Coal combustion products - Knowledge (XXG)

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pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement. Proper design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for the establishment of design criteria, and determination of the proper chemical additive and admixture rate that achieves the desired engineering properties. Stabilization process benefits can include: Higher resistance (R) values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation – material hauling/handling – and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides "all-weather" access onto and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as "mud drying" or soil conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modification, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be incorporated into the project's structural design. The determining factors associated with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content, the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.

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New Delhi, as of 2015, only 60% of fly ash produced was being utilised. This has resulted in the latest notification in 2015 which has set December 31, 2017, as the revised deadline to achieve 100% utilisation. Out of the approximately 55.7% fly ash utilised, bulk of it (42.3%) goes into cement production whereas only about 0.74% is used as an additive in concrete (See Table 5 ). Researchers in India are actively addressing this challenge by working on fly ash as an admixture for concrete and activated pozzolanic cement such as geopolymer to help achieve the target of 100% utilisation. The biggest scope clearly lies in the area of increasing the quantity of fly ash being incorporated in concrete. India produced 280 Million Tonnes of Cement in 2016 . With housing sector consuming 67% of the cement, there is a huge scope for incorporating fly ash in both the increasing share of PPC and low to moderate strength concrete. There is a misconception that the Indian codes IS 456:2000 for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete and IS 3812.1:2013 for Fly Ash restrict the use of Fly Ash to less than 35%. Similar misconceptions exists in countries like US but evidence to the contrary is the use of HVFA in many large projects where design mixes have been used under strict quality control. It is suggested that in order to make the most of the research results presented in the paper, Ultra High Volume Fly ash Concrete (UHVFA) concrete is urgently developed for widespread use in India using local fly ash. Urgent steps are also required to promote alkali activated pozzolan or geopolymer cement based concretes.

1143: 1082:), depending on the design requirements of the project in question. Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and filler material, and can contain mineral admixtures. Fly ash can replace either the Portland cement or fine aggregate (in most cases, river sand) as a filler material. High fly ash content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small percentage of Portland cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of fly ash, Portland cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C fly ash is almost always used in low fly ash content mixes. 113: 1689: 1645:, or discharge from a coal ash pond. Fish can be contaminated a couple of different ways. When the water is contaminated by fly ash, the fish can absorb the toxins through their gills. The sediment in the water can also become contaminated. The contaminated sediment can contaminate the food sources for the fish, the fish can then become contaminated from consuming those food sources. This can then lead to contamination of organisms that consume these fish, such as, birds, bear, and even humans. Once exposed to fly ash contaminating the water, aquatic organisms have had increased levels of 1394:. Federal design standards for ash ponds were strengthened in 2015. Following litigation challenges to various provisions of the 2015 regulations, EPA issued two final rules in 2020, labeled as the "CCR Part A" and "CCR Part B" rules. The rules require some facilities to retrofit their impoundments with liners, while other facilities may propose alternative designs and request additional time to achieve compliance. In March 2023 published a proposed rule that would strengthen wastewater limits for discharges to surface waters. 1553:; arsenic has been found to cause several types of cancer. At 10 of the sites, lithium, which causes neurological disease, was found in the groundwater at concentrations more than 1,000 micrograms per liter, which is 25 times the maximum acceptable level. The report concludes that the fossil fuel industry in Texas has failed to comply with federal regulations on coal ash processing, and state regulators have failed to protect the groundwater. 1509:, into groundwater, rivers and lakes. The hazardous toxic chemicals dumped into the water in Illinois by these coal ash dumpsites include more than 300,000 pounds of aluminum, 600 pounds of arsenic, nearly 300,000 pounds of boron, over 200 pounds of cadmium, over 15,000 pounds of manganese, roughly 1,500 pounds of selenium, roughly 500,000 pounds of nitrogen, and nearly 40 million pounds of sulfate, according to a report by the 1328: 5792: 1657:

communities in contaminated soil have shown reductions in respiration and nitrification. These contaminated soils can be detrimental or beneficial to plant development. Fly ash typically has beneficial outcomes when it corrects nutrient deficiencies in the soil. Most detrimental effects were observed when boron phytotoxicity was observed. Plants absorb elements elevated by the fly ash from the soil. Arsenic,

