f-number - Knowledge (XXG)

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range is consequently the distance of the nearest object, which will be in good focus when the ground glass is adjusted for an extremely distant object. In the same lens, the focal range will depend upon the size of the diaphragm used, while in different lenses having the same apertal ratio the focal ranges will be greater as the focal length of the lens is increased. The terms 'apertal ratio' and 'focal range' have not come into general use, but it is very desirable that they should, in order to prevent ambiguity and circumlocution when treating of the properties of photographic lenses.

857: 823:. Aperture, shutter speed, and film sensitivity are linked: for constant scene brightness, doubling the aperture area (one stop), halving the shutter speed (doubling the time open), or using a film twice as sensitive, has the same effect on the exposed image. For all practical purposes extreme accuracy is not required (mechanical shutter speeds were notoriously inaccurate as wear and lubrication varied, with no effect on exposure). It is not significant that aperture areas and shutter speeds do not vary by a factor of precisely two. 848: 4004:. Lens transmittances of 60%–95% are typical. T-stops are often used in cinematography, where many images are seen in rapid succession and even small changes in exposure will be noticeable. Cinema camera lenses are typically calibrated in T-stops instead of f-numbers. In still photography, without the need for rigorous consistency of all lenses and cameras used, slight differences in exposure are less important; however, T-stops are still used in some kinds of special-purpose lenses such as 374: 4044: 5030: 5005:

the collodion slide, having previously inserted a piece of cardboard in place of the prepared plate. Make a small round hole in the centre of the cardboard with a piercer, and now remove to a darkened room; apply a candle close to the hole, and observe the illuminated patch visible upon the front combination; the diameter of this circle, carefully measured, is the actual working aperture of the lens in question for the particular stop employed.

4114: 7673: 396: 40: 7684: 4136: 5153: 5252: 5164: 4298: 132:, defined as the aperture diameter divided by focal length. The relative aperture indicates how much light can pass through the lens at a given focal length. A lower f-number means a larger relative aperture and more light entering the system, while a higher f-number means a smaller relative aperture and less light entering the system. The f-number is related to the 5094: 590:, etc. Each element in the sequence is one stop lower than the element to its left, and one stop higher than the element to its right. The values of the ratios are rounded off to these particular conventional numbers, to make them easier to remember and write down. The sequence above is obtained by approximating the following exact geometric sequence: 4035:. Both systems have a linear number where a doubling of sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the number, and a logarithmic number. In the ISO system, a 3° increase in the logarithmic number corresponds to a doubling of sensitivity. Doubling or halving the sensitivity is equal to a difference of one T-stop in terms of light transmittance. 1842: 5000:, the diameter of the actual working aperture must be ascertained. This is easily accomplished in the case of single lenses, or for double combination lenses used with the full opening, these merely requiring the application of a pair of compasses or rule; but when double or triple-combination lenses are used, with stops inserted 1574: 1385: 806: 4901:

In every lens there is, corresponding to a given apertal ratio (that is, the ratio of the diameter of the stop to the focal length), a certain distance of a near object from it, between which and infinity all objects are in equally good focus. For instance, in a single view lens of 6-inch focus, with

812:

are arranged so that each setting differs in duration by a factor of approximately two from its neighbour. Opening up a lens by one stop allows twice as much light to fall on the film in a given period of time. Therefore, to have the same exposure at this larger aperture as at the previous aperture,

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the combinations, it is somewhat more troublesome; for it is obvious that in this case the diameter of the stop employed is not the measure of the actual pencil of light transmitted by the front combination. To ascertain this, focus for a distant object, remove the focusing screen and replace it by

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since a smaller format requires a shorter focal length (wider angle lens) to produce the same angle of view, and depth of field increases with shorter focal lengths. Therefore, reduced–depth-of-field effects will require smaller f-numbers (and thus potentially more difficult or complex optics) when

5104:

systems based on actual intensity (proportional to reciprocal square of the f-number); and the U.S., C.I., and Dallmeyer systems based on exposure (proportional to square of the f-number). He calls the f-number the "ratio number", "aperture ratio number", and "ratio aperture". He calls expressions

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in. stop (apertal ratio one-twenty-fourth), all objects situated at distances lying between 20 feet from the lens and an infinite distance from it (a fixed star, for instance) are in equally good focus. Twenty feet is therefore called the 'focal range' of the lens when this stop is used. The focal

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At the same time, there were a number of aperture numbering systems designed with the goal of making exposure times vary in direct or inverse proportion with the aperture, rather than with the square of the f-number or inverse square of the apertal ratio or intensity ratio. But these systems all

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of gain is equivalent to one T-stop in terms of light transmittance. Many camcorders have a unified control over the lens f-number and gain. In this case, starting from zero gain and fully open iris, one can either increase f-number by reducing the iris size while gain remains zero, or one can

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of lenses is the key in lens design to decrease transmittance losses of lenses. Some reviews of lenses do measure the T-stop or transmission rate in their benchmarks. T-stops are sometimes used instead of f-numbers to more accurately determine exposure, particularly when using external

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increases with f-number, as illustrated in the image here. This means that photographs taken with a low f-number (large aperture) will tend to have subjects at one distance in focus, with the rest of the image (nearer and farther elements) out of focus. This is frequently used for

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will give the sharpest image. The larger number of elements in modern lenses allow the designer to compensate for aberrations, allowing the lens to give better pictures at lower f-numbers. At small apertures, depth of field and aberrations are improved, but

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the "fractional diameter" of the aperture, even though it is literally equal to the "absolute diameter" which he distinguishes as a different term. He also sometimes uses expressions like "an aperture of f 8" without the division indicated by the slash.

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in astronomy, there is no depth of field issue, and the brightness of stellar point sources in terms of total optical power (not divided by area) is a function of absolute aperture area only, independent of focal length. The focal length controls the

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of the lens in question; and note down the quotient as the denominator with 1, or unity, for the numerator. Thus to find the ratio of a lens of 2 inches diameter and 6 inches focus, divide the focus by the aperture, or 6 divided by 2 equals 3; i.e.,

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As in the earlier DIN and ASA film-speed standards, the ISO speed is defined only in one-third stop increments, and shutter speeds of digital cameras are commonly on the same scale in reciprocal seconds. A portion of the ISO range is the sequence

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and thus the entrance pupil size. This allows the user to vary the f-number as needed. The entrance pupil diameter is not necessarily equal to the aperture stop diameter, because of the magnifying effect of lens elements in front of the aperture.

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in the dark. Computing the focal length requires that the light-refracting properties of the liquids in the eye be taken into account. Treating the eye as an ordinary air-filled camera and lens results in an incorrect focal length and f-number.

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The f-number accurately describes the light-gathering ability of a lens only for objects an infinite distance away. This limitation is typically ignored in photography, where f-number is often used regardless of the distance to the object. In

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In photography this means that as one focuses closer, the lens's effective aperture becomes smaller, making the exposure darker. The working f-number is often described in photography as the f-number corrected for lens extensions by a

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This point is further emphasized by Czapski in 1893. According to an English review of his book, in 1894, "The necessity of clearly distinguishing between effective aperture and diameter of physical stop is strongly insisted upon."

