4 billion electric cars.
1180:
The government's air quality expert group said this month that particles from tyres, brakes and road surfaces made up about two-thirds of all particulate matter from road transport and would continue to increase even as more cars were run on electric
841:
in the development of a recyclable electric motor designed by French company Valeo. Nissan and Waseda identified and refined a new process for extracting rare-earth magnets for re-use in the manufacturing of new electric vehicle motors.
543:. The initial higher carbon footprint is due mainly to battery production, which may double the production carbon footprint as of 2023 but this varies a lot by country and is forecast to decrease rapidly during the decade.
1357:
The deal sets brake particles emissions limits (PM10) for cars and vans (3mg/km for pure electric vehicles; 7mg/km for most internal combustion engine (ICE), hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles and 11mg/km for large ICE
276:
focus on design for recyclability are important. Given the high degree of potential recyclability of lithium-ion batteries, a nearly closed-loop system in the future could mitigate concerns about critical mineral issues."
154:
brake pads can be used less frequently than in non-electric cars, and may thus sometimes produce less particulate pollution than brakes in non-electric cars. Also, some electric cars may have a combination of
661:. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.
3077:
Harper, Gavin; Sommerville, Roberto; Kendrick, Emma; Driscoll, Laura; Slater, Peter; Stolkin, Rustam; Walton, Allan; Christensen, Paul; Heidrich, Oliver; Lambert, Simon; Abbott, Andrew (November 2019).
2163:
Notter, Dominic A.; Kouravelou, Katerina; Karachalios, Theodoros; Daletou, Maria K.; Haberland, Nara Tudela (2015). "Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP".
2486:
Habre, Rima; Girguis, Mariam; Urman, Robert; Fruin, Scott; Lurmann, Fred; Shafer, Martin; Gorski, Patrick; Franklin, Meredith; McConnell, Rob; Avol, Ed; Gilliland, Frank (February 2021).
635:
304:
2957:
Zhu, Juner; Mathews, Ian; Ren, Dongsheng; Li, Wei; Cogswell, Daniel; Xing, Bobin; Sedlatschek, Tobias; Kantareddy, Sai Nithin R.; Yi, Mengchao; Gao, Tao; Xia, Yong (2021-08-18).
500:
Electric cars also have impacts arising from the manufacturing of the vehicle. Electric cars can utilize two types of motors: permanent magnet motors (like the one found in the
300:
1962:
1244:
837:
complicated extraction process of these magnets. Many electric motors end up in the landfill or are shredded because there is no viable recycle or disposal alternative.
824:
allow reuse of cathode mixtures, which removes processing steps required for manufacturing them. When this is infeasible, individual materials can be obtained through
710:
do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reuse as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through
1341:
1522:
615:
reduced by the use of electric cars can save over 1163 lives annually and over $ 12.61 billion in health benefits in many major U.S. metropolitan cities such as
2696:
1272:
2305:
2665:
698:
are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling.
88:
and thus, even accounting for typical power plant efficiencies and distribution losses, less energy is required to operate an electric vehicle. Manufacturing
535:
and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current internal combustion engine vehicles but still have a lower overall
1432:
1698:
1540:
1612:
419:
supply and demand for the rest of the century needs good recycling systems, vehicle-to-grid integration, and lower lithium intensity of transportation.
2077:
524:
can release toxic compounds into the surrounding area. Local populations may be exposed to toxic substances through air and groundwater contamination.
508:). Induction motors do not use magnets, but permanent magnet motors do. The magnets found in permanent magnet motors used in electric vehicles contain
3327:
1874:
1594:
272:
2732:
2678:
3016:"Superior "green" electrode materials for secondary batteries: through the footprint family indicators to analyze their environmental friendliness"
2583:
3145:"An Inventory of Sources and Environmental Releases of Dioxin-Like Compounds In the U.S. For the Years 1987, 1995, and 2000 (Final, Nov 2006)"
2650:
2597:
2191:
1979:
1832:
1648:
1162:
783:
Up to 150,000 liters of water are required to put out a single BEV fire. ICE fires are typically extinguished using less than 4,000 liters.
2714:
1407:
253:
2750:
2488:"Contribution of tailpipe and non-tailpipe traffic sources to quasi-ultrafine, fine and coarse particulate matter in southern California"
1194:
3317:
2790:
1985:
1849:
122:
34:
2551:
1482:
915:
315:
1218:
811:
which are used to power the vehicle's auxiliary electrical systems. In some countries lead acid batteries are not recycled safely.
