Reionization - Knowledge (XXG)

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gas through resonant scattering, wherein neutral atoms in the ground (n=1) state absorb Lyman alpha photons and almost immediately re-emit them in a random direction. This obscures Lyman alpha emission from galaxies that are embedded in neutral gas. Thus, experiments to find galaxies by their Lyman alpha light can indicate the ionization state of the surrounding gas. An average density of galaxies with detectable Lyman alpha emission means the surrounding gas must be ionized; while an absence of detectable Lyman alpha sources may indicate neutral regions. A closely related class of experiments measures the Lyman alpha line strength in samples of galaxies identified by other methods (primarily

1765:, which means that the primary candidates are all sources which produce a significant amount of energy in the ultraviolet and above. How numerous the source is must also be considered, as well as the longevity, as protons and electrons will recombine if energy is not continuously provided to keep them apart. Altogether, the critical parameter for any source considered can be summarized as its "emission rate of hydrogen-ionizing photons per unit cosmological volume." With these constraints, it is expected that quasars and first generation 1737: 1874: 570: 47: 1857:, and emit a great deal of light above the threshold for ionizing hydrogen. It is unknown, however, how many quasars existed prior to reionization. Only the brightest of quasars present during reionization can be detected, which means there is no direct information about dimmer quasars that existed. However, by looking at the more easily observed quasars in the nearby universe, and assuming that the 5336: 1865:) during reionization will be approximately the same as it is today, it is possible to make estimates of the quasar populations at earlier times. Such studies have found that quasars do not exist in high enough numbers to reionize the IGM alone, saying that "only if the ionizing background is dominated by low-luminosity AGNs can the quasar luminosity function provide enough ionizing photons." 1595:. However, as the universe expands, the density of free electrons will decrease, and scattering will occur less frequently. In the period during and after reionization, but before significant expansion had occurred to sufficiently lower the electron density, the light that composes the CMB will experience observable Thomson scattering. This scattering will leave its mark on the CMB 1416: 5727: 5701: 582: 1834:, populations of LCEs are now being studied at cosmological redshifts greater than 6, allowing for the first time a detailed and direct assessment of the origins of cosmic Reionization. Combining these large samples of galaxies with new constraints on the UV luminosity function indicates that dwarf galaxies overwhelmingly contribute to Reionization. 1478: > 6). At that time, however, matter had been diffused by the expansion of the universe, and the scattering interactions of photons and electrons were much less frequent than before electron-proton recombination. Thus, the universe was full of low density ionized hydrogen and remained transparent, as is the case today. 1502:. Quasars release an extraordinary amount of energy, being among the brightest objects in the universe. As a result, some quasars are detectable from as long ago as the epoch of reionization. Quasars also happen to have relatively uniform spectral features, regardless of their position in the sky or distance from the 1567: = 6 showed a Gunn-Peterson trough, indicating that the IGM was still at least partly neutral, the ones below did not, meaning the hydrogen was ionized. As reionization is expected to occur over relatively short timescales, the results suggest that the universe was approaching the end of reionization at 1604:

anisotropies are actually introduced because of reionization. By looking at the CMB anisotropies observed, and comparing with what they would look like had reionization not taken place, the electron column density at the time of reionization can be determined. With this, the age of the universe when

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The redshifting for a particular quasar provides temporal information about reionization. Since an object's redshift corresponds to the time at which it emitted the light, it is possible to determine when reionization ended. Quasars below a certain redshift (closer in space and time) do not show the

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galaxy also provides indirect evidence of Population III stars. Even without direct observations of Population III stars, they are a compelling source. They are more efficient and effective ionizers than Population II stars, as they emit more ionizing photons, and are capable of reionizing hydrogen

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causes light to undergo noticeable redshifting. This means that as light from the quasar travels through the IGM and is redshifted, wavelengths which had been below the Lyman Alpha limit are stretched, and will in effect begin to fill in the Lyman absorption band. This means that instead of showing

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light from galaxies offers a complementary tool set to study reionization. The Lyman alpha line is the n=2 to n=1 transition of neutral hydrogen, and can be produced copiously by galaxies with young stars. Moreover, Lyman alpha photons interact strongly with neutral hydrogen in intergalactic

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The earliest application of this method was in 2004, when the tension between late neutral gas indicated by quasar spectra and early reionization suggested by CMB results was strong. The detection of Lyman alpha galaxies at redshift z=6.5 demonstrated that the intergalactic gas was already

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of photons (of all wavelengths) off free electrons (and free protons, to a significantly lesser extent), but it became increasingly transparent as more electrons and protons combined to form neutral hydrogen atoms. While the electrons of neutral hydrogen can absorb photons of some wavelengths by

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Lyman alpha emission can be used in other ways to further probe reionization. Theory suggests that reionization was patchy, meaning that the clustering of Lyman alpha selected samples should be strongly enhanced during the middle phases of reionization. Moreover, specific ionized regions can be

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Zhu, Yongda; Becker, George D.; Bosman, Sarah E. I.; Keating, Laura C.; D’Odorico, Valentina; Davies, Rebecca L.; Christenson, Holly M.; Bañados, Eduardo; Bian, Fuyan; Bischetti, Manuela; Chen, Huanqing; Davies, Frederick B.; Eilers, Anna-Christina; Fan, Xiaohui; Gaikwad, Prakash (2022-06-01).

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Mascia, S.; Pentericci, L.; Calabrò, A.; Santini, P.; Napolitano, L.; Haro, P. Arrabal; Castellano, M.; Dickinson, M.; Ocvirk, P.; Lewis, J. S. W.; Amorín, R.; Bagley, M.; Cleri, R. N. J.; Costantin, L.; Dekel, A. (2024). "New insight on the nature of cosmic reionizers from the CEERS survey".

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For nearby objects in the universe, spectral absorption lines are very sharp, as only photons with energies just sufficient to cause an atomic transition can cause that transition. However, the distances between quasars and the telescopes which detect them are large, which means that the

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Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J. A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations In The Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters At The Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic

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Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; Chisholm, John; Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Gazagnes, Simon; Mauerhofer, Valentin; Verhamme, Anne; Amorín, Ricardo O.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Giavalisco, Mauro; Grazian, Andrea; Hayes, Matthew J. (July 2022).

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explosions produce such heavy elements, so hot, large, Population III stars which will form supernovae are a possible mechanism for reionization. While they have not been directly observed, they are consistent according to models using numerical simulation and current observations. A

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in hydrogen is potentially a means of studying this period, as well as the "dark ages" that preceded reionization. The 21-cm line occurs in neutral hydrogen, due to differences in energy between the spin triplet and spin singlet states of the electron and proton. This transition is

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Wold, Isak G. B.; Malhotra, Sangeeta; Rhoads, James; Wang, Junxian; Hu, Weida; Perez, Lucia A.; Zheng, Zhen-Ya; Khostovan, Ali Ahmad; Walker, Alistair R.; Barrientos, L. Felipe; González-López, Jorge; Harish, Santosh; Infante, Leopoldo; Jiang, Chunyan; Pharo, John (2022-03-01).

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Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Chisholm, John; Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; McCandliss, Stephan; Wang, Bingjie; Ford, N. M.; Heckman, Timothy; Ji, Zhiyuan; Giavalisco, Mauro; Amorin, Ricardo (2022-05-01).