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Notations for f-numbers were also quite variable in the early part of the twentieth century. They were sometimes written with a capital F, sometimes with a dot (period) instead of a slash, and sometimes set as a vertical fraction.

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lens projects an image of each object twice as high and twice as wide, covering four times the area, and so both lenses produce the same illuminance at the focal plane when imaging a scene of a given luminance.

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second. The f-number may then be adjusted downwards for situations with lower light. Selecting a lower f-number is "opening up" the lens. Selecting a higher f-number is "closing" or "stopping down" the lens.

3942: 1837:{\displaystyle \ldots 16/13^{\circ },\ 20/14^{\circ },\ 25/15^{\circ },\ 32/16^{\circ },\ 40/17^{\circ },\ 50/18^{\circ },\ 64/19^{\circ },\ 80/20^{\circ },\ 100/21^{\circ },\ 125/22^{\circ },\ \ldots } 463:" is marked with its corresponding f-number, and represents a halving of the light intensity from the previous stop. This corresponds to a decrease of the pupil and aperture diameters by a factor of 1/ 892:. Half-stop steps are used on some cameras. Usually the full stops are marked, and the intermediate positions click but are not marked. As an example, the aperture that is one-third stop smaller than 3990: 4634: 449:

used to quantify ratios of light or exposure, with each added stop meaning a factor of two, and each subtracted stop meaning a factor of one-half. The one-stop unit is also known as the EV (

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specifies that "The symbol for relative apertures shall be ƒ/ or ƒ: followed by the effective ƒ-number." They show the hooked italic 'ƒ' not only in the symbol, but also in the term

1569:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{3}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{3}},\ \ldots } 1380:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {0}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {1}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {2}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {3}{2}},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{\frac {4}{2}},\ \ldots } 188: 4271:

involves computing the physical aperture and focal length of the eye. The pupil can be as large as 6–7 mm wide open, which translates into the maximal physical aperture.

801:{\displaystyle f/1={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{0}}},\ f/1.4={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{1}}},\ f/2={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{2}}},\ f/2.8={\frac {f}{({\sqrt {2}})^{3}}},\ \ldots } 7641: 7588: 5538: 4947: 4862:

The system of f-numbers for specifying relative apertures evolved in the late nineteenth century, in competition with several other systems of aperture notation.

4824: 4551:) is made possible by an error correction system which includes secondary and tertiary mirrors, a three element refractive system and active mounting and optics. 875:, with each full stop marked. Click-stopped aperture came into common use in the 1960s; the aperture scale usually had a click stop at every whole and half stop. 813:

the shutter would be opened for half as long (i.e., twice the speed). The film will respond equally to these equal amounts of light, since it has the property of

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On modern cameras, especially when aperture is set on the camera body, f-number is often divided more finely than steps of one stop. Steps of one-third stop (

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of exposure intensity. Given this interpretation, one can then think of taking a half-step along this scale, to make an exposure difference of a "half stop".

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In 1867, Sutton and Dawson defined "apertal ratio" as essentially the reciprocal of the modern f-number. In the following quote, an "apertal ratio" of "

432:

is sometimes confusing due to its multiple meanings. A stop can be a physical object: an opaque part of an optical system that blocks certain rays. The

3864:(for hole, by convention written with capital letter H) is an f-number equivalent for effective exposure based on the area covered by the holes in the 4530: 4195:

which is due to the wave nature of light. The blur-optimal f-stop varies with the lens design. For modern standard lenses having 6 or 7 elements, the

268:

Ignoring differences in light transmission efficiency, a lens with a greater f-number projects darker images. The brightness of the projected image (

5519: 4259:(in 35 mm and larger formats) allows adequate depth of field and sufficient lens speed for a decent base exposure in most daylight situations. 136:(NA) of the system, which measures the range of angles over which light can enter or exit the system. The numerical aperture takes into account the 5049:

in the 1880s. Bothamley in 1891 said "The stops of all the best makers are now arranged according to this system." U.S. 16 is the same aperture as

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8.4 m telescope, which will cover the entire sky every three days, has a very large field of view. Its short 10.3 m focal length (

3954: 3888:(for transmission stops, by convention written with capital letter T) is an f-number adjusted to account for light transmission efficiency ( 442:

is a stop intended to cut out light that would be outside the desired field of view and might cause flare or other problems if not stopped.

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of the film or sensor used to capture the image. Depth of field can be described as depending on just angle of view, subject distance, and

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the focal ratio varies the focal-plane illuminance (or optical power per unit area in the image) and is used to control variables such as

4179:). As a result, smaller formats will have a deeper field than larger formats at the same f-number for the same distance of focus and same 5558: 3996: 7578: 7130: 7339: 5984: 5802: 5683: 5629: 5358: 5329: 5167:

From the top, the Yashica-D's aperture setting window uses the "f:" notation. The aperture is continuously variable with no "stops".

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Computer simulation showing the effects of changing a camera's aperture in half-stops (at left) and from zero to infinity (at right)

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lens's entrance pupil, and thus collects four times as much light from each object in the lens's field of view. But compared to the

4842:. Since the pupil magnification is seldom known it is often assumed to be 1, which is the correct value for all symmetric lenses. 1937:

Modern electronically controlled interchangeable lenses, such as those used for SLR cameras, have f-stops specified internally in

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ISO, Photography—Apertures and related properties pertaining to photographic lenses—Designations and measurements, ISO 517:2008

4541: 1982: 7719: 7271: 6754: 6541: 5591: 47:, that is, increasing f-numbers, in one-stop increments; each aperture has half the light-gathering area of the previous one. 4501:

Even though the principles of focal ratio are always the same, the application to which the principle is put can differ. In

5701: 1191:{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {2}})^{0},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{1},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{2},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{3},\ ({\sqrt {2}})^{4},\ \ldots } 7180: 7112: 6865: 6387: 4051:

Most electronic cameras allow to amplify the signal coming from the pickup element. This amplification is usually called

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Selecting and Using Classic Cameras: A User's Guide to Evaluating Features, Condition & Usability of Classic Cameras

157: 5535: 7709: 7613: 6890: 6392: 1927:

to the power of a whole number), in which case it is usually a half or third stop above or below an integral power of

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Since real lenses have transmittances of less than 100%, a lens's T-stop number is always greater than its f-number.

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of a lens depends upon the relation or ratio of the aperture to the equivalent focus. To ascertain this, divide the

7344: 6935: 6228: 5958: 5046: 5014: 5056:, but apertures that are larger or smaller by a full stop use doubling or halving of the U.S. number, for example 7311: 7261: 7221: 7074: 6960: 6910: 6602: 6546: 6402: 6154: 6079: 815: 31: 410:, as indicated by the white dot above the f-stop scale on the aperture ring. This lens has an aperture range of 7512: 7107: 6835: 6627: 5275: 438:

is the aperture setting that limits the brightness of the image by restricting the input pupil size, while a

7477: 7281: 7185: 7049: 6900: 6732: 6637: 6280: 6198: 6164: 5851:

The Principles and Methods of Geometrical Optics: Especially as applied to the theory of optical instruments

5144:, etc. The R.P.S. had changed their name and moved off of the U.S. system some time between 1895 and 1902. 5077:

By 1895, Hodges contradicts Bothamley, saying that the f-number system has taken over: "This is called the

4659:, an alternative is often needed for systems where the object is not far from the lens. In these cases the 7688: 7532: 7507: 7316: 7301: 7236: 7216: 7122: 7044: 6875: 6794: 6789: 6764: 6692: 6682: 6632: 6622: 6556: 6519: 6447: 6422: 4084: 856: 827: 321: 306:. Since the area is proportional to the square of the pupil diameter, the amount of light admitted by the 125: 92: 5516: 5033:

A 1922 Kodak with aperture marked in U.S. stops. An f-number conversion chart has been added by the user.