284:
2462:
1731:
268:) used by the electric motors, is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles.
2058:
650:
sources will make electricity generation greener, which will reduce the impact of electric vehicles that use that electricity.
634:
varies significantly with respect to location and time, depending on current demand and availability of renewable sources (See
385:
64:
cars. While aspects of their production can induce similar, less or different environmental impacts, they produce little or no
956:
2082:
2819:"Second life and recycling: Energy and environmental sustainability perspectives for high-performance lithium-ion batteries"
2108:
Notter, Dominic A.; Gauch, Marcel; Widmer, Rolf; Wäger, Patrick; Stamp, Anna; Zah, Rainer; Althaus, Hans-Jörg (2010-09-01).
1630:
1389:
1370:
2666:
https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/scratched-ev-battery-your-insurer-may-have-junk-whole-car-2023-03-20/
1964:
Chapter 6: Look Before You Leap: Exploring the
Implications of Advanced Vehicles for Import Dependence and Passerger Safety
3322:
2907:
910:
346:
258:
118:
1457:
865:
670:
647:
164:
3246:
3170:"Ecotoxicity Evaluation of Fire-Extinguishing Water from Large-Scale Battery and Battery Electric Vehicle Fire Tests"
2410:
Buberger, Johannes; Kersten, Anton; Kuder, Manuel; Eckerle, Richard; Weyh, Thomas; Thiringer, Torbjörn (2022-05-01).
695:
292:
288:
85:
61:
3276:"Nissan and Waseda University in Japan testing jointly developed recycling process for electrified vehicle motors"
1323:
231:'s high performance electric cars could use as much as 80 kg (180 lb) of lithium carbonate equivalent.
2589:
2015:
1971:
579:
145:
3217:
1894:"Assessment of lithium criticality in the global energy transition and addressing policy gaps in transportation"
1702:
1298:
2240:
1104:"Life cycle air quality impacts of conventional and alternative light-duty transportation in the United States"
855:
688:
612:
73:
1551:
2355:"Impacts of the large-scale use of passenger electric vehicles on public health in 30 US. metropolitan areas"
2638:
2087:
1798:
987:
895:
567:
528:
461:
453:
224:
130:
57:
2774:"Consequences of a Mobile Future: Creating an Environmentally Conscious Life Cycle for Lead-Acid Batteries"
1576:
2037:
707:
631:
603:
89:
808:
2609:
2603:
2552:"Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport : An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge"
2001:
676:
639:
540:
102:
94:
17:
1674:
2215:
1508:
3091:
3027:
2970:
2830:
2773:
2499:
2366:
2271:
2121:
1905:
1115:
1048:
890:
711:
449:
393:
151:
98:
3302:
264:
The demand for lithium used by the batteries and rare-earth elements (such as neodymium, boron, and
40:
825:
821:
658:
340:
205:
3125:
3059:
2996:
2441:
2392:
2287:
1084:
870:
703:
627:
457:
440:
209:
3144:
2642:
2631:
2353:
Pan, Shuai; Yu, Wendi; Fulton, Lewis M.; Jung, Jia; Choi, Yunsoo; Gao, H. Oliver (2023-03-01).
1791:
105:
from brakes. Electric vehicles are mechanically simpler, which reduces the use and disposal of
3199:
3117:
3109:
3051:
3043:
2988:
2864:
2846:
2646:
2593:
2579:
2533:
2515:
2433:
2384:
2145:
2137:
1975:
1958:
1939:
1921:
1828:
1342:"Euro 7: Deal on new EU rules to reduce road transport emissions | News | European Parliament"
1143:
1076:
935:
885:
850:
792:
607:
296:
216:
2109:
227:
passenger car might use 5 kg (11 lb) of lithium carbonate equivalent, while one of
3189:
3181:
3099:
3035:
2978:
2854:
2838:
2523:
2507:
2423:
2374:
2279:
2260:"Health and environmental benefits related to electric vehicle introduction in EU countries"
2172:
2129:
1929:
1913:
1133:
1123:
1066:
1056:
925:
562:
Compared to conventional internal combustion engine automobiles, electric cars reduce local
536:
509:
239:
492:, are currently the largest source of rare-earth metals and are 80% of China's production.