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Ouchi, Masami; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Furusawa, Hisanori; Saito, Tomoki; Yoshida, Makiko; Akiyama, Masayuki; Ono, Yoshiaki; Yamada, Toru; Ota, Kazuaki; Kashikawa, Nobunari; Iye, Masanori; Kodama, Tadayuki; Okamura, Sadanori; Simpson, Chris; Yoshida, Michitoshi (2010-11-01).

1455:, a universe full of neutral hydrogen will be relatively opaque only at those absorbed wavelengths, but transparent throughout most of the spectrum. The Dark Ages of the universe start at that point, because there were no light sources other than the gradually redshifting 3223:

Hu, Weida; Wang, Junxian; Infante, Leopoldo; Rhoads, James E.; Zheng, Zhen-Ya; Yang, Huan; Malhotra, Sangeeta; Barrientos, L. Felipe; Jiang, Chunyan; González-López, Jorge; Prieto, Gonzalo; Perez, Lucia A.; Hibon, Pascale; Galaz, Gaspar; Coughlin, Alicia (2021-01-25).

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Kashikawa, Nobunari; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Matsuda, Yuichi; Egami, Eiichi; Jiang, Linhua; Nagao, Tohru; Ouchi, Masami; Malkan, Matthew A.; Hattori, Takashi; Ota, Kazuaki; Taniguchi, Yoshiaki; Okamura, Sadanori; Ly, Chun; Iye, Masanori; Furusawa, Hisanori (2011-06-20).

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Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Chisholm, John; Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; McCandliss, Stephan R.; Xu, Xinfeng; Wang, Bingjie; Oey, M. S.; Ford, N. M.; Heckman, Timothy; Ji, Zhiyuan (2022-05-01).

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predominantly ionized at an earlier time than the quasar spectra suggested. Subsequent applications of the method suggested some residual neutral gas as recently as z=6.5, but still indicate that a majority of intergalactic gas was ionized prior to z=7.

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While observations have come in which narrow the window during which the epoch of reionization could have taken place, it is still uncertain which objects provided the photons that reionized the IGM. To ionize neutral hydrogen, an energy larger than 13.6

1830:/COS with LyC escape fractions anywhere from ≈ 0 to 88%. The results from the Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey have provided the empirical foundation necessary to identify and understand LCEs at the Epoch of Reionization. With new observations from 1803:(LyC)-emitting candidates. Compact dwarf star-forming galaxies like the GPs are considered excellent low-redshift analogs of high-redshift Lyman-alpha and LyC emitters (LAEs and LCEs, respectively). At that time, only two other LCEs were known: 1914:. As a consequence, Population III stars are currently considered the most likely energy source to initiate the reionization of the universe, though other sources are likely to have taken over and driven reionization to completion. 2699:

Pentericci, L.; Fontana, A.; Vanzella, E.; Castellano, M.; Grazian, A.; Dijkstra, M.; Boutsia, K.; Cristiani, S.; Dickinson, M.; Giallongo, E.; Giavalisco, M.; Maiolino, R.; Moorwood, A.; Paris, D.; Santini, P. (2011-12-20).

2658:"Keck spectroscopy of faint 3 < z < 7 Lyman break galaxies - I. New constraints on cosmic reionization from the luminosity and redshift-dependent fraction of Lyman α emission: The Lyα emitting fraction at high redshift" 4515:

Chisholm, J.; Saldana-Lopez, A.; Flury, S.; Schaerer, D.; Jaskot, A.; Amorín, R.; Atek, H.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Fleming, B.; Ferguson, H.; Fernández, V.; Giavalisco, M.; Hayes, M.; Heckman, T.; Henry, A. (2022-11-09).

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Mascia, S.; Pentericci, L.; Calabrò, A.; Treu, T.; Santini, P.; Yang, L.; Napolitano, L.; Roberts-Borsani, G.; Bergamini, P.; Grillo, C.; Rosati, P.; Vulcani, B.; Castellano, M.; Boyett, K.; Fontana, A. (April 2023).

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map, introducing secondary anisotropies (anisotropies introduced after recombination). The overall effect is to erase anisotropies that occur on smaller scales. While anisotropies on small scales are erased,

1616: > 11. This redshift range was in clear disagreement with the results from studying quasar spectra. However, the three year WMAP data returned a different result, with reionization beginning at 1674:

Even with the quasar data roughly in agreement with the CMB anisotropy data, there are still a number of questions, especially concerning the energy sources of reionization and the effects on, and role of,

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Bouwens, R. J.; et al. (2012). "Lower-luminosity Galaxies Could Reionize the Universe: Very Steep Faint-end Slopes to the UV Luminosity Functions at z >= 5-8 from the HUDF09 WFC3/IR Observations".

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Tilvi, V.; Malhotra, S.; Rhoads, J. E.; Coughlin, A.; Zheng, Z.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Veilleux, S.; Mobasher, B.; Wang, J.; Probst, R.; Swaters, R.; Hibon, P.; Joshi, B.; Zabl, J.; Jiang, T. (2020-03-01).

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Atek, Hakim; Richard, Johan; Jauzac, Mathilde; Kneib, Jean-Paul; Natarajan, Priyamvada; Limousin, Marceau; Schaerer, Daniel; Jullo, Eric; Ebeling, Harald; Egami, Eiichi; Clement, Benjamin (2015-11-18).

1701: 1575: > 10. On the other hand, long absorption troughs persisting down to z < 5.5 in the Lyman-alpha and Lyman-beta forests suggest that reionization potentially extends later than 1704:(EDGES) points to a signal from this era, although follow-up observations will be needed to confirm it. Several other projects hope to make headway in this area in the near future, such as the 5502: 171: 4723:

Fan, Xiaohu; et al. (2001). "A Survey of z>5.8 Quasars in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. I. Discovery of Three New Quasars and the Spatial Density of Luminous Quasars at z~6".

1792:(JWST), constraints on the UV luminosity function at the Epoch of Reionization have become commonplace, allowing for better constraints on the faint, low-mass population of galaxies. 5147: 1705: 3672:"A Comprehensive Study of Galaxies at z ∼ 9–16 Found in the Early JWST Data: Ultraviolet Luminosity Functions and Cosmic Star Formation History at the Pre-reionization Epoch" 1784:

are currently considered to be the primary source of ionizing photons during the epoch of reionization. For most scenarios, this would require the log-slope of the UV galaxy

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Limin Lu; et al. (1998). "The Metal Contents of Very Low Column Density Lyman-alpha Clouds: Implications for the Origin of Heavy Elements in the Intergalactic Medium".

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McLeod, D. J.; Donnan, C. T.; McLure, R. J.; Dunlop, J. S.; Magee, D.; Begley, R.; Carnall, A. C.; Cullen, F.; Ellis, R. S.; Hamadouche, M. L.; Stanton, T. M. (2023).

1638:, the redshift of reionization, assuming it was an instantaneous event. While this is unlikely to be physical, since reionization was very likely not instantaneous, z 1486:

Looking back so far in the history of the universe presents some observational challenges. There are, however, a few observational methods for studying reionization.

1987: 2757:

Tilvi, V.; Papovich, C.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Long, J.; Song, M.; Dickinson, M.; Ferguson, H. C.; Koekemoer, A. M.; Giavalisco, M.; Mobasher, B. (2014-09-17).