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In response to the court remand, EPA published its "CCR Part A" final rule on August 28, 2020, requiring all unlined ash ponds to retrofit with liners or close by April 11, 2021. Some facilities may apply to obtain additional time—up to 2028—to find alternatives for managing ash wastes before closing

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per ton of fly ash. Since the worldwide production of Portland cement is expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by fly ash could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with construction, as long as the comparison takes the production

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Fly ash can significantly improve the workability of concrete. Recently, techniques have been developed to replace partial cement with high-volume fly ash (50% cement replacement). For roller-compacted concrete (RCC), replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the Ghatghar

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Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is particularly suitable but not limited to Class C fly ashes. Class "F" fly ashes can have volatile effects on the entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to freeze/thaw damage. Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass

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About 52 percent of CCPs in the U.S. were recycled for "beneficial uses" in 2019, according to the American Coal Ash Association. In Australia about 47% of coal ash was recycled in 2020. The chief benefit of recycling is to stabilize the environmentally harmful components of the CCPs such as arsenic,

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and dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted laws in heavily industrialized countries like the United States that have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than 65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is

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Class "C": Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash hardens and gets stronger over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20%

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content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the US, LOI must be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash tends to fluctuate constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in

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rule that reverses some provisions of its 2015 regulation, which had tightened requirements on toxic metals in wastewater discharged from ash ponds and other power plant wastestreams. The 2020 rule has also been challenged in litigation. In March 2023 EPA published a proposed rule that would reverse

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defined coal ash as a "special waste" that would not be regulated under the stringent hazardous waste permitting requirements of RCRA. In its amendments to RCRA, Congress directed EPA to study the special waste issue and make a determination as to whether stricter permit regulation was necessary. In

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Ash that is stored or deposited outdoors can eventually leach toxic compounds into underground water aquifers. For this reason, much of the current debate around fly ash disposal revolves around creating specially lined landfills that prevent the chemical compounds from being leached into the ground

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Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this may not be necessary. Fly ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in the United States. Seventy-five percent of

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or as clinker for Portland cement production. Cements blended with fly ash are becoming more common. Building material applications range from grouts and masonry products to cellular concrete and roofing tiles. Many asphaltic concrete pavements contain fly ash. Geotechnical applications include soil

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first published a gazette notification in 1999 specifying use of fly ash and mandating a target date for all thermal power plants to comply by ensuring 100% utilisation. Subsequent amendments in 2003 and 2009 shifted the deadline for compliance to 2014. As reported by Central Electricity Authority,

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In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with good insulation properties and

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C 216 for conventional clay brick. It is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by up to

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Fly ash particles have proved their potential as good reinforcement with aluminum alloys and show the improvement of physical and mechanical properties. In particular, the compression strength, tensile strength, and hardness increase when the percentage of fly ash content is increased, whereas the

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Since coal was the dominant energy source in the United States for many decades, power companies often located their coal plants near metropolitan areas. Compounding the environmental issues, the coal plants need significant amounts of water to operate their boilers, leading coal plants (and later

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This approach has the principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of Paris, fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required, this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing

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around 252 million years ago, large amounts of char very similar to modern fly ash were released into the oceans, which is preserved in the geologic record in marine deposits located in the Canadian High Arctic. It has been hypothesised that the fly ash could have resulted in toxic environmental

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is a composite material consisting of an asphalt binder and mineral aggregate commonly used to surface roads. Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in asphalt concrete mixes. This

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their surface impoundments. EPA published its "CCR Part B" rule on November 12, 2020, which allows certain facilities to use an alternative liner, based on a demonstration that human health and the environment will not be affected. Further litigation on the CCR regulation is pending as of 2021.

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Soils contaminated by fly ash showed an increase in bulk density and water capacity, but a decrease in hydraulic conductivity and cohesiveness. The effect of fly ash on soils and microorganisms in the soils are influenced by the pH of the ash and trace metal concentrations in the ash. Microbial

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streams. FGD comprises 24 percent of all coal combustion waste. Residues vary, but the most common are FGD gypsum (or "synthetic" gypsum) and spray dryer absorbents. FGD gypsum is used in almost thirty percent of the gypsum panel products manufactured in the U.S. It is also used in agricultural

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Studies by the USGS and others of radioactive elements in coal ash have concluded that fly ash compares with common soils or rocks and should not be the source of alarm. However, community and environmental organizations have documented numerous environmental contamination and damage concerns.