2626:
900:
723:
587:
512:
to increase the power output of these motors. The mining and processing of metals such as
235:
30:
2932:
2329:
3194:
3169:
3095:
3031:
2974:
2834:
2503:
2370:
2275:
2125:
1909:
1119:
1052:
2859:
2818:
2528:
2487:
1934:
1893:
1138:
1103:
1071:
1036:
983:
920:
875:
699:
643:
557:
532:
489:
445:
397:
320:
283:
has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the
212:
179:
81:
2412:"Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars"
1523:"Reporters - Energy transition: The dark side of the electric car battery cobalt rush"
747:
3311:
3129:
3063:
3000:
2445:
2396:
2291:
2259:
1037:"Valuation of plug-in vehicle life cycle air emissions and oil displacement benefits"
620:
563:
505:
354:
77:
45:
427:
159:
and disc brakes, and drum brakes are known to cause less particulate emissions than
2110:"Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles"
1756:
1433:"FEATURE: The engineers fighting deadly air pollution with an ingenious car add-on"
1249:
1088:
860:
501:
247:
234:
Most electric vehicles use permanent magnet motors as they are more efficient than
228:
171:
53:
2511:
1550:(Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4 April 2022. Archived from
1541:
IPCC: Climate Change 2022, Mitigation of
Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers
190:
pollution. However as of 2024 more research on road dust air pollution is needed.
2817:
Tao, Yanqiu; Rahn, Christopher D.; Archer, Lynden A.; You, Fengqi (2021-11-05).
1875:"The rush to 'go electric' comes with a hidden cost: destructive lithium mining"
1390:"An auto CEO came very close to saying the right thing about heavy EV batteries"
905:
722:
BEVs are easily totaled because of battery damage, and some have called for the
616:
583:
571:
400:
desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium. Other important reserves are located in
280:
65:
3039:
2983:
2958:
2428:
2411:
2379:
2354:
1917:
1649:"How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy"
3104:
3079:
2283:
1487:
1011:
880:
807:
Like internal combustion engine cars, most electric cars, as of 2023, contain
731:
432:
220:
160:
156:
3168:
Quant, Maria; Willstrand, Ola; Mallin, Tove; Hynynen, Jonna (28 March 2023).
3113:
3047:
3015:
2992:
2882:
2850:
2519:
2437:
2388:
2141:
1925:
1371:"Electric vehicle tires: a lesser-known pollution headache – DW – 07/12/2023"
602:. Some of the environmental impact may instead be shifted to the site of the
3185:
1273:"Particle pollution from electric cars could be worse than from diesel ones"
1167:
1128:
1061:
930:
481:
465:
366:
362:
243:
187:
121:, battery electric cars have major environmental benefits over conventional
106:
69:
3203:
3121:
3055:
2959:"End-of-life or second-life options for retired electric vehicle batteries"
2868:
2842:
2715:"Toyota Will Adopt Tesla-Style Cast Bodies That Might Be Impossible to Fix"
2537:
2149:
1943:
1595:"Land grabs and vanishing forests: Are 'clean' electric vehicles to blame?"
1147:
1080:
361:
was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China,
223:
or the 30 g (1.1 oz) used by tablets or computers. As of 2016, a
3275:
1613:"Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries"
378:
3014:
Wu, Haohui; Gong, Yuan; Yu, Yajuan; Huang, Kai; Wang, Lei (2019-12-01).
2679:"Yikes! The $ 60,000 Hyundai Ioniq 5 Battery Replacement Saga Continues"
2059:"Not So "Green" Technology: The Complicated Legacy of Rare Earth Mining"
1245:"Electric cars are not the answer to air pollution, says top UK adviser"
2791:"Getting the Lead Out: Why Battery Recycling Is a Global Health Hazard"
2176:
513:
416:
389:
336:
328:
324:
2133:
291:. In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of
2733:"Thermal runaway EV battery fires controlled with water cutting tech"
1761:
521:
517:
485:
473:
409:
374:
265:
3143:
US EPA National Center for
Environmental Assessment, Washington DC.
1408:"When Driving, Tires Emit Pollution. And EVs Make the Problem Worse"
186:
If electric cars are bigger than fossil fuel cars there may be more
654:
591:
469:
426:
405:
401:
370:
358:
350:
314:
39:
2258:
Buekers, J; Van
Holderbeke, M; Bierkens, J; Int Panis, L (2014).