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on different angular scales can also be used to study reionization. Photons undergo scattering when there are free electrons present, in a process known as

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Harikane, Yuichi; Ouchi, Masami; Oguri, Masamune; Ono, Yoshiaki; Nakajima, Kimihiko; Isobe, Yuki; Umeda, Hiroya; Mawatari, Ken; Zhang, Yechi (2023-03-01).

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also experienced a similar reionization phase change, but at a later epoch in the history of the universe. This is usually called "helium reionization".

1826:/COS program which nearly tripled the number of direct measurements of the LyC from dwarf galaxies. To date, at least 50 LCEs have been confirmed using 5096: 3607:"Are ultra-faint galaxies at z = 6–8 responsible for cosmic reionization? Combined constraints from the Hubble frontier fields clusters and parallels" 659: 1341: 5757: 5522: 1527: 846: 5128: 2287:

Kaplinghat, Manoj; et al. (2003). "Probing the Reionization History of the universe using the Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization".

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Kogut, A.; et al. (2003). "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Temperature-Polarization Correlation".

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allowed that comparison to be made. The initial observations, released in 2003, suggested that reionization took place from 30 >

1434: = 1089 (379,000 years after the Big Bang), due to the cooling of the universe to the point where the rate of recombination of 5615: 1539:

sharp spectral absorption lines, a quasar's light which has traveled through a large, spread out region of neutral hydrogen will show a

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Spergel, D. N.; et al. (2007). "Three-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Implications for Cosmology".

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Wang, Bingjie; Heckman, Timothy M.; Leitherer, Claus; Alexandroff, Rachel; Borthakur, Sanchayeeta; Overzier, Roderik A. (2019-10-30).

1551:), while quasars emitting light prior to reionization will feature a Gunn-Peterson trough. In 2001, four quasars were detected by the 3281:

Barkana, Rennan & Loeb, Abraham (2005). "Detecting the Earliest Galaxies through Two New Sources of 21 Centimeter Fluctuations".

1506:. Thus it can be inferred that any major differences between quasar spectra will be caused by the interaction of their emission with 5450: 3843:

Verhamme, A.; Orlitova, I.; Schaerer, D.; Hayes, M. (2014). "On the use of Lyman-alpha to detect Lyman continuum leaking galaxies".

1935:. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of 555: 1700:. By studying 21-cm line emission, it will be possible to learn more about the early structures that formed. Observations from the 2119:

Becker, R. H.; et al. (2001). "Evidence For Reionization at z ~ 6: Detection of a Gunn-Peterson Trough In A z=6.28 Quasar".

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Venkatesan, Apama; et al. (2003). "Evolving Spectra of Population III Stars: Consequences for Cosmological Reionization".

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Izotov, Y. I.; Worseck, G.; Schaerer, D.; Guseva, N. G.; Chisholm, J.; Thuan, T. X.; Fricke, K. J.; Verhamme, A. (2021-03-22).

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Izotov, Y. I.; Schaerer, D.; Worseck, G.; Guseva, N. G.; Thuan, T. X.; Verhamme, A.; Orlitová, I.; Fricke, K. J. (2018-03-11).

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that are absorbed and re-emitted by surrounding neutral hydrogen, it will produce a 21-cm line signal in that hydrogen through

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Madau, Piero; et al. (1999). "Radiative Transfer in a Clumpy Universe. III. The Nature of Cosmological Ionizing Source".

5605: 5440: 5367: 1811:. Finding local LyC emitters has thus become crucial to the theories about the early universe and the epoch of reionization. 1233: 550: 264: 5548: 5476: 5293: 4903:

Tumlinson, Jason; et al. (2002). "Cosmological Reionization by the First Stars: Evolving Spectra of Population III".

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Izotov, Y. I.; Worseck, G.; Schaerer, D.; Guseva, N. G; Thuan, T. X.; Fricke; Verhamme, A.; Orlitová, I. (2018-08-21).

2702:"SPECTROSCOPIC CONFIRMATION OF z ∼ 7 LYMAN BREAK GALAXIES: PROBING THE EARLIEST GALAXIES AND THE EPOCH OF REIONIZATION" 5466: 4850:

Fosbury, R. A. E.; et al. (2003). "Massive Star Formation in a Gravitationally Lensed H II Galaxy at z = 3.357".

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Gnedin, Nickolay & Ostriker, Jeremiah (1997). "Reionization of the Universe and the Early Production of Metals".

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Alvarez, M. A.; Pen, Ue-Li; Chang, Tzu-Ching (2010). "Enhanced Detectability of Pre-reionization 21 cm Structure".

1965: 811: 629: 340: 320: 128: 73: 3931:"Ionization state of inter-stellar medium in galaxies: evolution, SFR-M*-Z dependence, and ionizing photon escape" 5517: 5360: 5265: 5039: 2816:"Luminosity Functions of Lyα Emitters at Redshifts z = 6.5 and z = 5.7: Evidence against Reionization at z ≤ 6.5" 1713: 1697: 1535: 1467: 1424: 1385: 1129: 166: 4063:

Izotov, Y. I.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X.; Worseck, G.; Guseva, N. G.; Orlitová, I.; Verhamme, A. (2016-10-01).

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Izotov, Y. I.; Orlitová, I.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X.; Verhamme, A.; Guseva, N. G.; Worseck, G. (2016-01-14).

1822:/COS) to measure the LyC directly. These efforts culminated in the Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey, a large 5681: 5486: 5257: 3785:

Jaskot, A. E. & Oey, M. S. (2014). "Linking Ly-alpha and Low-Ionization Transitions at Low Optical Depth".

1762: 1721: 1552: 1519: 1404: 1370: 833: 645: 335: 100: 4116:"J1154+2443: a low-redshift compact star-forming galaxy with a 46 per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons" 2989:"STATISTICS OF 207 Lyα EMITTERS AT A REDSHIFT NEAR 7: CONSTRAINTS ON REIONIZATION AND GALAXY FORMATION MODELS" 1474:. This occurred between 150 million and one billion years after the Big Bang (at a redshift 20 > 5671: 5215: 2340:

Dore, O.; et al. (2007). "Signature of patchy reionization in the polarization anisotropy of the CMB".

984: 303: 183: 5762: 5579: 4392:"The Low-Redshift Lyman Continuum Survey: Unveiling the ISM properties of low- z Lyman-continuum emitters" 1846: 1741: 1571: = 6. This, in turn, suggests that the universe must still have been almost entirely neutral at 886: 5137: 5752: 5625: 5481: 5228: 1911: 508: 310: 252: 3731:"The galaxy UV luminosity function at z ≃ 11 from a suite of public JWST ERS, ERO and Cycle-1 programs" 2230:"Long Dark Gaps in the Lyβ Forest at z < 6: Evidence of Ultra-late Reionization from XQR-30 Spectra" 5656: 5058: 5002: 4949: 4912: 4869: 4795: 4742: 4695: 4653: 4591: 4479: 4413: 4353: 4239: 4013: 3954: 3887: 3864:

Izotov, Y. I.; Guseva, N. G.; Fricke, K. J.; Henkel, C.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X. (February 2021).

