2331:
1720:
28:
2347:
2366:
1593:
1829:. Like EPROM chips, such microcontrollers came in windowed (expensive) versions that were used for debugging and program development. The same chip came in (somewhat cheaper) opaque OTP packages for production. Leaving the die of such a chip exposed to light can also change behavior in unexpected ways when moving from a windowed part used for development to a non-windowed part for production.
2315:
1668:. Each field-effect transistor consists of a channel in the semiconductor body of the device. Source and drain contacts are made to regions at the end of the channel. An insulating layer of oxide is grown over the channel, then a conductive (silicon or aluminum) gate electrode is deposited, and a further thick layer of oxide is deposited over the gate electrode. The
2307:
1706:. Photons of the UV light cause ionization within the silicon oxide, which allows the stored charge on the floating gate to dissipate. Since the whole memory array is exposed, all the memory is erased at the same time. The process takes several minutes for UV lamps of convenient sizes; sunlight would erase a chip in weeks, and indoor
1915:
allowing the manufacturer and device to be identified by the EPROM programmer. It was implemented by forcing +12 V on pin A9 and reading out two bytes of data. However, as this was not universal, programmer software also would allow manual setting of the manufacturer and device type of the chip to ensure proper programming.
1783:
In other words, to erase your EPROM, you would first have to X-ray it and then put it in an oven at about 600 degrees
Celsius (to anneal semiconductor alterations caused by the X-rays). The effects of this process on the reliability of the part would have required extensive testing so they decided on
1742:
A programmed EPROM retains its data for a minimum of ten to twenty years, with many still retaining data after 35 or more years, and can be read an unlimited number of times without affecting the lifetime. The erasing window must be kept covered with an opaque label to prevent accidental erasure by
1769:
Erasure, however, has to be accomplished by non-electrical methods, since the gate electrode is not accessible electrically. Shining ultraviolet light on any part of an unpackaged device causes a photocurrent to flow from the floating gate back to the silicon substrate, thereby discharging the gate
1914:
While parts of the same size from different manufacturers are compatible in read mode, different manufacturers added different and sometimes multiple programming modes leading to subtle differences in the programming process. This prompted larger capacity devices to introduce a "signature mode",
1801:
are the lowest cost devices to produce. However, these require many weeks lead time to make, since the artwork or design in an IC mask layer or photomask must be altered to store data on the ROMs. Initially, it was thought that the EPROM would be too expensive for mass production use and that it
1788:
EPROMs have a limited but large number of erase cycles; the silicon dioxide around the gates accumulates damage from each cycle, making the chip unreliable after several thousand cycles. EPROM programming is slow compared to other forms of memory. Because higher-density parts have little exposed
1710:
over several years. Generally, the EPROMs must be removed from equipment to be erased, since it is not usually practical to build in a UV lamp to erase parts in-circuit. Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) was developed to provide an electrical erase function and has now
1730:
As the quartz window is expensive to make, OTP (one-time programmable) chips were introduced; here, the die is mounted in an opaque package so it cannot be erased after programming – this also eliminates the need to test the erase function, further reducing cost. OTP versions of both EPROMs and
1698:
Storing data in the memory requires selecting a given address and applying a higher voltage to the transistors. This creates an avalanche discharge of electrons, which have enough energy to pass through the insulating oxide layer and accumulate on the gate electrode. When the high voltage is
1758:. Exposure time for sunlight of one week or three years for room fluorescent lighting may cause erasure. The recommended erasure procedure is exposure to UV light at 253.7 nm of at least 15 Ws/cm, usually achieved in 20 to 30 minutes with the lamp at a distance of about 2.5 cm.
1683:
1694:
on the control gate of the transistor. Presence of a voltage on this gate creates a conductive channel in the transistor, switching it on. In effect, the stored charge on the floating gate allows the threshold voltage of the transistor to be programmed.
1774:). This method of erasure allows complete testing and correction of a complex memory array before the package is finally sealed. Once the package is sealed, information can still be erased by exposing it to X radiation in excess of 5*10
1611:
In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface. Following the invention of the
2330:
1699:
removed, the electrons are trapped on the electrode. Because of the high insulation value of the silicon oxide surrounding the gate, the stored charge cannot readily leak away and the data can be retained for decades.