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Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support

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methods like mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used as a filler to replace sand in concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially important is the ongoing quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control seals like the

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can be used as a raw feed for manufacturing portland cement clinker, as well as for skid control on icy roads. The two materials comprise 12 and 4 percent of coal combustion waste respectively. These materials are also suitable for geotechnical applications such as structural fills and land

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their fly ash storage basins) to be located near metropolitan areas and near rivers and lakes which are often used as drinking supplies by nearby cities. Many of those fly ash basins were unlined and also at great risk of spilling and flooding from nearby rivers and lakes. For example,

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Material Safety Data Sheets recommend a number of safety precautions be taken when handling or working with fly ash. These include wearing protective goggles, respirators and disposable clothing and avoiding agitating the fly ash in order to minimize the amount which becomes airborne.

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The regulation was designed to prevent pond failures and protect groundwater. Enhanced inspection, record keeping and monitoring is required. Procedures for closure are also included and include capping, liners, and dewatering. The CCR regulation has since been subject to litigation.

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There is no US governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the different sectors of the economy – industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash utilization survey data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the American Coal Ash Association.

674:(CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as 1988:

EPA published a proposed rule on August 14, 2019, that would use location-based criteria, rather than a numerical threshold (i.e. impoundment or landfill size) that would require an operator to demonstrate minimal environmental impact so that a site could remain in operation.

628:(ASTM) C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., 1980:

Following the 2008 Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, EPA began developing regulations that would apply to all ash ponds nationwide. EPA published the CCR rule in 2015. Some of the provisions in the 2015 CCR regulation were challenged in litigation, and the

1880:. Approximately 10% of the mass of coals burned in the United States consists of unburnable mineral material that becomes ash, so the concentration of most trace elements in coal ash is approximately 10 times the concentration in the original coal. A 1997 analysis by the 1162:

dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing thicker placements to occur. Data for these can be found at the US Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been demonstrated in the

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The use of fly ash as a lightweight aggregate (LWA) offers a valuable opportunity to recycle one of the largest waste streams in the US. In addition, fly ash can offer many benefits, both economically and environmentally when utilized as a LWA.

1549:(EIP). Unsafe levels of arsenic, cobalt, lithium, and other contaminants were found in the groundwater near all the ash dump sites. At 12 of the 16 sites, the EIP analysis found levels of arsenic in the groundwater 10 times higher than the EPA 1203:, since the 1970s. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand. 1179:

There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing a wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about

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reclamation. The physical characteristics of bottom ash and boiler slag lend themselves as replacements for aggregate in flowable fill and in concrete masonry products. Boiler slag is also used for roofing granules and as blasting grit.

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dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can increase workability of cement while reducing water demand. Proponents of fly ash claim that replacing Portland cement with fly ash reduces the

67:), electrostatic precipitators and other air pollution control devices. It comprises 60 percent of all coal combustion waste (labeled here as coal combustion products). It is most commonly used as a high-performance substitute for 1569:

in the waste product. This is due to the different chemical make-up of the coal based on the geology of the area the coal is found and the burning process of the coal in the power plant. When the coal is combusted, it creates an

1074:(also called controlled low strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-leveling, self-compact backfill material in lieu of compacted earth or granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 50 to 1,200 4426:

EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities; Enhancing Public Access to Information; Reconsideration of Beneficial Use Criteria and Piles; Proposed Rule."

1098:. The hydrophobic nature of fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability. 953:, doors, window frames, scaffolding, sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving stones, shower stalls, garage doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet blocks, molding, mail boxes, 1291:

In addition, fly ash, mainly class C, may be used in the stabilization/solidification process of hazardous wastes and contaminated soils. For example, the Rhenipal process uses fly ash as an admixture to stabilize

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application is used in conjunction, or as a replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must meet mineral filler specifications outlined in

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Prior to the creation of the reserve the land was part of the neighbouring coal-fired Uskmouth Power Station and was an ash-covered wasteland. In 2008, the reserve was designated as a National Nature Reserve.