3804: 3752: 3693: 3628: 3570: 3513: 3456: 3353: 3300: 3247: 3187: 3127: 3068: 3010: 2952: 2894: 2837: 2780: 2723: 2622: 2565: 2518: 2465: 2412: 2359: 2306: 2251: 2138: 2091: 2044: 1897: 1601: 1540: 1523: 1362: 868: 521: 493: 315: 5676: 5630: 5507: 5417: 5397: 5125: 4218:"A New Technique for Finding Galaxies Leaking Lyman-continuum Radiation: [S ii]-deficiency" 2002: 1676: 1628: 1470:

energy, the universe reverted from being composed of neutral atoms, to once again being an ionized

1189: 918: 453: 413: 383: 330: 286: 274: 178: 68: 5610: 5224: 5101: 5074: 5048: 5018: 4992: 4965: 4939: 4885: 4859: 4830: 4811: 4785: 4758: 4732: 4643: 4615: 4581: 4529: 4469: 4437: 4403: 4343: 4288: 4229: 4178: 4127: 4076: 4045: 4003: 3972: 3944: 3911: 3877: 3844: 3820: 3794: 3742: 3683: 3652: 3618: 3586: 3560: 3529: 3503: 3472: 3446: 3369: 3343: 3316: 3290: 3237: 3177: 3117: 3058: 3000: 2988: 2942: 2930: 2884: 2872: 2827: 2770: 2713: 2701: 2669: 2612: 2534: 2508: 2481: 2455: 2428: 2402: 2375: 2349: 2322: 2296: 2241: 2189: 2154: 2128: 2034: 1918: 1906: 1881: 1655: 1592: 1548: 1447: 1354: 1253: 1209: 938: 534: 473: 443: 408: 378: 325: 269: 38: 4065:"Detection of high Lyman continuum leakage from four low-redshift compact star-forming galaxies" 3866:"Low-redshift compact star-forming galaxies as analogues of high-redshift star-forming galaxies" 3606: 2656:

Stark, Daniel P.; Ellis, Richard S.; Chiu, Kuenley; Ouchi, Masami; Bunker, Andrew (2010-11-01).

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The parameter usually quoted here is τ, the "optical depth to reionization," or alternatively, z

4167:"Low-redshift Lyman continuum leaking galaxies with high [O iii]/[O ii] ratios" 3166:"Onset of Cosmic Reionization: Evidence of an Ionized Bubble Merely 680 Myr after the Big Bang" 2758: 1849:(AGN), were considered a good candidate source because they are highly efficient at converting 5747: 5666: 5651: 5220: 4607: 4549: 4497: 4429: 4371: 4308: 4257: 4198: 4147: 4096: 4037: 4029: 3903: 3711: 3644: 3263: 3205: 3145: 3086: 3026: 2968: 2910: 2853: 2796: 2739: 2638: 2601:"Searching for the Earliest Galaxies Using the Gunn-Peterson Trough and the Lyα Emission Line" 2581: 2269: 2209: 2060: 1922: 1788:, often denoted α, to be steeper than it is today, approaching α = -2. With the advent of the 503: 4570:"Closing in on the sources of cosmic reionization: First results from the GLASS-JWST program" 3992:"Eight per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons from a compact, star-forming dwarf galaxy" 5731: 5705: 5584: 5066: 5010: 4957: 4877: 4803: 4750: 4703: 4661: 4657: 4599: 4595: 4539: 4518:"The far-ultraviolet continuum slope as a Lyman Continuum escape estimator at high redshift" 4517: 4487: 4421: 4417: 4361: 4298: 4276: 4247: 4188: 4166: 4137: 4086: 4021: 3962: 3895: 3891: 3812: 3760: 3701: 3636: 3578: 3521: 3464: 3361: 3308: 3255: 3195: 3135: 3076: 3018: 2960: 2902: 2845: 2788: 2731: 2679: 2630: 2573: 2526: 2522: 2473: 2420: 2367: 2314: 2259: 2199: 2146: 2099: 2052: 1936: 1736: 1471: 1377: 1025: 586: 398: 388: 373: 224: 93: 4115: 5600: 5132: 4679: 2871:

Hu, E. M.; Cowie, L. L.; Barger, A. J.; Capak, P.; Kakazu, Y.; Trouille, L. (2010-12-10).

2173: 1979: 1889: 1808: 513: 448: 433: 418: 403: 393: 257: 5512: 4332:"The Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey. I. New, Diverse Local Lyman Continuum Emitters" 154: 5062: 5006: 4953: 4916: 4873: 4799: 4746: 4699: 4483: 4357: 4243: 4017: 3958: 3808: 3756: 3697: 3632: 3574: 3517: 3460: 3357: 3304: 3251: 3191: 3131: 3104:

McQuinn, Matthew; Hernquist, Lars; Zaldarriaga, Matias; Dutta, Suvendra (October 2007).

3072: 3014: 2956: 2898: 2841: 2784: 2727: 2626: 2569: 2469: 2416: 2363: 2310: 2255: 2178:"Evidence of patchy hydrogen reionization from an extreme Lyα trough below redshift six" 2142: 2095: 2048: 5092: 1781: 1685: 1085: 1005: 498: 458: 5070: 3816: 3525: 3365: 3022: 2964: 2906: 2735: 1873: 1466:

that were energetic enough to re-ionize neutral hydrogen. As these objects formed and

5741: 4762: 4619: 4441: 3976: 3915: 3824: 3640: 3590: 3582: 3533: 3387: 3373: 3225: 3140: 3105: 2684: 2657: 2538: 2379: 1892:, the only elements that formed aside from hydrogen and helium were trace amounts of 1680: 1419:

Schematic timeline of the universe, depicting reionization's place in cosmic history.

1330: 483: 468: 368: 17: 5078: 5022: 4969: 4889: 4569: 4391: 3865: 3656: 3476: 2815: 2792: 2600: 2432: 2326: 2158: 2022: 5335: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5232: 5210: 4815: 4049: 3492:"In the Beginning: The First Sources of Light and the Reionization of the Universe" 3409: 3320: 2485: 1750: 1515: 1452: 1229: 958: 488: 463: 438: 423: 4665: 4603: 4425: 3899: 2530: 1462:

The second phase change occurred once gas clouds started to condense in the early

2499:

Planck Collaboration (2020). "Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters".

5574: 5564: 5238: 4458:"The Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey. II. New Insights into LyC Diagnostics" 1758: 1692:

dependent, meaning that as objects form in the "dark ages" and emit Lyman-alpha

1689: 1650: 1105: 236: 229: 4684:"Cosmological H II regions and the photoionization of the intergalactic medium" 4492: 4457: 4366: 4331: 4252: 4217: 3706: 3671: 3259: 3200: 3165: 3081: 3046: 2553: 2371: 2264: 2229: 5569: 5316: 5311: 3991: 1992: 1862: 1800: 1796: 1596: 1511: 897: 478: 4611: 4553: 4544: 4501: 4433: 4375: 4312: 4261: 4202: 4151: 4100: 4033: 3907: 3765: 3730: 3715: 3648: 3267: 3209: 3149: 3090: 3030: 2972: 2914: 2857: 2800: 2743: 2642: 2585: 2273: 2213: 2064: 1884:

were the earliest stars, which had no elements more massive than hydrogen or

5383: 5321: 4303: 4193: 4142: 4091: 4064: 2204: 1901: 1754: 1045: 428: 5158: 4983:

Alvarez, Marcelo; et al. (2006). "The H II Region of the First Star".

4041: 3967: 3930: 1415: 27:

Process that caused matter to reionize early in the history of the Universe

1631:

mission, yield an instantaneous reionization redshift of z = 7.68 ± 0.79.