1672:
electrode has no connections to other parts of the integrated circuit and is completely insulated by the surrounding layers of oxide. A control gate electrode is deposited and further oxide covers it.
1675:
To retrieve data from the EPROM, the address represented by the values at the address pins of the EPROM is decoded and used to connect one word (usually an 8-bit byte) of storage to the output buffer
1802:
would be confined to development only. It was soon found that small-volume production was economical with EPROM parts, particularly when the advantage of rapid upgrades of firmware was considered.
1907:
pins were reused for additional address bits allowing larger capacities (2716/2732) in the same 24-pin package, and even larger capacities with larger packages. Later the decreased cost of the
35:
TMS27C040, a CMOS chip with 4 megabits of storage and 8-bit output (shown here in a 600-mil ceramic dual-in-line package). The TMS27C040 operates at 5 volts, but must be programmed at 13 volts.
1789:
oxide between the layers of interconnects and gate, ultraviolet erasing becomes less practical for very large memories. Even dust inside the package can prevent some cells from being erased.
1564:
individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to strong
2774:
1556:
that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. Computer memory that can retrieve stored data after a power supply has been turned off and back on is called
1604:
started with investigation of faulty integrated circuits where the gate connections of transistors had broken. Stored charge on these isolated gates changes their
2687:
1911:
technology allowed the same devices to be fabricated using it, adding the letter "C" to the device numbers (27xx(x) are n-MOS and 27Cxx(x) are CMOS).
1702:
The programming process is not electrically reversible. To erase the data stored in the array of transistors, ultraviolet light is directed onto the
631:
626:
2346:
1731:
EPROM-based microcontrollers are manufactured. However, OTP EPROM (whether separate or part of a larger chip) is being increasingly replaced by
1520:
2605:
1061:
222:
2781:
2881:
2852:
2664:
2630:
1009:
952:
272:
1747:
chips were often EPROMs, and the erasing window was often covered with an adhesive label containing the BIOS publisher's name, the
2844:
Certain EPROM, EEPROM, Flash Memory and Flash
Microcontroller Semiconductor Devices and Products Containing Same, Inv. 337-TA-395
120:
1679:. Each bit of the word is a 1 or 0, depending on the storage transistor being switched on or off, conducting or non-conducting.
1596:
An Intel 1702A EPROM, one of the earliest EPROM types (1971), 256 by 8 bit. The small quartz window admits UV light for erasure.
1335:
995:
939:
1021:
690:
502:
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721:
646:
616:
517:
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1081:
711:
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27:
507:
402:
2946:
2365:
1703:
1561:
1382:
1365:
854:
140:
2563:
2502:
1665:
1601:
1377:
1194:
917:
322:
157:
135:
115:
68:
2712:
1250:
467:
337:
277:
2409:
1506:
753:
671:
457:
267:
262:
242:
232:
98:
88:
53:
17:
1771:
1640:
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chip is visible, and which permits exposure to ultraviolet light during erasing. It was invented by
1449:
1317:
1096:
1056:
979:
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282:
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125:
108:
103:
1826:
1355:
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984:
969:
836:
788:
641:
452:
150:
1817:, use an on-chip EPROM to store their program. Such microcontrollers include some versions of the
1661:
in 1972. Frohman designed the Intel 1702, a 2048-bit EPROM, which was announced by Intel in 1971.
2916:
2403:
1751:
revision, and a copyright notice. Often this label was foil-backed to ensure its opacity to UV.
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1553:
1455:
1420:
1066:
492:
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382:
307:
2454:
TMS27C040 524,288 BY 8-BIT UV ERASABLE TMS27PC040 524,288 BY 8-BIT PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY
1620:
studied MOSFET structures in the early 1960s. In 1963, he noted the movement of charge through
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2848:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2626:
2601:
1605:
1132:
1127:
1051:
1016:
870:
848:
747:
706:
609:
599:
447:
172:
32:
2842:
2859:
The details of SEEQ's
Silicon Signature method of a device programmer reading an EPROM's ID.