4252:", meaning that being on the scene is more important than worrying about technical details. Practically, 4232:

Light falloff is also sensitive to f-stop. Many wide-angle lenses will show a significant light falloff (

7593: 7388: 7296: 7291: 7276: 7266: 7241: 7226: 7087: 7020: 6990: 6950: 6860: 6850: 6687: 6566: 6529: 6452: 5895:

Telephotography: An elementary treatise on the construction and application of the telephotographic lens

5726: 4523: 4159:') can be aesthetically pleasing and puts the viewer's focus on the main subject in the foreground. The 7145: 7677: 7286: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7231: 6885: 6804: 6774: 6727: 6672: 6662: 6587: 6412: 6359: 6072: 4918: 4152: 3898:

projects an image of the same brightness as an ideal lens with 100% transmittance and an f-number of

96: 5497: 4847: 4770:{\displaystyle N_{w}\approx {1 \over 2\mathrm {NA} _{i}}\approx \left(1+{\frac {|m|}{P}}\right)N\,,} 4043: 373: 7383: 7356: 7326: 6980: 6895: 6799: 6677: 6657: 6647: 6642: 6612: 6504: 6417: 6245: 6240: 5265: 4839: 820: 5849: 5420:

Set lighting technician's handbook: film lighting equipment, practice, and electrical distribution

7527: 7190: 7140: 6965: 6820: 6779: 6759: 6697: 6652: 6617: 6592: 6149: 6114: 5971: 4793: 4408: 4350: 4196: 4188: 4163:

of an image produced at a given f-number is dependent on other parameters as well, including the

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while shutter speeds in reciprocal seconds have a few conventional differences in their numbers (

474: 257: 133: 5836:

Photographic Lenses: On Their Choice and Use – Special Edition Edited for American Photographers

453:) unit. On a camera, the aperture setting is traditionally adjusted in discrete steps, known as 5934:

A First Book of the Lens: An Elementary Treatise on the Action and Use of the Photographic Lens

5038:

involved some arbitrary constant, as opposed to the simple ratio of focal length and diameter.

7497: 7433: 7420: 7351: 7015: 6940: 6930: 6920: 6905: 6769: 6737: 6597: 6432: 6203: 5980: 5798: 5760: 5679: 5650: 5625: 5566: 5478: 5472: 5451: 5424: 5418: 5364: 5354: 5325: 4985: 4851: 4510: 4024: 3873: 847: 831: 6031: 5445: 7552: 7502: 7460: 7445: 7428: 7398: 7393: 7037: 6995: 6945: 6707: 6667: 6607: 6462: 5404: 5285: 5029: 4243: 4187:

Beyond focus, image sharpness is related to f-number through two different optical effects:

4076:: an approximately correct exposure will be obtained on a sunny day by using an aperture of 4028: 482: 137: 4047:

Iris/Gain relationship on Panasonic camcorders as described in the HC-V785 operating manual

7557: 7465: 7082: 6830: 6712: 6407: 6354: 6349: 6317: 6302: 6260: 5739: 5542: 5523: 5504: 4239: 4176: 3906:, is given by dividing the f-number by the square root of the transmittance of that lens: 4924: 4799: 4518:

of the instrument and the scale of the image that is presented at the focal plane to an

7334: 7160: 7102: 6870: 6551: 6457: 6442: 6437: 6332: 6139: 6129: 6119: 5675: 5280: 5243: 4827: 4656: 4506: 4414: 4390: 4367: 4332: 4308: 4172: 4160: 4143: 4113: 3869: 3865: 872: 478: 450: 84: 64: 5159:

camera front view. This is one of the few cameras that actually says "F-NUMBER" on it.

215:", which forms a mathematical expression of the entrance pupil's diameter in terms of 7703: 7487: 7455: 7440: 7405: 7165: 7010: 6975: 6925: 6561: 6534: 6514: 6482: 6427: 6059: 5614: 5562: 5087:

system, and the diaphragms of all modern lenses of good construction are so marked."

5071: 4831: 4515: 4180: 4072: 3890: 3194:

Sometimes the same number is included on several scales; for example, an aperture of

809: 434: 261: 224: 5100:

Piper in 1901 discusses five different systems of aperture marking: the old and new

7653: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7492: 7378: 7373: 7027: 6747: 6717: 6499: 6494: 6477: 6322: 6144: 6134: 6124: 5220:

American Standard General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type)

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is U.S. 4. The exposure time required is directly proportional to the U.S. number.

4385: 4326: 4214: 4164: 197: 60: 5587: 395: 5754: 808:

In the same way as one f-stop corresponds to a factor of two in light intensity,

7658: 7522: 7517: 7450: 7363: 7200: 7175: 7005: 7000: 6985: 6840: 6722: 6702: 6571: 6472: 6364: 6327: 6297: 6250: 6218: 6213: 6174: 6095: 5708: 5621: 5257: 5093: 4568: 4502: 4302: 4226: 4192: 4168: 4001: 1976: 269: 88: 56: 5116:

Beck and Andrews in 1902 talk about the Royal Photographic Society standard of

4135: 830:

ratios in terms of 'stops'. Ignoring the f-number markings, the f-stops make a

39: 7648: 7170: 7150: 7064: 7054: 6915: 6880: 6855: 6784: 6524: 6509: 6489: 6371: 6307: 6223: 6169: 5270: 5233: 5152: 5101: 4981: 4564: 4233: 4087:

of the ISO speed of the film; for example, using ISO 200 film, an aperture of

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Most twentieth-century cameras had a continuously variable aperture, using an

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of the medium in which the system is working, while the f-number does not.

55:

is a measure of the light-gathering ability of an optical system such as a

4642:

is the transmission coefficient of the lens, and the units are in inverse

819:. This is less true for extremely long or short exposures, where there is 473:

Most modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately

7155: 6970: 6397: 6265: 6186: 6181: 4560: 4519: 4492:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\quad {\xrightarrow {\times D}}\quad f=ND} 4432: 68: 44: 4297: 3201:

may be used in either a half-stop or a one-third-stop system; sometimes

7195: 6344: 6290: 5195:

are still found in a few books; not uncommonly, the initial lower-case

5156: 4009: 1910: 378: 272:) relative to the brightness of the scene in the lens's field of view ( 17: 6742: 6159: 6109: 5536:

Colour rendering in binoculars and lenses - Colours and transmission

4466: 5226:, which today is more commonly set in an ordinary non-italic face. 1037:{\displaystyle f/4.5,\ f/5,\ f/5.6,\ f/6.3,\ f/7.1,\ f/8,\ \ldots } 7410: 6825: 6285: 5162: 5151: 5028: 4984:'s theory of stops and pupils, which was made widely available by 4296: 4184:

using small-format cameras than when using larger-format cameras.

