224:
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deviation, and head rotation. Consideration of physical ergonomics suggests the most relaxed typing position is one in which the keyboard user's forearms are parallel to the ground, with wrists held straight. To facilitate this posture, Klockenberg published a study in 1926 that suggested the primary key clusters for two-handed typists should be split into left and right halves which are set at an angle to each other, allowing the wrists to remain straight. A more detailed study was published in 1972 by
Kroemer, suggesting that an adjustable split keyboard may reduce user pain. During the 1970s, several studies were published suggesting that data entry operators were at risk of developing musculoskeletal injuries.
156:
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wide range of users, and can be set up rapidly to replicate a similar interface in different settings, but may not fit a specific user exactly. For example, people with broad shoulders may benefit from an adjustable split keyboard's ability to customize the distance between the two halves of the keyboard. This ensures the elbows are not too close together when typing. On the other hand, adjustable split keyboards sometimes intimidate potential users, who may fear they may exacerbate or become more susceptible to repetitive strain injuries; fixed split keyboards like the
242:
79:
478:
144:
95:
172:
396:
129:
110:
548:
428:
193:
560:
520:, etc. are set between the key groups for use with the thumbs. For these keyboards, the resulting bowl-like key surfaces are intended to minimize and make consistent the finger extension required to strike keys away from the home row. In general, contoured keyboards also incorporate a vertical column layout with staggered rows for each hand. In this configuration, minimal movement of arms and wrists is required.
20:
355:, which refers to the left-to-right angle between the plane of each half with the supporting surface; typically this means the center of the keyboard (inside edge of each half) is elevated compared to the outside edge. This is the angle of rotation around an imaginary horizontal axis drawn from the top center (between the
155:
578:
Handheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. They allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer.
438:
Because electric typewriters and computer keyboards no longer need to accommodate a mechanical linkage, the keys can be set in vertical columns without staggering, minimizing lateral finger movements when moving between rows. This vertical layout rearranges the keys into linear columns. If the rows
1142:
The aspect of the hand that they worked from is the curvature traced around the periphery of the fingers that can be observed when you look at the back of your hand with your fingers together. The thought was that if they built the surface of the keyboard in the form of two concave bowls – one for
63:
users that had already been trained to type. However, the legacy mechanical layout has numerous idiosyncrasies, including the staggered column layout, which can force the user into uncomfortable, repetitive movements and postures. Several potential solutions have been proposed since at least 1926.
383:
The angled split keyboard (sometimes referred to as a
Klockenburg keyboard) is similar to a split keyboard, but the middle is tented up so that the index fingers are higher than the little fingers while typing. Key Ovation makes the Goldtouch ergonomic keyboard which is an adjustable angled split
375:
Ergonomic split keyboards can be fixed, where the user cannot change the relative angles and distance between the sections, or adjustable, which usually has two independent modules that allow these to be tailored exactly to the user. Fixed split keyboards are necessarily designed to accommodate a
62:
operators. The offset in the columns between rows was designed to accommodate the physical links between each key and the internal mechanisms of the typewriter; as typing duties transitioned to electric (motorized) typewriters and then computers, the layout was retained to ease the transition for
523:
Some keyboards combine vertical key columns and contoured surfaces with fully-adjustable (independent) split key clusters. Examples include the
Kinesis Advantage 360, Dactyl Manuform, and MoErgo Glove80. With a relatively small market, many are custom-built or sold as kits to be assembled by the
66:
Ergonomic keyboards, in essence, are created with the aim of minimizing discomfort in users' wrists and reducing unnecessary finger movements by rearranging or repositioning the keys. For instance, typing on a conventional keyboard layout can force the user into shoulder elevation, wrist ulnar
618:. With respect to "split" keyboards, quality studies that demonstrate injury reductions are lacking, with the exception of physically split keyboards which have "sharply angled keyboard faces". There is evidence, however, that such keyboards are not well tolerated.
443:
layout puts the keys on an orthogonal grid. Other designs use vertical columns with staggered rows to compensate for the difference in finger lengths. A keyboard with vertical columns can require an adjustment period as the user retrains their finger movements.