2537:
2382:
1822:
1806:
1798:
1707:
1644:
1467:
1461:
1387:
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1340:
1305:
1117:
1071:
1039:
814:
809:
797:
482:
442:
202:
187:
83:
73:
1628:. While he did not pursue it, this idea would later become the basis for EPROM technology.
2904:
2356:
1682:
1360:
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583:
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192:
78:
49:
562:
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1397:
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897:
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552:
532:
527:
472:
437:
392:
342:
332:
327:
312:
207:
197:
130:
1899:= +25 V programming voltage without pulse in the third generation. The unneeded V
2930:
2646:
1669:
1636:
1617:
1485:
1112:
1107:
1076:
831:
741:
557:
547:
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357:
347:
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1814:
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1199:
1091:
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1947:
1940:
1648:
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1443:
877:
572:
412:
352:
257:
1576:(or on later models resin) window on the top of the package, through which the
2921:
2353:
1908:
1869:
1838:
1818:
1775:
1657:
1625:
1621:
1086:
912:
666:
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302:
167:
93:
2757:
2730:
2397:
1755:
1676:
1473:
1438:
1275:
1204:
1102:
973:
964:
661:
604:
372:
292:
2314:
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2245:
2017:
1402:
1345:
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1235:
1220:
990:
959:
932:
907:
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377:
287:
182:
177:
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The switching state of the field-effect transistor is controlled by the
2173:
1965:
1754:
Erasure of the EPROM begins to occur with wavelengths shorter than 400
1691:
1577:
1300:
1290:
1285:
1245:
1147:
1142:
1122:
927:
902:
892:
683:
2541:
2526:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
2466:
2387:
1810:
1732:
1613:
1295:
1255:
1137:
1026:
824:
367:
40:
2306:
1778:, a dose which is easily attained with commercial X-ray generators.
2429:
2313:
2305:
1762:
1723:
1718:
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1652:
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1230:
1167:
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1157:
776:
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656:
636:
621:
26:
1934:
1748:
1744:
1225:
512:
162:
2655:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.
2340:
suffix indicates this device has a 120 nanosecond access time.
1928:
1735:
for small sizes, where the cell cost isn't too important, and
1265:
1152:
922:
2775:"AMD Am1702A 256-Word by 8-Bit Programmable Read Only Memory"
2917:
Detailed information about EPROM types and EPROM programming
1837:
The first generation 1702 devices were fabricated with the
2911:
1976 Intel Data Book, includes 1702, 2704, 2708 datasheets
1797:
For large volumes of parts (thousands of pieces or more),
2841:
U.S. International Trade
Commission, ed. (October 1998).
1888:= 12 V and a +25 V pulse in Programming mode.
1891:
The n-MOS technology evolution introduced single-rail V
1664:
Each storage location of an EPROM consists of a single
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
1572:). EPROMs are easily recognizable by the transparent
1868:
The second generation 2704/2708 devices switched to
1743:the UV found in sunlight or camera flashes. Old PC
2623:Digital integrated circuits: analysis and design
1781:
1767:
1643:could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable
2336:A 32 KB (256 Kbit) EPROM. The
1647:(read-only memory). Building on this concept,
2498:"1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced"
1686:A cross-section of a floating-gate transistor
1514:
8:
2758:"Intel 1702A 2K (256 x 8) UV Erasable PROM"
1711:mostly displaced ultraviolet-erased parts.
1521:
1507:
45:
1533:Early type of solid state computer memory
1917:
1655:invented EPROM in 1971, and was awarded
2874:Fundamentals of solid-state electronics
2444:
2421:
2326:
787:
582:
48:
2530:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
1761:Erasure can also be accomplished with
1546:erasable programmable read-only memory
18:Erasable programmable read-only memory
2359:stores its program in internal EPROM.
1895:= +5 V power supply and single V
1770:to its initial, uncharged condition (
1062:Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus
7:
2847:. Diane Publishing. pp. 51–72.
1857:= -9 V in Read mode, and with V
1841:technology. They were powered with V
2744:
2583:
1865:= -47 V in Programming mode.