4156: 4042: 394: 372: 38: 5350: 5074:

used U.S. stops on many of their cameras at least in the 1920s.

4992:

was not the same as the physical diameter of the aperture stop:

4013: 100: 6068: 5880:

Henry Crew, "Theory of Optical Instruments by Dr. Czapski," in

470:

or about 0.7071, and hence a halving of the area of the pupil.

6064: 3995:

With 8% loss per air-glass surface on lenses without coating,

888:

EV) are the most common, since this matches the ISO system of

4996:

It must be observed, however, that in order to find the real

3215:

and other differences are used for the one-third stop scale.

5092: 3937:{\displaystyle T={\frac {N}{\sqrt {\text{transmittance}}}}.} 5756:

Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering: Pho-Z, pages 2049-3050

1909:

In practice the maximum aperture of a lens is often not an

1046:

To calculate the steps in a full stop (1 EV) one could use

4880:" is calculated as the ratio of 6 inches (150 mm) to 4356:

In astronomy, the f-number is commonly referred to as the

4213:, while for older standard lenses having only 4 elements ( 246:

in a lens system. The aperture diameter would be equal to

5949:, second edition, London: R. & J. Beck Ltd., c. 1902. 5822:, London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1867, (p. 122). 4155:

because background blur (the aesthetic quality known as '

4070:

An example of the use of f-numbers in photography is the

2018:

Conventional and calculated f-numbers, full-stop series:

324:, the exposure time must be reduced by a factor of four. 5191:

are more common, though the earlier forms, as well as

3985:{\displaystyle T={\frac {2.0}{\sqrt {0.75}}}=2.309...} 235:, the f-number would be 2. This would be expressed as 5588:"Marianne Oelund, "Lens T-stops", dpreview.com, 2009" 5045:(U.S.) of apertures was adopted as a standard by the 4927: 4802: 4678: 4579: 4443: 4417: 4393: 4370: 4335: 4311: 3957: 3912: 1985: 1587: 1407: 1218: 1054: 928: 598: 346:

lens's entrance pupil has four times the area of the

160: 4629:{\displaystyle G\#={\frac {1+4N^{2}}{\tau \pi }}\,,} 3951:

lens with transmittance of 75% has a T-stop of 2.3:

7624: 7571: 7476: 7419: 7325: 7209: 7121: 7073: 6813: 6580: 6380: 6102: 4533:4-meter telescope has a small field of view (about 4229:creates more spreading of the light, causing blur. 477:of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the 208:). It is customary to write f-numbers preceded by " 5921:Photographic Lenses: How to Choose, and How to Use 5613: 4941: 4818: 4769: 4628: 4491: 4423: 4399: 4376: 4341: 4317: 3984: 3936: 2008: 1836: 1568: 1379: 1190: 1036: 800: 182: 6060:Large format photography—how to select the f-stop 6033:Photography for Students of Physics and Chemistry 5349:. SPIE Field Guides vol. FG01. Bellingham, Wash: 5310:, 4th Ed., 2007 McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 183. 5936:, London: Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ltd., 1901. 4559:The camera equation, or G#, is the ratio of the 4274:The f-number of the human eye varies from about 5017:, inventor of the telephoto lens, followed the 1957:-stop settings are approximated by the nearest 276:) decreases with the square of the f-number. A 5979:. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. p. 61. 5784: 5782: 5517:Sigma 85mm F1.4 Art lens review: New benchmark 4834:for an object a particular distance away, and 6080: 5869:Theorie der optischen Instrumente, nach Abbe, 5700:Charles F. Claver; et al. (2007-03-19). 5324:(2nd ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 152. 4062:increase gain while iris remains fully open. 920:. The next few f-stops in this sequence are: 8: 5830: 5828: 5302: 5300: 99:and is usually expressed using a lower-case 59:. It is calculated by dividing the system's 7632:Conservation and restoration of photographs 4540:) which is useful for stellar studies. The 7369:Comparison of digital and film photography 6087: 6073: 6065: 5863: 5861: 7589:Photographs considered the most important 5910:, London: Britannia Works Co. Ltd., 1891. 5707:. LSST Corporation: 45–50. Archived from 4931: 4926: 4811: 4803: 4801: 4763: 4744: 4736: 4733: 4710: 4702: 4692: 4683: 4677: 4622: 4605: 4589: 4578: 4461: 4450: 4442: 4416: 4392: 4369: 4334: 4310: 3964: 3956: 3919: 3911: 2009:{\displaystyle N={\sqrt {2^{\text{AV}}}}} 1998: 1992: 1984: 1819: 1810: 1795: 1786: 1771: 1762: 1747: 1738: 1723: 1714: 1699: 1690: 1675: 1666: 1651: 1642: 1627: 1618: 1603: 1594: 1586: 1546: 1535: 1515: 1504: 1484: 1473: 1453: 1442: 1422: 1411: 1406: 1357: 1346: 1326: 1315: 1295: 1284: 1264: 1253: 1233: 1222: 1217: 1173: 1162: 1147: 1136: 1121: 1110: 1095: 1084: 1069: 1058: 1053: 1017: 1000: 983: 966: 949: 932: 927: 780: 769: 760: 749: 731: 720: 711: 700: 682: 671: 662: 651: 633: 622: 613: 602: 597: 167: 159: 5553: 5551: 4890:inch (6.4 mm), corresponding to an 4134: 4112: 3532: 3222: 2597: 2217: 2020: 5923:, Bradford: Percy Lund & Co., 1895. 5296: 5090:Here is the situation as seen in 1899: 4980:Although he did not yet have access to 3219:Typical one-quarter-stop f-number scale 369:Stops, f-stop conventions, and exposure 338:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 302:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 287:lens has an entrance pupil diameter of 231:and its entrance pupil's diameter were 204:is the diameter of the entrance pupil ( 5947:Photographic Lenses: A Simple Treatise 5735: 5724: 4850:. This is of particular importance in 4281:in a very brightly lit place to about 826:Photographers sometimes express other 71:"). The f-number is also known as the 6006:Mees, Charles Edward Kenneth (1920). 5047:Photographic Society of Great Britain 4083:and the shutter speed closest to the 2594:Typical one-third-stop f-number scale 7: 5183:. In modern publications, the forms 4236:) at the edges for large apertures. 4191:, due to imperfect lens design, and 2214:Typical one-half-stop f-number scale 7584:Museums devoted to one photographer 5649:. Amherst Media, Inc. p. 163. 5559:"Kodak Motion Picture Camera Films" 5207:is set in a hooked italic form: ƒ. 4139:Shallow focus with a wide open lens 4057:and is measured in decibels. Every 83:, and it is key in determining the 7131:Timeline of photography technology 4706: 4703: 4583: 4563:reaching the camera sensor to the 4027:'s and electronic camera sensor's 1947:-stop increments, so the cameras' 183:{\displaystyle N={\frac {f}{D}}\ } 120:The f-number is also known as the 25: 7725:Logarithmic scales of measurement 5945:Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews, 5818:Thomas Sutton and George Dawson, 5791:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics 5347:Field Guide to Geometrical Optics 4988:in 1893, Dallmeyer knew that his 4949:the "intensity ratio" of a lens: 4305:of a simple optical system where 1971:Standard full-stop f-number scale 445:In photography, stops are also a 95:of a photograph. The f-number is 7682: 7672: 7671: 5498:Transmission, light transmission 5250: 5236: 4167:, the subject distance, and the 913:, and one whole stop smaller is 855: 846: 260:, which changes the size of the 7683: 6039:. London: Macmillan. p. 83 6009:The Fundamentals of Photography 5594:from the original on 2012-11-10 5565:. November 2000. Archived from 4476: 4460: 4199:image is often obtained around 3782: 3460: 3055: 2490: 2084: 313:lens is four times that of the 256:Most lenses have an adjustable 5848:Southall, James P. C. (1910). 5612:Michael John Langford (2000). 4961:by the diameter of the actual 4812: 4804: 4745: 4737: 4663:is used. The working f-number 4267:Computing the f-number of the 3902:. A particular lens's T-stop, 1543: 1532: 1512: 1501: 1481: 1470: 1450: 1439: 1419: 1408: 1354: 1343: 1323: 1312: 1292: 1281: 1261: 1250: 1230: 1219: 1170: 1159: 1144: 1133: 1118: 1107: 1092: 1081: 1066: 1055: 777: 766: 728: 717: 679: 668: 630: 619: 1: 7181:Painted photography backdrops 7113:Golden triangle (composition) 6388:35 mm equivalent focal length 5970:Ives, Herbert Eugene (1920). 5789:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). 5477:(2nd ed.). Focal Press. 5450:. Guild of Master Craftsman. 5423:(3rd ed.). Focal Press. 5345:Greivenkamp, John E. (2004). 5148:Typographical standardization 4783:is the uncorrected f-number, 4384:. It is still defined as the 5908:Ilford Manual of Photography 5753:Driggers, Ronald G. (2003). 4866:Origins of relative aperture 6891:Intentional camera movement 6012:. Eastman Kodak. p. 28 5882:Astronomy and Astro-physics 5820:A Dictionary of Photography 5474:Manual for cinematographers 5471:David W. Samuelson (1998). 3894:). A lens with a T-stop of 1967:-stop setting in the lens. 1389:The steps in a third stop ( 7741: 7579:Most expensive photographs 6936:Multi-exposure HDR capture 5897:, London: Heinemann, 1899. 5308:Modern Optical Engineering 5175:appeared in books both as 5025:Aperture numbering systems 5015:Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer 4567:on the focal plane of the 4109:Effects on image sharpness 1200:The steps in a half stop ( 29: 7667: 5854:. Macmillan. p. 537. 5793:. SPIE Field Guides vol. 4431:or by the diameter of an 4293:Focal ratio in telescopes 4031:is often specified using 3783: 3535: 3461: 3225: 3056: 2600: 2491: 2220: 2149: 2085: 2023: 320:lens. To obtain the same 122:inverse relative aperture 32:F-number (disambiguation) 7513:Digital image processing 5871:Breslau: Trewendt, 1893. 5276:Photographic lens design 4411:divided by its diameter 906:, two-thirds smaller is 7186:Photography and the law 5884:XIII pp. 241–243, 1894. 5702:"LSST Reference Design" 5013:J. H. Dallmeyer's son, 4976:is the intensity ratio. 4349:is the diameter of the 4094:and a shutter speed of 63:by the diameter of the 7715:Science of photography 7533:Gelatin silver process 6557:Science of photography 6542:Photographic processes 6520:Perspective distortion 5834:John Henry Dallmeyer, 5734:Cite journal requires 5670:Hecht, Eugene (1987). 5645:Levy, Michael (2001). 5447:Underwater photography 5320:Hecht, Eugene (1987). 5168: 5160: 5097: 5034: 5007: 4978: 4943: 4915: 4820: 4771: 4630: 4493: 4425: 4401: 4378: 4353: 4343: 4319: 4140: 4132: 4048: 3986: 3938: 2010: 1838: 1570: 1381: 1192: 1038: 802: 425: 392: 184: 48: 43:Diagram of decreasing 7720:Dimensionless numbers 6991:Schlieren photography 6530:Photographic printing 6453:Exposure compensation 5893:Thomas R. Dallmeyer, 5417:Harry C. Box (2003). 5218:standard PH2.12-1961 5166: 5155: 5096: 5032: 5021:terminology in 1899. 4994: 4951: 4944: 4899: 4821: 4772: 4631: 4494: 4426: 4402: 4379: 4344: 4320: 4300: 4138: 4116: 4046: 3987: 3939: 2011: 1839: 1571: 1382: 1193: 1039: 803: 398: 376: 322:photographic exposure 185: 42: 27:Measure of lens speed 6775:Straight photography 6413:Chromatic aberration 6030:Derr, Louis (1906). 