371:
The distance between the sections usually is selected to reduce or eliminate the shoulder adduction that brings the user's hands toward the center of the keyboard, which on conventional keyboards with no opening angle can also result in an awkward wrist angle.
621:
Narrow studies examining hand position at rest neglect many other possible factors. For example, one should be aware that the effect of “ergonomic” keyboards is to change the musculoskeletal region exposed to risk, instead of eliminating hazardous postures.
257:
Split keyboards group keys into two or more sections. By separating the keyboard, split keyboards typically change the angles and the distance between each section to ensure the user's wrists remain straight. There are three relevant angles:
223:
94:
492:
301:, which refers to the front-to-back angle made between the plane of the keyboard and the supporting surface. This is the angle of rotation around an imaginary horizontal axis drawn through the top of the home row (
78:
411:
384:
keyboard. On some ergonomic keyboards, the tenting angle is increased to 90° so the user types with their hands perpendicular to the ground, thumbs-up, similar to the hand position adopted by accordion players.
1351:
This keyboard works by having each of your ten fingers choosing the character you want by selecting from a radial menu. You can push down, or move north, south, east or west, and get a different character for
1506:
Hegmann, Kurt T.; Melhorn, J. Mark; Ausfahl, James; Freshwater, M. Felix; Prezzia, Charles P.; Rempel, David M.; Roll, Shawn C.; Rawlins, Arlen J.; Werner, Robert A.; Zaremski, Jason, eds. (June 30, 2016).
327:
keys), i.e., from the left edge to the right edge of the keyboard. Conventional keyboards include feet that can be deployed under the top of the keyboard, which generates a positive slope: the topmost rows
511:
Advantage line (1992+) are fixed split keyboards with tenting that place the keys into two curved depressions set approximately at shoulder width. The function keys, navigation keys, and modifiers such as
1447:
1417:
165:
Freestyle (2007) adjustable split keyboard has two key modules linked by a cable, providing flexibility in setting opening angle and distance; additional accessories are used to adjust tenting angle
128:
395:
1584:
evidence that they may be more comfortable than other keyboards. This article discusses evidence for the latter claim, and suggests which types of keyboards may be best for which users.
547:
462:
1477:
171:
143:
451:
keyboard (fixed split, staggered rows), ErgoDox (adjustable split, staggered rows), ZSA Moonlander, and
Zergotech Freedom (adjustable split, semi-staggered rows) keyboards.
278:, which refers to the angle between the rows of the left and right halves. This can be imagined as the angle of rotation around an imaginary vertical axis drawn through the
667:
290:, when using a conventional keyboard, the resulting slight shoulder adduction points the forearms inwards and requires the wrists to be bent out to position the fingers.
1232:
109:
427:
1455:
535:
477:
1425:
340:), which would require the user to tilt their wrists up. Ergonomic keyboards may use a riser under the front to create a neutral or negative slope instead.
631:
503:
The preceding split and vertical column keyboards arranged each key cluster onto a single flat plane. Contoured- or dished-surface keyboards like the
579:
Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.
1508:
602:
have made it possible to eliminate the use of a keyboard altogether, particularly on smaller devices that lack traditional keyboard interfaces.
1365:
1422:
Paper presented by S.W. HOBDAY at the NINTH CONGRESS OF THE INTERNATIONAL ERGONOMICS ASSOCIATIONS, 2–6 September 1985, Bournemouth, England
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eliminates the need for any wrist motion or finger extension; each finger has five separate switches triggered by buttons or paddles.
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each hand – the result would fit the hand much better than the traditional more-or-less flat traditional keyboard surface.
641:
377:
119:
1607:
1390:
241:
103:
FlexPro and OEM ergoLogic (1993) adjustable split keyboards, showing the ability to modify opening and tenting angles
1452:
Paper presented at The Annual
International Industrial Ergonomics and Safety Conference, June 8–10, 1988 New 0rleans
1156:
206:
85:
1184:
367:
bar) of the keyboard. A conventional keyboard requires the wrists to be rotated inwards to bring the hands flat.