1833:EPROM generations, sizes and types
1568:(UV) light source (such as from a
223:Data validation and reconciliation
25:
2524:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
273:Distributed file system for cloud
2364:
2345:
2329:
1884:= +12 V power supply with V
121:Areal density (computer storage)
2806:"16K (2K x 8) UV ERASABLE PROM"
2693:from the original on 2018-09-06
1639:at Bell Labs proposed that the
940:Programmable metallization cell
2598:Digital Design and Fabrication
2318:EPROM 8kbit - detail of 4 bits
1872:technology and to three-rail V
1825:, and the "C" versions of the
503:Persistence (computer science)
1:
2922:Video of the Intel 1702 EPROM
2711:Frohman, Dov (May 10, 1971),
2596:Oklobdzija, Vojin G. (2008).
1550:programmable read-only memory
1371:Electronic quantum holography
2600:. CRC Press. pp. 5–17.
722:Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)
518:Non-RAID drive architectures
2729:Margolin, J (May 8, 2009).
2963:
2625:, CRC Press, p. 591,
2452:Texas Instruments (1997),
2033:2716, 27C16, TMS2716, 2516
1311:Holographic Versatile Disc
1210:Compact Disc Digital Audio
1082:Magnetic-tape data storage
701:Content-addressable memory
38:
2649:; Hill, Winfield (1989),
1809:, from before the era of
1641:floating gate of a MOSFET
1600:Development of the EPROM
1562:floating-gate transistors
508:Persistent data structure
403:Digital rights management
2371:NEC 02716, 16 KBit EPROM
1383:DNA digital data storage
1366:Holographic data storage
855:Solid-state hybrid drive
141:Network-attached storage
39:Not to be confused with
2872:Sah, Chih-Tang (1991),
2815:. Intel. Archived from
2564:Computer History Museum
2503:Computer History Museum
2214:27C040, 27C400, 27C4001
1726:AT27C010 - an OTP EPROM
1666:field-effect transistor
1378:5D optical data storage
1195:3D optical data storage
918:Universal Flash Storage
323:Replication (computing)
268:Distributed file system
158:Single-instance storage
136:Direct-attached storage
116:Continuous availability
2898:Intel EPROM datasheets
2652:The Art of Electronics
2621:Ayers, John E (2004),
2467:"CPU History - EPROMs"
2319:
2311:
1786:
1780:
1727:
1687:
1597:
1251:Nintendo optical discs
468:Storage virtualization
338:Information repository
278:Distributed data store
36:
2410:Programmer (hardware)
2317:
2309:
1722:
1685:
1658:U.S. patent 3,660,819
1595:
1560:. It is an array of
754:Mellon optical memory
742:Williams–Kilburn tube
458:Locality of reference
263:Clustered file system
89:Memory access pattern
30:
2907:- intel-vintage.info
2876:, World Scientific,
2822:on 13 September 2020
2714:Electronics Magazine
1799:mask-programmed ROMs
1772:photoelectric effect
1708:fluorescent lighting
1450:Magnetic-core memory
1097:Digital Data Storage
1057:Quadruplex videotape
498:In-memory processing
388:Information transfer
283:Distributed database
146:Storage area network
126:Block (data storage)
2942:Integrated circuits
2937:Non-volatile memory
2681:"M27C512 Datasheet"
1827:PIC microcontroller
1784:the window instead.
1047:Phonograph cylinder
985:Electrochemical RAM
837:Solid-state storage
453:Memory segmentation
151:Block-level storage
2903:2022-03-19 at the
2560:The Silicon Engine
2320:
2312:
1739:for larger sizes.