5973:Airplane Photography 4925: 4919:John Henry Dallmeyer 4800: 4676: 4577: 4555:Camera equation (G#) 4441: 4435:stop in the system: 4415: 4391: 4368: 4333: 4309: 4124:(top-left half) and 4029:sensitivity to light 3955: 3910: 1983: 1585: 1405: 1399:EV) series would be 1216: 1210:EV) series would be 1052: 926: 596: 223:. For example, if a 158: 124:, because it is the 30:For other uses, see 7642:photographic plates 7327:Digital photography 6505:Hyperfocal distance 6418:Circle of confusion 5932:C. Welborne Piper, 5867:Siegfried Czapski, 5266:Circle of confusion 4942:{\displaystyle 1/N} 4840:pupil magnification 4819:{\displaystyle |m|} 4792:is the image-space 4473: 4131:(bottom-right half) 821:reciprocity failure 7710:Optical quantities 7146:Autochrome Lumière 7141:Analog photography 6966:Pigeon photography 6755:Social documentary 6234:discontinued films 5541:2018-01-04 at the 5522:2018-01-04 at the 5503:2021-05-08 at the 5383:Modern Lens Design 5171:By 1920, the term 5169: 5161: 5098: 5035: 4939: 4816: 4794:numerical aperture 4767: 4626: 4489: 4421: 4397: 4374: 4354: 4339: 4315: 4149:nature photography 4141: 4133: 4049: 4006:Smooth Trans Focus 3982: 3934: 2006: 1876:second instead of 1834: 1566: 1377: 1188: 1034: 798: 475:geometric sequence 426: 393: 227:focal length were 206:effective aperture 180: 134:numerical aperture 49: 7697: 7696: 7498:Collodion process 7434:Chromogenic print 7421:Color photography 6931:Multiple exposure 6906:Lo-fi photography 6433:Color temperature 5906:C. H. Bothamley, 5838:, pamphlet, 1874. 5766:978-0-8247-4252-2 5656:978-1-58428-054-5 5616:Basic Photography 5484:978-0-240-51480-2 5457:978-1-86108-322-7 5444:Paul Kay (2003). 5430:978-0-240-80495-8 5385:2005 McGraw-Hill. 5041:For example, the 4986:Siegfried Czapski 4921:called the ratio 4852:macro photography 4753: 4717: 4620: 4529:For example, the 4522:, film plate, or 4511:optical telescope 4474: 4458: 4424:{\displaystyle D} 4400:{\displaystyle f} 4377:{\displaystyle N} 4342:{\displaystyle D} 4318:{\displaystyle f} 4177:von Rohr's method 4025:Photographic film 3974: 3973: 3929: 3928: 3927: 3874:Rodenstock Imagon 3853: 3852: 3531: 3530: 3192: 3191: 2591: 2590: 2211: 2210: 2004: 2001: 1830: 1806: 1782: 1758: 1734: 1710: 1686: 1662: 1638: 1614: 1562: 1554: 1540: 1531: 1523: 1509: 1500: 1492: 1478: 1469: 1461: 1447: 1438: 1430: 1416: 1373: 1365: 1351: 1342: 1334: 1320: 1311: 1303: 1289: 1280: 1272: 1258: 1249: 1241: 1227: 1184: 1167: 1158: 1141: 1132: 1115: 1106: 1089: 1080: 1063: 1030: 1013: 996: 979: 962: 945: 832:logarithmic scale 794: 787: 774: 745: 738: 725: 696: 689: 676: 647: 640: 627: 179: 175: 130:relative aperture 117:is the f-number. 16:(Redirected from 7732: 7686: 7685: 7675: 7674: 7553:Print permanence 7503:Cross processing 7461:CMYK color model 7446:Color management 7399:Foveon X3 sensor 7394:Three-CCD camera 7038:Miniature faking 6996:Sabattier effect 6608:Astrophotography 6463:Zebra patterning 6089: 6082: 6075: 6066: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6038: 6027: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6017: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5994: 5993: 5978: 5967: 5961: 5956: 5950: 5943: 5937: 5930: 5924: 5919:John A. Hodges, 5917: 5911: 5904: 5898: 5891: 5885: 5878: 5872: 5865: 5856: 5855: 5845: 5839: 5832: 5823: 5816: 5810: 5808: 5786: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5750: 5744: 5743: 5737: 5732: 5730: 5722: 5720: 5719: 5713: 5706: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5674:(2nd ed.). 5667: 5661: 5660: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5619: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5555: 5546: 5533: 5527: 5514: 5508: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5414: 5408: 5405:Area of a circle 5401: 5395: 5392: 5386: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5342: 5336: 5335: 5317: 5311: 5304: 5286:Preferred number 5260: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5246: 5241: 5240: 5143: 5141: 5136: 5134: 5129: 5127: 5122: 5120: 5111: 5109: 5086: 5081: 5069: 5067: 5062: 5060: 5055: 5053: 4990:working aperture 4975: 4974: 4970: 4963:working aperture 4959:equivalent focus 4948: 4946: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4896: 4894: 4889: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4837: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4817: 4815: 4807: 4791: 4782: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4759: 4755: 4754: 4749: 4748: 4740: 4734: 4718: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4709: 4693: 4688: 4687: 4669: 4661:working f-number 4650:Working f-number 4641: 4635: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4621: 4619: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4590: 4550: 4548: 4539: 4537: 4509:. When using an 4498: 4496: 4495: 4490: 4475: 4462: 4459: 4451: 4430: 4428: 4427: 4422: 4406: 4404: 4403: 4398: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4324: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4287: 4285: 4280: 4278: 4258: 4256: 4249: 4247: 4242:have a saying, " 4240:Photojournalists 4223: 4221: 4212: 4210: 4205: 4203: 4175:diameter (as in 4130: 4128: 4123: 4121: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4082: 4080: 4060: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3975: 3969: 3965: 3950: 3948: 3944:For example, an 3943: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3776: 3775: 3771: 3768: 3761: 3760: 3756: 3753: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3720: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3705: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3690: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3672: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3657: 3650: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3632: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3609: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3576: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3561: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3533: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3446: 3439: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3416: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3398: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3383: 3376: 3375: 3371: 3368: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3343: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3310: 3309: 3305: 3302: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3287: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3272: 3262: 3261: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3223: 3214: 3212: 3207: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3008: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2993: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2950: 2949: 2945: 2942: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2927: 2917: 2916: 2912: 2909: 2902: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2876: 2869: 2868: 2864: 2861: 2851: 2850: 2846: 2843: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2828: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2795: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2762: 2752: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2737: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2711: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2696: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2678: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2637: 2628: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2615: 2611: 2598: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2466: 2465: 2461: 2458: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2440: 2430: 2429: 2425: 2422: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2404: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2376: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2358: 2357: 2353: 2350: 2340: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2314: 2304: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2250: 2249: 2245: 2236: 2235: 2231: 2218: 2021: 2015: 2013: 2012: 2007: 2005: 2003: 2002: 1999: 1993: 1966: 1965: 1961: 1956: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1933: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1854: 1850: 1843: 1841: 1840: 1835: 1828: 1824: 1823: 1814: 1804: 1800: 1799: 1790: 1780: 1776: 1775: 1766: 1756: 1752: 1751: 1742: 1732: 1728: 1727: 1718: 1708: 1704: 1703: 1694: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1670: 1660: 1656: 1655: 1646: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1622: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1598: 1575: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1547: 1541: 1536: 1529: 1525: 1524: 1516: 1510: 1505: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1485: 1479: 1474: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1454: 1448: 1443: 1436: 1432: 1431: 1423: 1417: 1412: 1398: 1397: 1393: 1386: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1358: 1352: 1347: 1340: 1336: 1335: 1327: 1321: 1316: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1296: 1290: 1285: 1278: 1274: 1273: 1265: 1259: 1254: 1247: 1243: 1242: 1234: 1228: 1223: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1197: 1195: 1194: 1189: 1182: 1178: 1177: 1168: 1163: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1142: 1137: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1116: 1111: 1104: 1100: 1099: 1090: 1085: 1078: 1074: 1073: 1064: 1059: 1043: 1041: 1040: 1035: 1028: 1021: 1011: 1004: 994: 987: 977: 970: 960: 953: 