2038:"Lithium for 4.8 Billion Electric Cars Lets Bolivia Upset Market"
1458:"Euro 7: EU Agrees on New Rules to Curb Road Transport Emissions"
1163:"Electric cars are a threat to clean air, claims Chris Boardman"
595:
575:
167:
standard electric cars have a lower limit of brake particulates.
2306:"The race to decarbonize electric-vehicle batteries | McKinsey"
2192:"Permanent Magnet vs Induction Motor: Torque, Losses, Material"
1825:
The
Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition
1892:
Greim, Peter; Solomon, A. A.; Breyer, Christian (2020-09-11).
1653:
742:
599:
134:
2883:"Electric cars: What will happen to all the dead batteries?"
2585:
Chapter 2: Electrification of
Transport and Oil Displacement
2492:
Journal of the Air & Waste
Management Association (1995)
2078:"Rare Earth Elements: The Secret Ingredients of Everything"
1035:
Michalek; Chester; Jaramillo; Samaras; Shiau; Lave (2011).
219:
in their batteries compared to the 7g (0.25 oz) for a
1324:"EU strikes provisional deal over Euro 7 emissions limits"
692:
require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.
2264:
Transportation
Research Part D: Transport and Environment
1195:"Diesel fumes lead to thousands more deaths than thought"
611:
solar and nuclear power become more widespread. By 2050,
3080:"Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles"
2241:"France Prohibits Electric Vehicle Greenwashing In 2023"
636:
List of renewable energy topics by country and territory
957:"Best-selling Electric Cars (Globally) in January 2022"
759:
2611:"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
2216:"Lithium Extraction Environmental Impact · Eco Jungle"
2003:"Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?"
1299:"Corrosion, Emissions and the Return of Drum Brakes?"
653:
Most of the lithium-ion battery production occurs in
2463:"This is why electric cars won't stop air pollution"
1774:
Published on Forbes
Magazine dated November 24, 2008
706:
at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle.
566:, especially in cities, as they do not emit harmful
2697:"The Right to Repair of Electric Vehicle Batteries"
504:), and induction motors (like the one found on the
2630:
1483:"Electric vehicles, storage units drive prices up"
1219:"Supporting the global shift to electric mobility"
871:Downcycling of end-of-life e-automotive batteries
48:was the world's top selling electric car in 2022.
2633:Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability
1675:"In Bolivia, Untapped Bounty Meets Nationalism"
1108:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1041:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
735:to lower their cost which complicates repairs.
684:Lower operational impacts and maintenance needs
657:, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by
341:Lithium-ion_battery § Environmental_impact
2908:"Electric Vehicle Battery Reuse and Recycling"
1577:"Indonesia and China killed the nickel market"
558:Plug-in_hybrid § Greenhouse_gas_emissions
2621:
2619:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1631:"EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel"
926:Robotic disassembly of electric car batteries
250:which can be dirty and difficult to produce.
8:
3020:Environmental Science and Pollution Research
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
988:"Do electric vehicles reduce air pollution?"
648:transition to renewable and low-carbon power
2016:"Learn About Lithium – In 10 Bullet Points"
137:, which kill thousands of people every year
3218:"Electric Motors Research and Development"
345:The main deposits of lithium are found in
204:Plug-in hybrids and electric cars run off
3247:"Designing and recycling electric motors"
3193:
3103:
2982:
2858:
2527:
2427:
2378:
1933:
1792:"USGS Mineral Commodities Summaries 2009"
1701:. Evaporiticosbolivia.org. Archived from
1509:"Batteries and secure energy transitions"
1137:
1127:
1070:
1060:
680:7,000 and 8,000 premature deaths a year.
381:, is much more environmentally friendly.
273:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
144:emissions than fossil-fuelled cars, thus
2751:"FLASH: BYD announces to stop using ..."
2573:
2571:
2416:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2359:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
252:
18:Environmental footprint of electric cars
1850:"The new 'gold rush' for green lithium"
1786:
1784:
1782:
947:
866:Converting existing vehicle to electric
464:, and other specific elements (such as
435:oxides production by country (1950–2000
3174:Environmental Science & Technology
2114:Environmental Science & Technology
1193:Association, New Scientist and Press.