1728:
1688:
1598:
1570:mercury-vapor lamp
1456:Plated-wire memory
1421:Paper data storage
1067:Magnetic recording
493:In-memory database
478:Memory-mapped file
423:Volume boot record
418:Master boot record
408:Volume (computing)
383:Data communication
308:Data deduplication
37:
2607:978-0-8493-8602-2
2542:10.1149/1.2428650
2304:
2303:
2079:2764, 27C64, 2564
2056:2732, 27C32, 2532
1849:= +5 V and V
1606:threshold voltage
1531:
1530:
1128:8 mm video format
1052:Phonograph record
871:Flash Core Module
849:Solid-state drive
748:Delay-line memory
707:Computational RAM
610:Scratchpad memory
448:Disk partitioning
173:Unstructured data
99:Secondary storage
33:Texas Instruments
16:(Redirected from
2954:
2886:
2860:
2858:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2821:
2813:amigan.yatho.com
2810:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2786:
2780:. Archived from
2779:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2671:
2669:
2643:
2637:
2635:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2574:
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2570:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2510:
2494:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2471:www.cpushack.com
2463:
2457:
2456:
2449:
2433:
2426:
2383:Programmable ROM
2368:
2349:
2339:
2333:
1918:
1823:Freescale 68HC11
1807:microcontrollers
1660:
1523:
1516:
1509:
1468:Thin-film memory
1462:Core rope memory
1388:Universal memory
1351:Millipede memory
1341:Racetrack memory
1306:Ultra HD Blu-ray
1118:Linear Tape-Open
1072:Magnetic storage
1040:Analog recording
483:Software entropy
443:Disk aggregation
203:Data degradation
188:Data compression
84:Memory hierarchy
74:Memory coherence
46:
21:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2947:Computer memory
2927:
2926:
2905:Wayback Machine
2894:
2884:
2871:
2868:
2863:
2855:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2808:
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2788:
2784:
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2450:
2446:
2442:
2437:
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2427:
2423:
2418:
2379:
2372:
2369:
2360:
2357:Microcontroller
2350:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2325:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1835:
1795:
1717:
1656:
1590:
1548:, is a type of
1534:
1527:
1498:
1497:
1416:
1408:
1407:
1361:Patterned media
1331:
1323:
1322:
1190:
1180:
1179:
1175:Hard disk drive
1042:
1032:
1031:
1012:
1001:
1000:
955:
945:
944:
866:IBM FlashSystem
861:USB flash drive
800:
783:
782:
737:
729:
728:
717:Dual-ported RAM
595:
578:
577:
538:Cloud computing
398:Copy protection
318:Data redundancy
248:Shared resource
218:Data validation
193:Data corruption
168:Structured data
79:Cache coherence
64:
50:Computer memory
44:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2960:
2958:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2908:
2893:
2892:External links
2890:
2889:
2888:
2882:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2853:
2833:
2797:
2766:
2749:
2747:, p. 640.
2737:
2721:
2703:
2672:
2665:
2647:Horowitz, Paul
2638:
2631:
2613:
2606:
2588:
2586:, p. 639.
2576:
2547:
2516:
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2458:
2443:
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2438:
2435:
2434:
2420:
2419:
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2335:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2302:
2301:
2298:
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2286:
2284:
2283:27C320, 27C322
2280:
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2270:
2267:
2264:
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1946:Last address (
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1880:= -5 V, V
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600:Hardware cache
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553:Edge computing
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533:Grid computing
530:
528:Bank switching