943: 936: 919: 917: 912: 910: 905: 903: 898: 896: 887: 886: 882: 859: 850: 838:Fractional stops 807: 805: 804: 799: 792: 788: 786: 785: 784: 775: 770: 761: 753: 743: 739: 737: 736: 735: 726: 721: 712: 704: 694: 690: 688: 687: 686: 677: 672: 663: 655: 645: 641: 639: 638: 637: 628: 623: 614: 606: 589: 587: 582: 580: 575: 573: 568: 566: 561: 559: 554: 552: 547: 545: 540: 538: 533: 531: 526: 524: 519: 517: 512: 510: 505: 503: 498: 496: 491: 489: 483:square root of 2 469: 468: 423: 421: 416: 414: 409: 407: 402: 391: 389: 385:lens capable of 384: 363: 359: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 335: 330: 319: 317: 312: 310: 305: 301: 299: 294: 290: 286: 284: 279: 252: 245: 243: 241: 234: 230: 222: 218: 214: 212: 203: 195: 189: 187: 186: 181: 177: 176: 168: 151: 138:refractive index 109: 107: 103:with the format 21: 7740: 7739: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7729: 7700: 7699: 7698: 7693: 7663: 7620: 7567: 7558:Push processing 7479: 7472: 7466:RGB color model 7415: 7321: 7205: 7117: 7083:Diagonal method 7069: 6809: 6713:Photojournalism 6576: 6408:Black-and-white 6376: 6355:Slide projector 6350:Movie projector 6229:available films 6098: 6093: 6056: 6051: 6042: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6028: 6024: 6015: 6013: 6005: 6004: 6000: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5976: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5957: 5953: 5944: 5940: 5931: 5927: 5918: 5914: 5905: 5901: 5892: 5888: 5879: 5875: 5866: 5859: 5847: 5846: 5842: 5833: 5826: 5817: 5813: 5805: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5752: 5751: 5747: 5733: 5723: 5717: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5694: 5686: 5669: 5668: 5664: 5657: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5632: 5611: 5610: 5606: 5597: 5595: 5586: 5585: 5581: 5572: 5570: 5557: 5556: 5549: 5543:Wayback Machine 5534: 5530: 5524:Wayback Machine 5515: 5511: 5505:Wayback Machine 5496: 5492: 5485: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5458: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5431: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5389: 5380: 5376: 5361: 5344: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5319: 5318: 5314: 5305: 5298: 5294: 5256: 5251: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5232: 5150: 5139: 5138: 5132: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5107: 5106: 5079: 5078: 5065: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5027: 5019:intensity ratio 4998:intensity ratio 4972: 4968: 4967: 4923: 4922: 4908: 4904: 4903: 4892: 4891: 4886: 4882: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4871: 4868: 4860: 4835: 4798: 4797: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4735: 4726: 4722: 4701: 4697: 4679: 4674: 4673: 4668: 4664: 4652: 4639: 4612: 4601: 4591: 4575: 4574: 4557: 4546: 4545: 4535: 4534: 4439: 4438: 4413: 4412: 4389: 4388: 4366: 4365: 4331: 4330: 4307: 4306: 4301:Diagram of the 4295: 4283: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4265: 4254: 4253: 4245: 4244: 4219: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4126: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4111: 4100: 4096: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4078: 4077: 4068: 4058: 4041: 4033:ASA/ISO numbers 4022: 4020:ASA/ISO numbers 3953: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3882: 3866:diffusion discs 3858: 3773: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3710: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3677: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3662: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3614: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3599: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3581: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3566: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3436: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3388: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3355: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3340: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3292: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3221: 3210: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3046: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3013: 3009: 3006: 3004: 2998: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2980: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2965: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2947: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2914: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2881: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2866: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2839: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2824: 2815: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2800: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2782: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2767: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2734: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2701: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2683: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2650: 2646: 2645: 2639: 2635: 2634: 2625: 2621: 2620: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2596: 2481: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2427: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2409: 2405: 2402: 2400: 2391: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2319: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2301: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2283: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2216: 1994: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1963: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1938: 1930: 1928: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1902: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1868: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1847: 1815: 1791: 1767: 1743: 1719: 1695: 1671: 1647: 1623: 1599: 1583: 1582: 1542: 1511: 1480: 1449: 1418: 1403: 1402: 1395: 1391: 1390: 1353: 1322: 1291: 1260: 1229: 1214: 1213: 1206: 1202: 1201: 1169: 1143: 1117: 1091: 1065: 1050: 1049: 924: 923: 915: 914: 908: 907: 901: 900: 894: 893: 884: 880: 879: 869: 868: 867: 866: 862: 861: 860: 852: 851: 840: 776: 765: 727: 716: 678: 667: 629: 618: 594: 593: 585: 584: 578: 577: 571: 570: 564: 563: 557: 556: 550: 549: 543: 542: 536: 535: 529: 528: 522: 521: 515: 514: 508: 507: 501: 500: 494: 493: 487: 486: 466: 464: 419: 418: 412: 411: 405: 404: 400: 387: 386: 382: 381:mounted with a 371: 361: 357: 351: 350: 347: 343: 339: 333: 332: 328: 315: 314: 308: 307: 303: 297: 296: 292: 288: 282: 281: 277: 247: 239: 238: 236: 232: 228: 220: 216: 210: 209: 201: 193: 156: 155: 149: 146: 105: 104: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7738: 7736: 7728: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7702: 7701: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7680: 7668: 7665: 7664: 7662: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7639: 7628: 7626: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7575: 7573: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7484: 7482: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7443: 7438: 7437: 7436: 7425: 7423: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7348: 7347: 7335:Digital camera 7331: 7329: 7323: 7322: 7320: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7213: 7211: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7161:Camera obscura 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7127: 7125: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7103:Rule of thirds 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7079: 7077: 7071: 7070: 7068: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7041: 7040: 7030: 7025: 7024: 7023: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6871:Harris shutter 6868: 6866:Hand-colouring 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6817: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6552:Red-eye effect 6549: 6544: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6458:Exposure value 6455: 6450: 6445: 6443:Depth of focus 6440: 6438:Depth of field 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6384: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6374: 6369: 6368: 6367: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6336: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6243: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6201: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6179: 6178: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6106: 6104: 6100: 6099: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6084: 6077: 6069: 6063: 6062: 6055: 6054:External links 6052: 6050: 6049: 6022: 5998: 5985: 5962: 5951: 5938: 5925: 5912: 5899: 5886: 5873: 5857: 5840: 5824: 5811: 5803: 5778: 5765: 5745: 5736:|journal= 5692: 5684: 5676:Addison Wesley 5662: 5655: 5637: 5630: 5604: 5579: 5547: 5528: 5509: 5490: 5483: 5463: 5456: 5436: 5429: 5409: 5396: 5387: 5381:Smith, Warren 5374: 5359: 5353:. p. 29. 