174:may have some disadvantages, such as:
84:are significantly more efficient than
3303:"Are Electric Vehicles Really Green?"
3270:
3268:
3266:
3241:
3239:
3237:
2812:
2810:
2457:
2455:
1456:Fischer-Lauder, Hannah (2023-12-20).
1243:Carrington, Damian (August 4, 2017).
936:Vehicles powered by advanced biofuels
7:
2713:Gilboy, James (September 22, 2023).
2677:Amariei, Florin (24 December 2023).
978:
976:
675:The operation of any car results in
415:According to a 2020 study balancing
337:Lithium § Environmental_issues
123:internal combustion engine vehicles
2330:"Zeroing in on Healthy Air report"
1388:Hawkins, Andrew J. (22 May 2023).
826:pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy
552:Air pollution and carbon emissions
215:. Electric vehicles use much more
113:Comparison with fossil-fueled cars
35:Environmental effects of transport
25:
1873:Riofrancos, Thea (14 June 2021).
1755:Brendan I. Koerner (2008-10-30).
1699:"Página sobre el Salar (Spanish)"
916:Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
257:Geographical distribution of the
163:. Under the provisionally agreed
150:As almost all electric cars have
119:cars have effects on other people
3328:Environmental impact of products
1260:– via www.theguardian.com.
746:
527:Several reports have found that
56:damages people’s health and the
1223:UNEP - UN Environment Programme
1102:Tessum; Hill; Marshall (2014).
992:www.sustainabilitybynumbers.com
303:and habitat destruction in the
3301:Wheeler, Max (July 30, 2024)
1730:Clifford Krauss (2009-03-09).
702:, on the other hand, are more
1:
2963:Cell Reports Physical Science
2512:10.1080/10962247.2020.1826366
2036:Smith, Michael (2009-12-07).
2018:. ElectroVelocity. 2010-12-13
1757:"The Saudi Arabia of Lithium"
1481:Hiscock, Geoff (2015-11-18).
1271:Loeb, Josh (March 10, 2017).
911:Neighborhood Electric Vehicle
2063:Harvard International Review
1575:Rick, Mills (4 March 2024).
1161:Ben Webster (29 July 2019).
327:is one of the largest known
305:Democratic Republic of Congo
217:lithium carbonate equivalent
2629:and Deborah Gordon (2009).
1673:Simon Romero (2009-02-02).
1297:Geylin, Mike (2022-06-09).
955:Pontes, José (2022-03-05).
921:Plug-in hybrid electric car
696:Internal combustion engines
671:Mobile source air pollution
259:global battery supply chain
195:Materials extraction impact
90:batteries for electric cars
86:internal combustion engines
68:, and reduce dependence on
3344:
3040:10.1007/s11356-019-06865-6
2984:10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100537
2592:. pp. 29, 37 and 43.
2429:10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158
2380:10.1016/j.rser.2022.113100
1918:10.1038/s41467-020-18402-y
822:direct recycling processes
790:
668:
580:volatile organic compounds
555:
438:
334:
293:deforestation in Indonesia
62:internal combustion engine
28:
3318:Electric vehicle industry
3105:10.1038/s41586-019-1682-5
2590:The Brookings Institution
2284:10.1016/j.trd.2014.09.002
2196:www.horizontechnology.biz
1972:The Brookings Institution
689:Battery electric vehicles
659:coal burning power plants
632:generating electric power
369:. Lithium recovered from
97:air pollution, but their
2076:Tim Folger (June 2011).
729:Some EVs are made using
529:hybrid electric vehicles
454:hybrid electric vehicles
384:Nearly half the world's
74:greenhouse gas emissions
60:less than similar sized
3186:10.1021/acs.est.2c08581
2639:Oxford University Press
2578:Saurin D. Shah (2009).
1957:Irving Mintzer (2009).
1823:Hammond, C. R. (2000).
1799:U. S. Geological Survey
1129:10.1073/pnas.1406853111
1062:10.1073/pnas.1104473108
1012:"All-Electric Vehicles"
896:Hybrid electric vehicle
708:Electric drive vehicles
392:, and according to the
146:limiting climate change
129:Elimination of harmful
2843:10.1126/sciadv.abi7633
1346:www.europarl.europa.eu
436:
332:
331:reserves in the world.