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473:Virtual memory
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438:Disk mirroring
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393:Temporary file
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343:Knowledge base
340:
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333:Storage record
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328:Memory refresh
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313:Data structure
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31:An EPROM: the
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2913:- archive.org
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2883:981-02-0637-2
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2854:1-4289-5721-9
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2787:on 2018-01-19
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2666:0-521-37095-7
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2632:0-8493-1951-X
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2406:- File format
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2400:- File format
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2145:27512, 27C512
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2123:27256, 27C256
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2101:27128, 27C128
2100:
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1670:floating-gate
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1637:Simon Min Sze
1634:
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1108:Videocassette
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832:ROM cartridge
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569:
566:
564:
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558:Dew computing
556:
554:
551:
549:
548:Fog computing
546:
544:
543:Cloud storage
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
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524:
523:Memory paging
521:
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358:File deletion
356:
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348:Computer file
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228:Data recovery
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213:Data security
211:
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139:
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109:floating-gate
107:
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100:
97:
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92:
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72:
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60:
59:
55:
51:
47:
42:
34:
29:
19:
2873:
2866:Bibliography
2843:
2836:
2824:. Retrieved
2817:the original
2812:
2800:
2789:. Retrieved
2782:the original
2769:
2752:
2740:
2724:
2713:
2706:
2695:. Retrieved
2675:
2651:
2641:
2622:
2616:
2597:
2591:
2579:
2567:. Retrieved
2559:
2550:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2507:. Retrieved
2501:
2474:. Retrieved
2470:
2461:
2453:
2447:
2424:
2393:Flash memory
1913:
1890:
1867:
1836:
1815:flash memory
1804:
1796:
1787:
1782:
1768:
1760:
1753:
1741:
1729:
1701:
1697:
1689:
1674:
1663:
1630:
1610:
1599:
1574:fused quartz
1558:non-volatile
1545:
1541:
1537:
1535:
1433:Punched tape
1427:Punched card
1393:Time crystal
1261:Hyper CD-ROM
1200:Optical disc
1092:Tape library
1027:FeFET memory
1008:Early-stage
888:CompactFlash
883:Memory Stick
843:Flash memory
819:
805:Diode matrix
789:Non-volatile
573:Kryder's law
563:Amdahl's law
488:Software rot
463:Logical disk
363:File copying
298:Data storage
253:File sharing
238:Data cluster
54:data storage
1958:1702, 1702A
1953:Technology
1793:Application
1649:Dov Frohman
1633:Dawon Kahng
1602:memory cell
1582:Dov Frohman
1566:ultraviolet
1492:Floppy disk
1444:Drum memory
878:Memory card
845:is used in:
779:(2002–2010)
744:(1946–1947)
568:Moore's law
413:Boot sector
353:Object file
258:File system
69:Memory cell
2931:Categories
2791:2018-01-19