646:
615:
912:
611:
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1482:
Computer
Related Upper Limb Disorder. Paper presented to the 19th Annual Congress of IMART 4th May 1994
1528:
286:
keys of a QWERTY keyboard. Because most shoulders are wider than the hand position when placed on the
813:
1206:
1020:
447:
Some keyboards combine a split design with vertical or semi-vertical columns. Examples include the
1233:"This $ 299 wireless keyboard is shaped like a pair of gloves to offer the best ergonomic layout"
994:
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804:
735:
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508:
483:
162:
1334:
1125:
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887:
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861:
796:
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32:
137:
Adjustable
Keyboard (Model M15, 1994) with a ball joint to control opening and tenting angles
1540:
853:
780:
727:
610:
It is widely claimed that an ergonomic keyboard may reduce muscle strain and reduce risk of
55:
192:
35:
1580:
Although there is not much evidence that ergonomic keyboards can prevent injuries, there
553:
Handmade keyer, custom-molded for the left hand of a single user with seven key switches
1544:
1591:
1571:
873:
739:
421:
keyboard, which combines fixed-split design with vertical columns and staggered rows
88:(1992) splits the alphanumeric keys into two halves with an adjustable opening angle
939:
808:
498:
Custom adjustable split contoured keyboard with vertical columns and staggered rows
587:
A few ergonomic keyboards do not have the typical one key per letter, such as a
440:
402:
58:
and patented in 1878; research indicates the layout may have been influenced by
857:
39:
1552:
792:
784:
116:
100:
59:
800:
768:
1516:. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. p. 42.
1047:"ZSA's Moondlander Mark I is the ultimate customizable ergonomic keyboard"
865:
844:
Kroemer, K.H. Berhard (February 1972). "Human engineering the keyboard".
592:
565:
287:
1282:
1164:. International Industrial Ergonomics and Safety Conference. New Orleans
718:
Yasuoka, Koichi; Yasuoka, Motoko (2011). "On the
Prehistory of QWERTY".
405:
keyboard, with keys arranged in an orthogonal grid with vertical columns
177:
The SafeType keyboard is a fixed split keyboard with a 90° tenting angle
19:
636:
504:
468:
42:
considerations to minimize muscle strain, fatigue, and other problems.
1529:"Carpal tunnel syndrome due to keyboarding and mouse tasks: a review"
1257:
54:
keyboard layout is credited to the mechanical typewriter designed by
51:
731:
1283:"Handheld Hi-Speed Text Entry Will Power True "Anywhere Computing""
149:
Goldtouch (1997) adjustable split keyboard has a similar ball joint
588:
433:
ErgoDox, adjustable-split with vertical columns and staggered rows
18:
1448:"A Keyboard to Increase Productivity and Reduce Postural Stress"
1418:"KEYBOARDS DESIGNED TO FIT HANDS & REDUCE POSTURAL STRESS"
1309:"Inputs of interest: the Orbitouch keyless keyboard and mouse"
1158:
A Keyboard to
Increase Productivity and Reduce Postural Stress
1073:"Zergotech Freedom Mechanical Split Ergonomic Keyboard Review"
134:
1366:"This keyboard is designed entirely for speech recognition"
1207:"One Keyboard to Rule Them All - I Built a Dactyl Manuform"
969:"What Is an Ortholinear Keyboard, and Should You Use One?"
1391:"Can Voice Recognition Technology replace Human Typing?"
827:
16:
Computer keyboard designed with ergonomic considerations
694:"Fact or Fiction? The Legend of the QWERTY Keyboard"
1287:
AlphaGrip Comfortable Hi-Speed Gaming and Computing
1262:
AlphaGrip Comfortable Hi-Speed Gaming and Computing
831:Rationalization of typewriters and their operation
1527:Fagarasanu, Mircea; Kumar, Shrawan (2003-02-01).
1478:"A Keyboard to Eliminate the Stress and the Pain"
1258:"The World's Most Comfortable Computing Keyboard"
1185:"Review of the Kinesis Advantage360 Professional"
769:"The Split Keyboard: An Ergonomics Success Story"
336:function keys) are higher than the bottom rows (
1533:International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
591:or a keyless ergonomic keyboard. For example,
198:Conventional keyboard, ANSI US Windows layout
8:
1510:Hand, Wrist, and Forearm Disorders Guideline
524:user, with extensive customization options.