261:
49:
29:For a wider view, see
2641:, New York. pp.
2556:www.oecd-ilibrary.org
1898:Nature Communications
677:non-exhaust emissions
450:plug-in electric cars
430:
318:
256:
206:lithium-ion batteries
103:particulate pollution
43:
3323:Environmental issues
3305:, SmartMotoring.com
1974:. pp. 107–126.
891:Full cost accounting
881:Electric velomobiles
712:regenerative braking
638:). The phase-out of
547:Consumer use impacts
496:Manufacturing impact
431:Evolution of global
394:US Geological Survey
152:regenerative braking
99:regenerative braking
3251:European Commission
3096:2019Natur.575...75H
3032:2019ESPR...2636538W
3026:(36): 36538–36557.
2975:2021CRPS....200537Z
2835:2021SciA....7.7633T
2504:2021JAWMA..71..209H
2371:2023RSERv.17313100P
2276:2014TRPD...33...26B
2165:Energy Environ. Sci
2126:2010EnST...44.6550N
2083:National Geographic
1910:2020NatCo..11.4570G
1732:"The Lithium Chase"
1511:. Paris: IEA. 2024.
1328:www.fleetnews.co.uk
1120:2014PNAS..11118490T
1114:(52): 18490–18495.
1053:2011PNAS..10816554M
1047:(40): 16554–16558.
1016:www.fueleconomy.gov
809:lead–acid batteries
568:tailpipe pollutants
458:rare earth elements
423:Rare-earth elements
349:and throughout the
178:Possible increased
131:tailpipe pollutants
2177:10.1039/c5ee01082a
1848:Early, Catherine.
1736:The New York Times
1657:. 1 February 2023.
758:. You can help by
628:emission intensity
600:oxides of nitrogen
441:Rare-earth element
437:
353:mountain chain in
333:
262:
210:rare-earth element
183:particulate limit.
135:oxides of nitrogen
101:could reduce such
95:tire and road dust
76:, and deaths from
66:tailpipe emissions
50:
3280:Waseda University
3180:(12): 4821–4830.
2652:978-0-19-537664-7
2643:22–26 and 114–139
2599:978-0-8157-0305-1
2580:David B. Sandalow
2134:10.1021/es903729a
2120:(17): 6550–6556.
2065:. 12 August 2021.
1981:978-0-8157-0305-1
1959:David B. Sandalow
1834:978-0-8493-0481-1
851:All-electric mode
793:Battery recycling
776:
775:
718:Low repairability
608:the long tailpipe
604:generation plants
510:rare-earth metals
460:. The demand for
448:manufactured for
240:permanent magnets
16:(Redirected from
3335:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3272:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3243:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3197:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3107:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3011:
3005:
3004:
2986:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2933:"Sustainability"
2929:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2862:
2829:(45): eabi7633.
2823:Science Advances
2814:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2760:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2674:
2668:
2663:
2657:
2656:
2636:
2627:Sperling, Daniel
2623:
2614:
2607:
2602:. Archived from
2588:(1st ed.).
2575:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2459:
2450:
2449:
2431:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2382:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2310:www.mckinsey.com
2302:
2296:
2295:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2171:(7): 1969–1985.
2160:
2154:
2153:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2086:. Archived from
2073:
2067:
2066:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2012:
2006:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1984:. Archived from
1969:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1937:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1820:
1814:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1796:
1788:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1727:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1670:
1659:
1658:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1601:. 14 March 2024.
1591:
1585:
1584:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1562:
1556:
1545:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1469:
1468:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1419:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1309:
1303:The BRAKE Report
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1277:eandt.theiet.org
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1175:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1141:
1131:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1074:
1064:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1008:
1002:
1001:
999:
998:
980:
971:
970:
968:
967:
952:
771:
768:
750:
743:
613:carbon emissions
537:carbon footprint
236:induction motors
133:such as various
21:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3332:
3308:
3307:
3299:
3297:Further reading
3294:
3293:
3284:
3282:
3274:
3273:
3264:
3255:
3253:
3245:
3244:
3235:
3226:
3224:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3153:
3151:
3142:
3141:
3137:
3090:(7781): 75–86.