2697:2018-10-07
2536:(9): 547.
2476:2021-05-12
2440:References
2162:NMOS/CMOS
2140:NMOS/CMOS
2118:NMOS/CMOS
2096:NMOS/CMOS
2074:NMOS/CMOS
2051:NMOS/CMOS
1921:EPROM Type
1819:Intel 8048
1677:amplifiers
1415:Historical
1087:Tape drive
913:SmartMedia
736:Historical
433:Disk image
428:Disk array
303:Data store
104:MOS memory
94:Memory map
2717:(article)
2569:17 August
2398:Intel HEX
1876:= +5 V, V
1631:In 1967,
1588:Operation
1584:in 1971.
1474:Disk pack
1439:Plugboard
1276:DVD-Video
1205:LaserDisc
1103:Videotape
974:3D XPoint
965:Memristor
605:CPU cache
373:Core dump
293:Data bank
243:Directory
2901:Archived
2826:18 April
2745:Sah 1991
2688:Archived
2584:Sah 1991
2556:"People"
2377:See also
2150:512 Kbit
2128:256 Kbit
2106:128 Kbit
1939:Length (
1540:(rarely
1403:UltraRAM
1281:DVD card
1236:Video CD
1221:CD Video
991:Nano-RAM
960:Memistor
933:XQD card
908:SIM card
766:Dekatron
652:XDR DRAM
647:EDO DRAM
584:Volatile
378:Hex dump
288:Database
183:Metadata
178:Big data
2731:"EPROM"
2509:19 June
2323:Gallery
2310:K573RF1
2288:32 Mbit
2266:16 Mbit
2084:64 Kbit
2062:32 Kbit
2039:16 Kbit
1933:Size —
1927:Size —
1811:EEPROMs
1715:Details
1692:voltage
1624:onto a
1578:silicon
1552:(PROM)
1488:(~1970)
1482:(~1968)
1464:(1960s)
1301:Blu-ray
1291:MiniDVD
1286:DVD-RAM
1246:Mini CD
1188:Optical
1148:U-matic
1143:MicroMV
1123:Betamax
987:(ECRAM)
928:MicroP2
903:SD card
893:PC Card
684:1T-SRAM
642:QDRSRAM
233:Storage
63:General
2880:
2851:
2663:
2629:
2604:
2388:EEPROM
2297:3FFFFF
2294:400000
2275:1FFFFF
2272:200000
2261:27C160
2250:100000
2241:8 Mbit
2236:27C080
2222:512 KB
2219:4 Mbit
2200:256 KB
2197:2 Mbit
2192:27C020
2178:128 KB
2013:8 Kbit
1990:4 Kbit
1821:, the
1763:X-rays
1733:EEPROM
1614:MOSFET
1544:), or
1494:(1971)
1476:(1962)
1470:(1962)
1458:(1957)
1452:(1949)
1446:(1932)
1435:(1725)
1429:(1725)
1423:(1725)
1296:HD DVD
1256:CD-ROM
1212:(CDDA)
1138:MiniDV
857:(SSHD)
839:(SSS)
825:EEPROM
773:(2009)
762:(1952)
756:(1951)
750:(1947)
368:Backup
41:EEPROM
2820:(PDF)
2809:(PDF)
2785:(PDF)
2778:(PDF)
2761:(PDF)
2691:(PDF)
2684:(PDF)
2416:Notes
2352:This
2300:CMOS
2278:CMOS
2256:CMOS
2253:FFFFF
2231:CMOS
2228:7FFFF
2225:80000
2209:CMOS
2206:3FFFF
2203:40000
2187:CMOS
2184:1FFFF
2181:20000
2156:10000
2153:64 KB
2131:32 KB
2109:16 KB
2028:NMOS
2002:NMOS
1979:PMOS
1935:bytes
1903:and V
1870:n-MOS
1839:p-MOS
1805:Some
1737:flash
1724:Atmel
1653:Intel
1622:oxide
1538:EPROM
1356:ECRAM
1336:CBRAM
1271:DVD+R
1231:CD-RW
1168:D-VHS
1163:VHS-C
1158:S-VHS
1099:(DDS)
1022:ReRAM
1017:FeRAM
1010:NVRAM
996:CBRAM
953:NVRAM
851:(SSD)
820:EPROM
777:Z-RAM
771:T-RAM
703:(CAM)
691:ReRAM
657:RDRAM
637:LPDDR
632:SGRAM
627:SDRAM
622:eDRAM
56:types
2878:ISBN
2849:ISBN
2828:2020
2661:ISBN
2627:ISBN
2602:ISBN
2571:2019
2511:2019
2428:500
2404:SREC
2354:8749
2291:4 MB
2269:2 MB
2174:Mbit
2159:FFFF
2137:7FFF
2134:8000
2115:3FFF
2112:4000
2093:1FFF
2090:2000
2087:8 KB
2068:1000
2065:4 KB
2059:1979
2042:2 KB
2036:1977
2010:1975
2007:2708
1987:1975
1984:2704
1966:Kbit
1961:1971
1929:bits
1924:Year
1909:CMOS
1813:and
1776:rads
1749:BIOS
1745:BIOS
1635:and
1626:gate
1554:chip
1542:EROM
1346:NRAM
1318:WORM
1226:CD-R
980:MRAM
815:PROM
810:MROM
712:VRAM
696:QRAM
679:SRAM
667:GDDR
617:DRAM
513:RAID
163:Data
52:and
2657:817
2538:doi
2534:104
2432:/kg
2338:-12
2071:FFF
2048:7FF
2045:800
2025:3FF
2022:400
1999:1FF
1996:200
1993:512
1973:100
1970:256
1948:hex
1941:hex
1861:= V
1853:= V
1845:= V
1704:die
1651:of
1645:ROM
1536:An
1266:DVD
1153:VHS
970:PCM
923:SxS
798:ROM
672:HBM
662:DDR
593:RAM
2933::
2811:.
2686:.
2659:,
2562:.
2558:.
2532:.
2528:.
2500:.
2485:^
2469:.
2246:MB
2244:1
2172:1
2018:KB
2016:1
1976:FF
1964:2
1905:DD
1901:BB
1897:PP
1893:CC
1886:PP
1882:DD
1878:BB
1874:CC
1863:GG
1859:DD
1855:GG
1851:DD
1847:BB
1843:CC
1765::
1756:nm
1608:.
1216:CD
1133:DV
2887:.
2857:.
2830:.
2794:.
2763:.
2735:.
2733:.
2719:.
2700:.
2670:.
2636:.
2610:.
2573:.
2544:.
2540::
2513:.
2479:.
2430:J
1950:)
1943:)
1522:e
1515:t
1508:v
976:)
972:(
43:.
20:)
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