5527: 5412: 5402: 5205: 4997: 4944: 4864: 4835: 4790: 4737: 3508: 3451: 3295: 2832: 2617: 2460: 2407: 2354: 2301: 2133: 1960: 1940: 1896:. Yet quasar spectra have revealed the presence of heavy elements in the 1877:

Simulated image of the first stars, 400 million years after the Big Bang.

1495: 1463: 1435: 1428: 1397: 1366: 1350: 161: 63: 56: 4025: 2931:"COMPLETING THE CENSUS OF Lyα EMITTERS AT THE REIONIZATION EPOCH $ ^,$ " 5306: 3047:"LAGER Lyα Luminosity Function at z ∼ 7: Implications for Reionization" 1973: 1893: 1842: 1814:

Subsequently, motivated, a series of surveys have been conducted using

1804: 1624: = 7. This is in much better agreement with the quasar data. 1065: 1522:

is large, meaning that even for low levels of neutral hydrogen in the

46: 5140:, website of the group researching Epoch of Reionization using LOFAR. 4277:"Lyman continuum leakage from low-mass galaxies with M ⋆ < 108 M⊙" 1997: 1944: 1925: 1885: 1854: 1770: 1693: 1499: 1443: 1439: 1393: 1389: 1273: 980: 5152: 3849: 3491: 1970:

Galaxies in the local universe that 'leak' Lyman continuum photons.

1753:

is required, which corresponds to photons with a wavelength of 91.2

1688:, meaning it occurs extremely rarely. The transition is also highly 5053: 5014: 4961: 4881: 4807: 4754: 4708: 4683: 4648: 4586: 4534: 4474: 4408: 4348: 4293: 4234: 4183: 4132: 4081: 4008: 3882: 3747: 3688: 3623: 3468: 3312: 3242: 3182: 3063: 2849: 2634: 2577: 2513: 2477: 2424: 2318: 2246: 2150: 2104: 2079: 2056: 1446:

rate. The universe was opaque before the recombination, due to the

3949: 3799: 3565: 3348: 3122: 3005: 2947: 2889: 2775: 2718: 2674: 2194: 2039: 1872: 1735: 1503: 1414: 1340: 1297: 857: 2172:

Becker, George D.; Bolton, James S.; Madau, Piero; Pettini, Max;

5097:"Astronomers Report Finding Earliest Stars That Enriched Cosmos" 1948: 1850: 1766: 1507: 5356: 5162: 1744:

image to answer the question of how the Universe was reionised.

1702:

Experiment to Detect the Global Epoch of Reionization Signature

1396:, reionization usually refers strictly to the reionization of 1381: 1293: 624: 5352: 5143: 2759:"RAPID DECLINE OF Lyα EMISSION TOWARD THE REIONIZATION ERA" 2080:"On the Density of Neutral Hydrogen in Intergalactic Space" 1642:

provides an estimate of the mean redshift of reionization.

3388:"Astronomers detect light from the Universe's first stars" 1666:

pinpointed by identifying groups of Lyman alpha emitters.

1910:

on their own in some reionization models with reasonable

1740:

Astronomers hope to use observations such as this 2018

1720:(GMRT), Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature (MIST), the 1423:

The first phase change of hydrogen in the universe was

5715: 5148:

Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization

2599:

Miralda-Escude, Jordi; Rees, Martin J. (1998-04-10).

1706:

Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization

5639: 5593: 5557: 5536: 5495: 5459: 5426: 5390: 5292: 5196: 2814:Malhotra, Sangeeta; Rhoads, James E. (2004-12-10). 2023:"The History and Morphology of Helium Reionization" 2552:Partridge, R. B.; Peebles, P. J. E. (March 1967). 4522:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4281:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4171:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4120:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4069:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3936:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3780: 3778: 3776: 3735:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3110:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2662:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2182:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 1726:Large-Aperture Experiment to Detect the Dark Ages 3838: 3836: 3834: 2021:Furlanetto, Steven R.; Oh, S. Peng (July 2008). 1917:In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for 1547:Gunn-Peterson trough (though they may show the 1442:to form neutral hydrogen was higher than the re 1392:in the universe is in the form of hydrogen and 3545: 3543: 3432: 3430: 2873:"AN ATLAS OF z = 5.7 AND z = 6.5 Lyα EMITTERS" 1605:reionization occurred can then be calculated. 5368: 5174: 1988:List of the most distant astronomical objects 1795:In 2014, two separate studies identified two 653: 606: 8: 1620: = 11 and the universe ionized by 1494:One means of studying reionization uses the 4336:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 3676:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 2448:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 2395:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 1943:that are needed for the later formation of 1563: = 6.28. While the quasars above 5375: 5361: 5353: 5181: 5167: 5159: 2078:Gunn, J. E. & Peterson, B. A. (1965). 660: 646: 613: 599: 213: 87: 45: 29: 5446:Religious interpretations of the Big Bang 5052: 4996: 4943: 4863: 4834: 4789: 4736: 4707: 4647: 4585: 4543: 4533: 4491: 4473: 4407: 4365: 4347: 4302: 4292: 4251: 4233: 4192: 4182: 4141: 4131: 4090: 4080: 4007: 3966: 3948: 3881: 3848: 3798: 3764: 3746: 3705: 3687: 3622: 3564: 3507: 3450: 3347: 3294: 3241: 3199: 3181: 3139: 3121: 3106:"Studying reionization with Lyα emitters" 3080: 3062: 3004: 2946: 2888: 2831: 2774: 2717: 2683: 2673: 2616: 2512: 2459: 2406: 2353: 2300: 2263: 2245: 2203: 2193: 2132: 2103: 2038: 5436:Discovery of cosmic microwave background 3226:"A Lyman-α protocluster at redshift 6.9" 1376:Reionization is the second of two major 5722: 2013: 1530:at those wavelengths is highly likely. 1514:of light at the energies of one of the 244: 216: 108: 37: 4324: 4322: 3929:Nakajima, K. & Ouchi, M. (2014). 1457:cosmic microwave background radiation 7: 5155:, Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature 1861:(number of quasars as a function of 1610:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 1490:Quasars and the Gunn-Peterson trough 1369:to reionize after the lapse of the " 1282: 1262: 1242: 1218: 1198: 1178: 1158: 1138: 1118: 1094: 1074: 1054: 1034: 1014: 994: 967: 947: 927: 907: 5341:Graphical timeline of the Big Bang 2176:; Venemans, Bram P. (2015-03-11). 341:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 25: 5451:Timeline of cosmological theories 3787:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3553:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3336:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3170:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 1773:were the main sources of energy. 556:Timeline of cosmological theories 321:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 5725: 5699: 5334: 3141:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12085.x 2685:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17227.x 1818:'s Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( 580: 569: 568: 5544:Future of an expanding universe 1718:Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope 1583:CMB anisotropy and polarization 336:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 189:Future of an expanding universe 5758:Physical cosmological concepts 5441:History of the Big Bang theory 3490:Barkana, R.; Loeb, A. (2001). 1384:in the universe (the first is 551:History of the Big Bang theory 347:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 1: 5549:Ultimate fate of the universe 5477:Gravitational wave background 3526:10.1016/S0370-1573(01)00019-9 2554:"Are Young Galaxies Visible?" 1510:along the line of sight. For 543:Discovery of cosmic microwave 194:Ultimate fate of the universe 4574:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4396:Astronomy & Astrophysics 3870:Astronomy & Astrophysics 3410:"Hubble opens its eye again" 2501:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1555:with redshifts ranging from 5467:Cosmic microwave background 5071:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139 4682:& Giroux, Mark (1987). 4666:10.1051/0004-6361/202347884 4604:10.1051/0004-6361/202345866 4426:10.1051/0004-6361/202141864 3900:10.1051/0004-6361/202039772 3817:10.1088/2041-8205/791/2/L19 3366:10.1088/2041-8205/723/1/L17 3023:10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/869 2965:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/119 2907:10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/394 2736:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/132 2531:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 1757:or shorter. This is in the 1589:cosmic microwave background 1361:is the process that caused 311:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 5779: 5472:Cosmic neutrino background 5408:Chronology of the universe 5302:Heat death of the universe 5198:Chronology of the universe 4905:ASP Conference Proceedings 4636:Astronomy and Astrophysics 3641:10.1088/0004-637X/814/1/69 3583:10.1088/2041-8205/752/1/L5 3260:10.1038/s41550-020-01291-y 2372:10.1103/PhysRevD.76.043002 1966:Chronology of the universe 1790:James Webb Space Telescope 1345:Phases of the reionization 74:Chronology of the universe 5695: 5518:Expansion of the universe 5330: 5144:Official website of PAPER 5040:The Astrophysical Journal 4688:The Astrophysical Journal 4462:The Astrophysical Journal 4222:The Astrophysical Journal 3611:The Astrophysical Journal 3439:The Astrophysical Journal 3283:The Astrophysical Journal 3051:The Astrophysical Journal 2993:The Astrophysical Journal 2935:The Astrophysical Journal 2877:The Astrophysical Journal 2820:The Astrophysical Journal 2793:10.1088/0004-637X/794/1/5 2763:The Astrophysical Journal 2706:The Astrophysical Journal 2605:The Astrophysical Journal 2558:The Astrophysical Journal 2289:The Astrophysical Journal 2234:The Astrophysical Journal 2084:The Astrophysical Journal 2027:The Astrophysical Journal 1714:Murchison Widefield Array 1698:Wouthuysen-Field coupling 1679:during reionization. The 1536:expansion of the universe 1388:). While the majority of 1326: 638: 627: 167:Expansion of the universe 5258:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 5190:Timeline of the Big Bang 4725:The Astronomical Journal 4493:10.3847/1538-4357/ac61e4 4367:10.3847/1538-4365/ac5331 4253:10.3847/1538-4357/ab418f 3707:10.3847/1538-4365/acaaa9 3201:10.3847/2041-8213/ab75ec 3082:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4997 2265:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6e60 1982:– second of two galaxies 1890:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 1763:electromagnetic spectrum 1724:(DARE) mission, and the 1722:Dark Ages Radio Explorer 1553:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 1520:scattering cross-section 1403:It is believed that the 331:Planck space observatory 117:Gravitational wave (GWB) 5672:Observational cosmology 5216:Grand unification epoch 4658:2024A&A...685A...3M 4596:2023A&A...672A.155M 4418:2022A&A...663A..59S 3892:2021A&A...646A.138I 2523:2020A&A...641A...6P 1976:– first of two galaxies 184:Inhomogeneous cosmology 5523:Accelerating expansion 4545:10.1093/mnras/stac2874 3766:10.1093/mnras/stad3471 3414:www.spacetelescope.org 1912:initial mass functions 1907:gravitationally lensed 1878: 1847:active galactic nuclei 1816:Hubble Space Telescope 1745: 1742:Hubble Space Telescope 1587:The anisotropy of the 1427:, which occurred at a 1420: 1346: 703:−10 — 693:−11 — 683:−12 — 673:−13 — 5626:Shape of the universe 5616:Large-scale structure 5429:cosmological theories 4985:Astrophysical Journal 4932:Astrophysical Journal 4852:Astrophysical Journal 4778:Astrophysical Journal 4304:10.1093/mnras/stab612 4194:10.1093/mnras/sty1378 4143:10.1093/mnras/stx3115 4092:10.1093/mnras/stw1205 2205:10.1093/mnras/stu2646 1876: 1739: 1627:Results in 2018 from 1559: = 5.82 to 1418: 1344: 848:Accelerated expansion 793:−1 — 783:−2 — 773:−3 — 763:−4 — 753:−5 — 743:−6 — 733:−7 — 723:−8 — 713:−9 — 275:Large-scale structure 253:Shape of the universe 18:Epoch of Reionization 5706:astronomy portal 5294:Fate of the universe 5126:End of the Dark Ages 3968:10.1093/mnras/stu902 2121:Astronomical Journal 2009:Notes and references 1919:Population III stars 1898:intergalactic medium 1882:Population III stars 1869:Population III stars 1646:Lyman alpha emission 1541:Gunn-Peterson trough 1524:intergalactic medium 1363:electrically neutral 1066:NGC 188 star cluster 587:Astronomy portal 545:background radiation 522:List of cosmologists 