3076:
3075:
3071:
3013:
3012:
3008:
2956:
2955:
2951:
2942:
2940:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2917:
2915:
2912:Advanced Energy
2906:
2905:
2901:
2892:
2890:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2816:
2815:
2808:
2799:
2797:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2758:
2756:
2754:www.mysteel.net
2749:
2748:
2744:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2625:
2624:
2617:
2600:
2577:
2576:
2569:
2560:
2558:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2471:
2469:
2461:
2460:
2453:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2338:
2336:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2314:
2312:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2225:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2198:
2190:Hanejko, Fran.
2189:
2188:
2184:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2093:
2091:
2090:on May 22, 2011
2075:
2074:
2070:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1967:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1858:
1856:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1804:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1780:
1767:
1765:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1740:
1738:
1729:
1728:
1717:
1708:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1683:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1662:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1637:. 16 July 2024.
1629:
1628:
1624:
1619:. 15 July 2024.
1611:
1610:
1606:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1493:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1466:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1439:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1417:
1415:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1351:
1349:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1322:Prez, Matt de.
1321:
1320:
1316:
1307:
1305:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1279:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1253:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1228:
1226:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1173:
1171:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1020:
1018:
1010:
1009:
1005:
996:
994:
984:Ritchie, Hannah
982:
981:
974:
965:
963:
954:
953:
949:
944:
901:Induction motor
847:
834:
817:
805:
800:
795:
789:
781:
772:
766:
763:
756:needs expansion
741:
724:right to repair
720:
700:Electric motors
686:
673:
667:
588:carbon monoxide
560:
554:
549:
541:full life cycle
533:plug-in hybrids
498:
443:
425:
388:are located in
343:
313:
225:hybrid electric
213:electric motors
202:
197:
143:
115:
82:Electric motors
38:
31:Effects of cars
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3341:
3339:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3310:
3309:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3262:
3233:
3209:
3160:
3135:
3069:
3006:
2949:
2924:
2899:
2874:
2806:
2782:
2765:
2742:
2724:
2705:
2688:
2669:
2658:
2651:
2615:
2606:on 2010-04-04.
2598:
2567:
2543:
2498:(2): 209–230.
2478:
2467:www.imeche.org
2451:
2402:
2345:
2321:
2297:
2250:
2232:
2207:
2182:
2155:
2100:
2068:
2050:
2028:
2007:
1980:
1949:
1884:
1865:
1840:
1833:
1815:
1801:. January 2009
1778:
1747:
1715:
1690:
1679:New York Times
1660:
1640:
1635:Deutsche Welle
1622:
1604:
1586:
1567:
1532:
1529:. 7 July 2023.
1514:
1500:
1473:
1448:
1437:www.imeche.org
1424:
1399:
1380:
1362:
1333:
1314:
1289:
1263:
1235:
1210:
1185:
1153:
1094:
1027:
1003:
972:
946:
945:
943:
940:
939:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
876:Electric power
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
846:
843:
833:
830:
816:
813:
804:
801:
799:
796:
791:Main article:
788:
785:
780:
777:
774:
773:
767:September 2024
753:
751:
740:
737:
719:
716:
685:
682:
666:
663:
598:, and various
553:
550:
548:
545:
497:
494:
490:Inner Mongolia
446:Electric motor
424:
421:
398:Salar de Uyuni
386:known reserves
321:Salar de Uyuni
312:
309:
201:
198:
196:
193:
192:
191:
184:
180:tire pollution
169:
168:
148:
141:
138:
114:
111:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3340:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3306:
3304:
3296:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3252:
3248:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3161:
3150:
3149:cfpub.epa.gov
3146:
3139:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2969:(8): 100537.
2968:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2950:
2938:
2937:www.tesla.com
2934:
2928:
2925:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2900:
2888:
2884:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2811:
2807:
2796:
2792:
2786:
2783:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2683:autoevolution
2680:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2659:
2654:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
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2456:
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2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2430:
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2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
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2356:
2349:
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2335:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2245:RideApart.com
2242:
2236:
2233:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2101:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2039:
2032:
2029:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2004:
1991:on 2016-05-17
1987:
1983:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1830:
1827:. CRC press.
1826:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1800:
1793:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1748:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1705:on 2011-03-23
1704:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1568:
1557:on 2022-08-07
1553:
1549:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1474:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1449:
1438:
1434:
1428:
1425:
1413:
1412:Bloomberg.com
1409:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1315:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1264:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1200:
1199:New Scientist
1196:
1189:
1186:
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