5337: 5330: 5312: 5306:Smith, Warren 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5281:Pinhole camera 5278: 5273: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5247: 5244:Physics portal 5231: 5228: 5149: 5146: 5063:is U.S. 8 and 5043:Uniform System 5026: 5023: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4867: 4864: 4859: 4856: 4848:bellows factor 4830:of the lens's 4828:absolute value 4814: 4810: 4806: 4786: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4752: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4682: 4666: 4657:optical design 4651: 4648: 4625: 4618: 4615: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4588: 4585: 4582: 4556: 4553: 4507:depth of field 4488: 4485: 4482: 4479: 4472: 4469: 4465: 4457: 4454: 4449: 4446: 4420: 4396: 4373: 4338: 4314: 4294: 4291: 4264: 4261: 4217:) stopping to 4215:Tessar formula 4173:entrance pupil 4161:depth of field 4144:Depth of field 4117:Comparison of 4110: 4107: 4067: 4064: 4040: 4037: 4021: 4018: 3981: 3978: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3960: 3933: 3923: 3918: 3915: 3881: 3878: 3870:sieve aperture 3857: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3841: 3838: 3835: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3820: 3817: 3814: 3811: 3808: 3805: 3802: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3777: 3762: 3747: 3732: 3729: 3714: 3699: 3684: 3681: 3666: 3651: 3636: 3633: 3618: 3603: 3588: 3585: 3570: 3555: 3540: 3537: 3529: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3516: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3498: 3495: 3492: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3455: 3440: 3425: 3410: 3407: 3392: 3377: 3362: 3359: 3344: 3329: 3314: 3311: 3296: 3281: 3266: 3263: 3252: 3241: 3230: 3227: 3220: 3217: 3190: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3050: 3035: 3020: 3017: 3002: 2987: 2984: 2969: 2954: 2951: 2936: 2921: 2918: 2903: 2888: 2885: 2870: 2855: 2852: 2837: 2822: 2819: 2804: 2789: 2786: 2771: 2756: 2753: 2738: 2723: 2720: 2705: 2690: 2687: 2672: 2657: 2654: 2643: 2632: 2629: 2617: 2605: 2602: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2485: 2470: 2467: 2452: 2449: 2434: 2431: 2416: 2413: 2398: 2395: 2380: 2377: 2362: 2359: 2344: 2341: 2326: 2323: 2308: 2305: 2290: 2287: 2272: 2269: 2254: 2251: 2240: 2237: 2225: 2222: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2147: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2089: 2083: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 1997: 1991: 1988: 1977:aperture value 1972: 1969: 1833: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1731: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1689: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1590: 1565: 1559: 1553: 1550: 1545: 1539: 1534: 1528: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1508: 1503: 1497: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1477: 1472: 1466: 1460: 1457: 1452: 1446: 1441: 1435: 1429: 1426: 1421: 1415: 1410: 1376: 1370: 1364: 1361: 1356: 1350: 1345: 1339: 1333: 1330: 1325: 1319: 1314: 1308: 1302: 1299: 1294: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1263: 1257: 1252: 1246: 1240: 1237: 1232: 1226: 1221: 1187: 1181: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1161: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1129: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1109: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1083: 1077: 1072: 1068: 1062: 1057: 1033: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1010: 1007: 1003: 999: 993: 990: 986: 982: 976: 973: 969: 965: 959: 956: 952: 948: 942: 939: 935: 931: 873:iris diaphragm 864: 863: 854: 853: 845: 844: 843: 842: 841: 839: 836: 810:shutter speeds 797: 791: 783: 779: 773: 768: 764: 759: 756: 752: 748: 742: 734: 730: 724: 719: 715: 710: 707: 703: 699: 693: 685: 681: 675: 670: 666: 661: 658: 654: 650: 644: 636: 632: 626: 621: 617: 612: 609: 605: 601: 451:exposure value 370: 367: 174: 171: 166: 163: 145: 142: 85:depth of field 65:entrance pupil 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7737: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7705: 7690: 7681: 7679: 7670: 7669: 7666: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7623: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7596: 7595: 7594:Photographers 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7576: 7574: 7570: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488:Bleach bypass 7486: 7485: 7483: 7481: 7475: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7456:primary color 7454: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7441:Reversal film 7439: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7422: 7418: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7406:Image sharing 7404: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7381: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7346: 7343: 7342: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7332: 7330: 7328: 7324: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7307:United States 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7212: 7208: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7166:Daguerreotype 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7039: 7036: 7035: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7011:Stopping down 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6976:Rephotography 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6911:Long-exposure 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6812: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6603:Architectural 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6579: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6562:Shutter speed 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6515:Metering mode 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6428:Color balance 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6393:Angle of view 6391: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6379: 6373: 6370: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6340:Manufacturers 6338: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6296: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6090: 6085: 6083: 6078: 6076: 6071: 6070: 6067: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6053: 6035: 6034: 6026: 6023: 6011: 6010: 6002: 5999: 5988: 5986:9780598722225 5982: 5975: 5974: 5966: 5963: 5960: 5959:Google search 5955: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5887: 5883: 5877: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5862: 5858: 5853: 5852: 5844: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5815: 5812: 5806: 5804:0-8194-5294-7 5800: 5796: 5792: 5785: 5783: 5779: 5768: 5762: 5759:. CRC Press. 5758: 5757: 5749: 5746: 5741: 5728: 5714:on 2009-03-06 5710: 5703: 5696: 5693: 5687: 5685:0-201-11609-X 5681: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5638: 5633: 5631:0-240-51592-7 5627: 5623: 5618: 5617: 5608: 5605: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5580: 5569:on 2002-10-02 5568: 5564: 5563:Eastman Kodak 5560: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5545:, LensTip.com 5544: 5540: 5537: 5532: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5518: 5513: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5499: 5494: 5491: 5486: 5480: 5476: 5475: 5467: 5464: 5459: 5453: 5449: 5448: 5440: 5437: 5432: 5426: 5422: 5421: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5391: 5388: 5384: 5378: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5360:9780819452948 5356: 5352: 5348: 5341: 5338: 5333: 5331:0-201-11609-X 5327: 5323: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5303: 5301: 5297: 5291: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5248: 5245: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5212: 5208: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5165: 5158: 5157:Yashica-D TLR 5154: 5147: 5145: 5114: 5103: 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4481:= 4478:f 4471:D 4456:D 4453:f 4448:= 4445:N 4419:D 4395:f 4372:N 4337:D 4313:f 4284:f 4277:f 4255:f 4246:f 4220:f 4209:f 4206:– 4202:f 4127:f 4120:f 4097:1 4090:f 4079:f 3977:= 3962:= 3959:T 3947:f 3932:. 3922:N 3917:= 3914:T 3904:T 3900:N 3896:N 3801:8 3785:N 3774:4 3770:3 3767:+ 3765:9 3759:2 3755:1 3752:+ 3750:9 3744:4 3740:1 3737:+ 3735:9 3731:9 3726:4 3722:3 3719:+ 3717:8 3711:2 3707:1 3704:+ 3702:8 3696:4 3692:1 3689:+ 3687:8 3683:8 3678:4 3674:3 3671:+ 3669:7 3663:2 3659:1 3656:+ 3654:7 3648:4 3644:1 3641:+ 3639:7 3635:7 3630:4 3626:3 3623:+ 3621:6 3615:2 3611:1 3608:+ 3606:6 3600:4 3596:1 3593:+ 3591:6 3587:6 3582:4 3578:3 3575:+ 3573:5 3567:2 3563:1 3560:+ 3558:5 3552:4 3548:1 3545:+ 3543:5 3539:5 3515:4 3491:2 3463:N 3452:4 3448:3 3445:+ 3443:4 3437:2 3433:1 3430:+ 3428:4 3422:4 3418:1 3415:+ 3413:4 3409:4 3404:4 3400:3 3397:+ 3395:3 3389:2 3385:1 3382:+ 3380:3 3374:4 3370:1 3367:+ 3365:3 3361:3 3356:4 3352:3 3349:+ 3347:2 3341:2 3337:1 3334:+ 3332:2 3326:4 3322:1 3319:+ 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