5631:Structure formation 5594:Structure formation 5508:Friedmann equations 5418:Observable universe 5398:Age of the universe 5063:2015ApJ...808..139S 5007:2006ApJ...639..621A 4954:2003ApJ...584..621V 4917:2002ASPC..267..433T 4874:2003ApJ...596..797F 4800:1997ApJ...486..581G 4747:2001AJ....122.2833F 4700:1987ApJ...321L.107S 4484:2022ApJ...930..126F 4358:2022ApJS..260....1F 4244:2019ApJ...885...57W 4026:10.1038/nature16456 4018:2016Natur.529..178I 3959:2014MNRAS.442..900N 3809:2014ApJ...791L..19J 3757:2024MNRAS.527.5004M 3698:2023ApJS..265....5H 3633:2015ApJ...814...69A 3575:2012ApJ...752L...5B 3518:2001PhR...349..125B 3461:1999ApJ...514..648M 3358:2010ApJ...723L..17A 3305:2005ApJ...626....1B 3252:2021NatAs...5..485H 3192:2020ApJ...891L..10T 3132:2007MNRAS.381...75M 3073:2022ApJ...927...36W 3015:2010ApJ...723..869O 2957:2011ApJ...734..119K 2899:2010ApJ...725..394H 2842:2004ApJ...617L...5M 2785:2014ApJ...794....5T 2728:2011ApJ...743..132P 2627:1998ApJ...497...21M 2570:1967ApJ...147..868P 2470:2007ApJS..170..377S 2417:2003ApJS..148..161K 2364:2007PhRvD..76d3002D 2311:2003ApJ...583...24K 2256:2022ApJ...932...76Z 2174:Ryan-Weber, Emma V. 2143:2001AJ....122.2850B 2096:1965ApJ...142.1633G 2049:2008ApJ...681....1F 1859:luminosity function 1799:(GPs) to be likely 1786:luminosity function 1710:Low Frequency Array 1677:structure formation 1190:Sexual reproduction 1130:Earliest known life 287:Structure formation 179:Friedmann equations 69:Age of the universe 33:Part of a series on 5611:Large quasar group 5225:Inflationary epoch 5131:2005-03-09 at the 5102:The New York Times 3390:. 28 February 2018 1879: 1797:Green Pea galaxies 1746: 1656:Lyman break galaxy 1593:Thomson scattering 1549:Lyman-alpha forest 1421: 1347: 1254:Cambrian explosion 1170:Atmospheric oxygen 869:Single-celled life 326:Dark Energy Survey 270:Large quasar group 39:Physical cosmology 5713: 5712: 5667:Illustris project 5350: 5349: 5262:Matter domination 5221:Electroweak epoch 4002:(7585): 178–180. 2342:Physical Review D 1937:chemical elements 1923:Cosmos Redshift 7 1900:at an early era. 1518:of hydrogen, the 1516:Lyman transitions 1482:Detection methods 1405:primordial helium 1378:phase transitions 1349:In the fields of 1339: 1338: 1331:billion years ago 1305: 1304: 1281: 1280: 1261: 1260: 1241: 1240: 1217: 1216: 1197: 1196: 1177: 1176: 1157: 1156: 1137: 1136: 1117: 1116: 1093: 1092: 1073: 1072: 1053: 1052: 1046:Milky Way spirals 1033: 1032: 1013: 1012: 993: 992: 966: 965: 946: 945: 926: 925: 919:Earliest Universe 623: 622: 294: 293: 136: 135: 16:(Redirected from 5770: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5721: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5606:Galaxy formation 5585:Lambda-CDM model 5496:Present universe 5377: 5370: 5363: 5354: 5338: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5160: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5095:(17 June 2015). 5089: 5083: 5082: 5056: 5033: 5027: 5026: 5000: 4998:astro-ph/0507684 4980: 4974: 4973: 4947: 4945:astro-ph/0206390 4927: 4921: 4920: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4867: 4865:astro-ph/0307162 4847: 4841: 4840: 4838: 4836:astro-ph/9802189 4826: 4820: 4819: 4793: 4791:astro-ph/9612127 4773: 4767: 4766: 4740: 4738:astro-ph/0108063 4731:(6): 2833–2849. 4720: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4651: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4589: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4547: 4537: 4528:(4): 5104–5120. 4512: 4506: 4505: 4495: 4477: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4411: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4369: 4351: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4306: 4296: 4287:(2): 1734–1752. 4272: 4266: 4265: 4255: 4237: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4196: 4186: 4177:(4): 4851–4865. 4162: 4156: 4155: 4145: 4135: 4126:(4): 4514–4527. 4111: 4105: 4104: 4094: 4084: 4075:(4): 3683–3701. 4060: 4054: 4053: 4011: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3970: 3952: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3885: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3840: 3829: 3828: 3802: 3782: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3750: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3691: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3626: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3568: 3547: 3538: 3537: 3511: 3509:astro-ph/0010468 3487: 3481: 3480: 3454: 3452:astro-ph/9809058 3434: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3384: 3378: 3377: 3351: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3298: 3296:astro-ph/0410129 3278: 3272: 3271: 3245: 3230:Nature Astronomy 3220: 3214: 3213: 3203: 3185: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3143: 3125: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3084: 3066: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3008: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2950: 2925: 2919: 2918: 2892: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2835: 2833:astro-ph/0407408 2811: 2805: 2804: 2778: 2754: 2748: 2747: 2721: 2696: 2690: 2689: 2687: 2677: 2668:(3): 1628–1648. 2653: 2647: 2646: 2620: 2618:astro-ph/9707193 2596: 2590: 2589: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2516: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2463: 2461:astro-ph/0603449 2443: 2437: 2436: 2410: 2408:astro-ph/0302213 2390: 2384: 2383: 2357: 2355:astro-ph/0701784 2337: 2331: 2330: 2304: 2302:astro-ph/0207591 2284: 2278: 2277: 2267: 2249: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2207: 2197: 2188:(4): 3402–3419. 2169: 2163: 2162: 2136: 2134:astro-ph/0108097 2127:(6): 2850–2857. 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2042: 2018: 2003:Strömgren sphere 1934: 1579: = 6. 1319: 1288: 1283: 1274:Earliest mammals 1268: 1263: 1248: 1243: 1230:Earliest animals 1224: 1219: 1204: 1199: 1184: 1179: 1164: 1159: 1144: 1139: 1124: 1119: 1100: 1095: 1080: 1075: 1060: 1055: 1040: 1035: 1026:Andromeda Galaxy 1020: 1015: 1000: 995: 987: 973: 968: 953: 948: 933: 928: 913: 908: 900: 860: 849: 838: 835:Matter-dominated 825: 814: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 662: 655: 648: 642: 632: 625: 615: 608: 601: 585: 584: 583: 572: 571: 265:Galaxy formation 225:Lambda-CDM model 214: 206:Components 88: 49: 30: 21: 5778: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5726: 5724: 5716: 5714: 5709: 5700: 5698: 5691: 5635: 5601:Galaxy filament 5589: 5553: 5537:Future universe 5532: 5491: 5487:Nucleosynthesis 5455: 5428: 5422: 5386: 5381: 5351: 5346: 5326: 5288: 5277:Habitable epoch 5192: 5187: 5153:Website of MIST 5133:Wayback Machine 5122: 5117: 5107: 5105: 5093:Overbye, Dennis 5091: 5090: 5086: 5037:Confirmation". 5035: 5034: 5030: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4902: 4901: 4897: 4849: 4848: 4844: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4722: 4721: 4717: 4678: 4677: 4673: 4632: 4631: 4627: 4566: 4565: 4561: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4454: 4453: 4449: 4388: 4387: 4383: 4328: 4327: 4320: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4113: 4112: 4108: 4062: 4061: 4057: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3928: 3927: 3923: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3842: 3841: 3832: 3784: 3783: 3774: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3603: 3602: 3598: 3549: 3548: 3541: 3496:Physics Reports 3489: 3488: 3484: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3391: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3043: 3042: 3038: 2985: 2984: 2980: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2870: 2869: 2865: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2698: 2697: 2693: 2655: 2654: 2650: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2171: 2170: 2166: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2077: 2076: 2072: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2011: 1980:Tololo-1247-232 1957: 1951:as we know it. 1929: 1871: 1840: 1809:Tololo-1247-232 1801:Lyman Continuum 1779: 1734: 1672: 1648: 1641: 1637: 1585: 1492: 1484: 1413: 1400:, the element. 1390:baryonic matter 1335: 1334: 1322: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1301: 1300: 1286: 1277: 1276: 1266: 1257: 1256: 1246: 1237: 1236: 1222: 1213: 1212: 1202: 1193: 1192: 1182: 1173: 1172: 1162: 1153: 1152: 1150:Earliest oxygen 1142: 1133: 1132: 1122: 1113: 1112: 1098: 1089: 1088: 1078: 1069: 1068: 1058: 1049: 1048: 1038: 1029: 1028: 1018: 1009: 1008: 998: 989: 988: 978: 971: 962: 961: 959:Earliest galaxy 951: 942: 941: 931: 922: 921: 911: 904: 903: 902: 898: 893: 892: 891: 888: 882: 881: 880: 873: 872: 871: 864: 863: 862: 858: 853: 852: 851: 847: 842: 841: 840: 836: 834: 829: 828: 827: 823: 818: 817: 816: 812: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 725: 722: 720: 717: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 666: 640: 634: 631:Nature timeline 630: 619: 581: 579: 561: 560: 547: 544: 537: 535:Subject history 527: 526: 518: 363: 355: 354: 351: 348: 306: 296: 295: 258:Galaxy filament 211: 199: 198: 150: 145:Expansion 138: 137: 122:Microwave (CMB) 101:Nucleosynthesis 85: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5776: 5774: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5740: 5739: 5735: 5734: 5711: 5710: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5561: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5540: 5538: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5432: 5430: 5424: 5423: 5421: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5357: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5344: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5298: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5269: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5202: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5150: 5141: 5135: 5121: 5120:External links 5118: 5116: 5115: 5084: 5028: 5015:10.1086/499578 4991:(2): 621–632. 