439:remain aligned horizontally, the resulting
962:
960:
632:List of repetitive strain injury software
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1155:Hobday, Stephen W. (June 8–10, 1988).
363:keys) to bottom center (middle of the
215:is approximately 30° in this schematic
967:Crider, Michael (September 9, 2022).
668:"Blueprint for a healthy workstation"
7:
1364:Van Boom, Daniel (October 3, 2016).
1307:Panos, Kristina (October 12, 2020).
833:] (in German). Berlin: Springer.
670:. The Calgary Herald. Archived from
995:""Truly Ergonomic" Keyboard Review"
852:(1). Human Factors Society: 51–63.
471:contoured keyboard with Malt Layout
250:between the two alphanumeric halves
1416:Hobday, Stephen (September 1985).
1231:Sheth, Sarang (January 25, 2022).
1183:Arslan, Fatih (October 22, 2022).
1126:"Single Handed Ergonomic Keyboard"
913:"Ergonomics Is Key For Key Tronic"
14:
1484:. PCD Maltron Ltd. Archived from
1454:. PCD Maltron Ltd. Archived from
1424:. PCD Maltron Ltd. Archived from
911:Jewell, Mark (October 17, 1995).
666:Michelle Manalo (April 5, 2007).
558:
546:
541:An "AlphaGrip" Handheld Keyboard
534:
491:
476:
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222:
205:
191:
170:
154:
142:
127:
122:(1994) is a fixed split keyboard
108:
93:
77:
1205:Scannell, Aidan (May 9, 2021).
888:"Keyboard Ergonomics and Setup"
1476:Hobday, Stephen (4 May 1994).
380:have sold well in comparison.
1:
1545:10.1016/S0169-8141(02)00180-4
1446:Hobday, Stephen (June 1988).
1071:Kealoha (November 10, 2021).
1045:Peters, Jay (July 11, 2021).
642:Microsoft ergonomic keyboards
938:Kealoha (20 December 2021).
767:Rempel, David (2008-06-01).
692:Stamp, Jimmy (May 3, 2013).
568:left and right entry devices
1124:Buxton, Bill (April 2011).
993:Kealoha (August 17, 2022).
1624:
1576:Cornell University website
1572:"Computer Keyboard Design"
858:10.1177/001872087201400110
825:Klockenberg, E.A. (1926).
1019:Kealoha (July 14, 2020).
484:Kinesis Contoured Classic
86:Apple Adjustable Keyboard
785:10.1518/001872008X312215
647:Repetitive strain injury
616:repetitive strain injury
1603:Computing input devices
1598:Computer keyboard types
1341:. Microsoft Corporation
1132:. Microsoft Corporation
1105:. Microsoft Corporation
1021:"Review of ErgoDox EZ"
612:carpal tunnel syndrome
388:Vertical column layout
24:
1211:Aidan Scannell (blog)
528:Keyboard alternatives
23:An ergonomic keyboard
22:
892:healthycomputing.com
698:Smithsonian Magazine
507:(1977) or the newer
347:, also known as the
1608:Physical ergonomics
940:"SafeType Keyboard"
583:Alternative layouts
345:lateral inclination
185:Angle illustrations
614:or other kinds of
600:speech recognition
574:Handheld keyboards
486:with QWERTY layout
71:Split key clusters
29:ergonomic keyboard
25:
1488:on 6 October 2014
1339:Buxton Collection
1130:Buxton Collection
1103:Buxton Collection
455:Contoured surface
378:Microsoft Natural
33:computer keyboard
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1289:. AlphaGrip, Inc
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1264:. AlphaGrip, Inc
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233:with front riser
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120:Natural Keyboard
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56:C. Latham Sholes
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1564:Further reading
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1077:All Things Ergo
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1025:All Things Ergo
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999:All Things Ergo
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944:All Things Ergo
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732:10.14989/139379
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449:Truly Ergonomic
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419:Truly Ergonomic
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1539:(2): 119–136.
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1428:on 1 June 2015
1408:
1395:Futuristic Bug
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1333:Buxton, Bill.
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1097:Buxton, Bill.
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779:(3): 385–392.
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606:Considerations
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1570:Hedge, Alan.
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1458:on 2015-06-01
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1397:. 28 May 2021
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