4975: 4962:10.1086/345738 4938:(2): 621–632. 4922: 4895: 4882:10.1086/378228 4858:(1): 797–809. 4842: 4821: 4808:10.1086/304548 4784:(2): 581–598. 4768: 4755:10.1086/324111 4715: 4709:10.1086/185015 4671: 4625: 4559: 4507: 4447: 4381: 4318: 4267: 4208: 4157: 4106: 4055: 3982: 3943:(1): 900–916. 3921: 3856: 3830: 3772: 3721: 3662: 3596: 3539: 3502:(2): 125–238. 3482: 3469:10.1086/306975 3445:(2): 648–659. 3426: 3401: 3379: 3342:(1): L17–L21. 3326: 3313:10.1086/429954 3273: 3236:(5): 485–490. 3215: 3155: 3096: 3036: 2999:(1): 869–894. 2978: 2920: 2883:(1): 394–423. 2863: 2850:10.1086/427182 2806: 2749: 2691: 2648: 2635:10.1086/305458 2591: 2578:10.1086/149079 2544: 2491: 2478:10.1086/513700 2454:(2): 377–408. 2438: 2425:10.1086/377219 2401:(1): 161–173. 2385: 2332: 2319:10.1086/344927 2279: 2219: 2164: 2151:10.1086/324231 2111: 2105:10.1086/148444 2070: 2057:10.1086/588546 2012: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1984: 1983: 1977: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1953: 1870: 1867: 1839: 1836: 1782:Dwarf galaxies 1778: 1777:Dwarf galaxies 1775: 1733: 1732:Energy sources 1730: 1671: 1668: 1647: 1644: 1639: 1635: 1584: 1581: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1480: 1412: 1409: 1337: 1336: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1292: 1291: 1289: 1279: 1278: 1272: 1271: 1269: 1259: 1258: 1252: 1251: 1249: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1227: 1225: 1215: 1214: 1210:Earliest fungi 1208: 1207: 1205: 1195: 1194: 1188: 1187: 1185: 1175: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1165: 1155: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1145: 1135: 1134: 1128: 1127: 1125: 1115: 1114: 1104: 1103: 1101: 1091: 1090: 1086:Alpha Centauri 1084: 1083: 1081: 1071: 1070: 1064: 1063: 1061: 1051: 1050: 1044: 1043: 1041: 1031: 1030: 1024: 1023: 1021: 1011: 1010: 1006:Omega Centauri 1004: 1003: 1001: 991: 990: 977: 976: 974: 964: 963: 957: 956: 954: 944: 943: 939:Earliest stars 937: 936: 934: 924: 923: 917: 916: 914: 905: 896: 895: 894: 885: 884: 883: 878:Photosynthesis 876: 875: 874: 867: 866: 865: 859:Water on Earth 856: 855: 854: 845: 844: 843: 832: 831: 830: 821: 820: 819: 810: 809: 808: 806: 803:0 — 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 668: 667: 665: 664: 657: 650: 639: 636: 635: 628: 621: 620: 618: 617: 610: 603: 595: 592: 591: 590: 589: 577: 563: 562: 559: 558: 553: 548: 541: 538: 533: 532: 529: 528: 525: 524: 517: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 365: 364: 361: 360: 357: 356: 353: 352: 345: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 307: 302: 301: 298: 297: 292: 291: 290: 289: 277: 272: 267: 255: 247: 246: 242: 241: 240: 239: 227: 219: 218: 212: 205: 204: 201: 200: 197: 196: 191: 186: 181: 169: 164: 151: 144: 143: 140: 139: 134: 133: 132: 131: 129:Neutrino (CNB) 119: 111: 110: 106: 105: 104: 103: 86: 84:Early universe 83: 82: 79: 78: 77: 76: 71: 66: 51: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5775: 5764: 5763:Space plasmas 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5743: 5733: 5723: 5719: 5708: 5707: 5694: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5494: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5460:Past universe 5458: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5378: 5373: 5371: 5366: 5364: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5285: 5282: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5266:Recombination 5263: 5259: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5179: 5177: 5172: 5170: 5165: 5164: 5161: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5130: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5119: 5104: 5103: 5098: 5094: 5088: 5085: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5041: 5032: 5029: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4923: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4899: 4896: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4846: 4843: 4837: 4832: 4825: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4772: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4719: 4716: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4680:Shapiro, Paul 4675: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4629: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4563: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4511: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4451: 4448: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4385: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4271: 4268: 4263: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4161: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4059: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3983: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3937: 3932: 3925: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3851: 3846: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3483: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3431: 3427: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3402: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3327: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3274: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3097: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2979: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2924: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2807: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2649: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2595: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2548: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2495: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2442: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2348:(4): 043002. 2347: 2343: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2168: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2115: 2112: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2090:: 1633–1641. 2089: 2085: 2081: 2074: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2014: 2008: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1991: 1989: 1986: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1939:heavier than 1938: 1932: 1927: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1845:, a class of 1844: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1743: 1738: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1657: 1652: 1645: 1643: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1582: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1542: 1537: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1489: 1487: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1453:excited state 1451:rising to an 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1425:recombination 1417: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1386:recombination 1383: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1368: 1365:atoms in the 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1343: 1332: 1325: 1318: 1299: 1295: 1294:Earliest apes 1290: 1285: 1284: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1264: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1244: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1220: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1200: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1180: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1160: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1140: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1120: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1096: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1076: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1056: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1036: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1016: 1007: 1002: 997: 996: 986: 982: 975: 970: 969: 960: 955: 950: 949: 940: 935: 930: 929: 920: 915: 910: 909: 906: 901: 890: 887:Multicellular 879: 870: 861: 850: 839: 826: 815: 807: 670: 669: 663: 658: 656: 651: 649: 644: 643: 637: 633: 626: 616: 611: 609: 604: 602: 597: 596: 594: 593: 588: 578: 576: 567: 566: 565: 564: 557: 554: 552: 549: 546: 540: 539: 536: 531: 530: 523: 520: 519: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 366: 359: 358: 350: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 308: 305: 300: 299: 288: 285: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 259: 256: 254: 251: 250: 249: 248: 243: 238: 235: 231: 228: 226: 223: 222: 221: 220: 215: 209: 203: 202: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 156: 153: 152: 148: 142: 141: 130: 127: 123: 120: 118: 115: 114: 113: 112: 107: 102: 99: 95: 92: 91: 90: 89: 81: 80: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 62: 58: 55: 54: 53: 52: 48: 44: 43: 40: 36: 32: 31: 19: 5753:Astrophysics 5697: 5621:Reionization 5620: 5580:Quintessence 5513:Hubble's law 5339: 5284:Reionization 5283: 5254:Photon epoch 5249:Lepton epoch 5244:Hadron epoch 5233:Baryogenesis 5211:Planck epoch 5106:. 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