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Goyal, A., & Karade, S. R. (2020). Steel Corrosion and Control in Concrete Made with Seawater. Innovations in Corrosion and Materials Science (Formerly Recent Patents on Corrosion Science), 10(1), 58–67.

2387: 1442:), many of which are highly toxic to humans and other life. Therefore, fly ash obtained after combustion of this coal contains enhanced concentrations of these elements and the potential of the ash to cause 1389:

from unlined ash ponds has been a continuing environmental problem in the United States. Additionally some of these ponds have had structural failures, causing massive ash spills into rivers, such as the

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Walker, T.R. (2005) Comparison of anthropogenic metal deposition rates with excess soil loading from coal, oil and gas industries in the Usa Basin, NW Russia. Polish Polar Research. 26(4): 299–314.

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of Portland cement, but can be used in higher dosages in certain applications. In some cases, fly ash can add to the concrete's final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability.

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Mehta A, and Siddique R., Properties of low-calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete incorporating OPC as partial replacement of fly ash. Construction and Building Materials 150 (2017) 792–807.

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EPA (2020-11-12). "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of CCR; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part B: Alternate Demonstration for Unlined Surface Impoundments." Final rule. 85

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Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi. Report on fly ash generation at coal/lignite based thermal power stations and its utilization in the country for the year 2014-15, Annex II. Oct 2015.

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has many coal ash dumpsites with coal ash generated by coal-burning electric power plants. Of the state's 24 coal ash dumpsites with available data, 22 have released toxic pollutants including

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EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part A: Deadline To Initiate Closure." 85

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EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part A: Deadline To Initiate Closure." 85

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and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered are a glass phase, together with

4161: 616:, but is generally included in the range 0.01–1 ppm for bituminous coal. The concentrations of other trace elements vary as well according to the kind of coal combusted to form it. 3324:

EPA, 2009. Technology performance review: selecting and using solidification/stabilization treatment for site remediation. NRMRL, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH

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Helle, Sonia; Gordon, Alfredo; Alfaro, Guillermo; García, Ximena; Ulloa, Claudia (2003). "Coal blend combustion: link between unburnt carbon in fly ashes and maceral composition".

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Walker, T.R., Young, S.D., Crittenden, P.D., Zhang, H. (2003) Anthropogenic metal enrichment of snow and soil in Northeastern European Russia. Environmental Pollution. 121: 11–21.

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is significant. In the US there are documented cases of groundwater pollution that followed ash disposal or utilization without the necessary protection having been put in place.

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Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils typically used for embankment construction, fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient and it consists of

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along with toxic chemicals represent exposure risks to human health and the environment. Fly ash contains crystalline silica which is known to cause lung disease, in particular

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to 300 μm. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that few minerals have time to crystallize, and that mainly amorphous, quenched glass remains. Nevertheless, some

3621: 5083: 5051: 4337: 2010: 977:. The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic ingredient was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study of its use was in 1937. Roman structures such as 1338: 5730: 1755:

from a closed North Carolina coal-fired power plant that is owned by Duke Energy. It is currently the third worst coal ash spill ever to happen in the United States.

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Lingen Zhang (2021). "Arsenic Removal and Recovery of Germanium and Tungsten in Toxic Coal Fly Ash from Lignite by Vacuum Distillation with a Sulfurizing Reagent".

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Rohatgi, P.K.; Gupta, N.; Alaraj, Simon (2006-07-01). "Thermal Expansion of Aluminum–Fly Ash Cenosphere Composites Synthesized by Pressure Infiltration Technique".

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Background on and Implementation of the Bevill and Bentsen Exclusions in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: EPA Authorities to Regulate "Special Wastes"

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were the only elements found at potentially toxic levels for grazing animals. Terrestrial organisms exposed to fly ash only showed increased levels of selenium.

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issued a fine of $ 1 million to Constellation. Nearby residents filed a lawsuit against Constellation and in 2008 the company settled the case for $ 54 million.

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Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of

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EPA (2023-03-29). "Supplemental Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." Proposed rule. 88

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or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, it is known as

2411: 2147:"Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines", Committee on Mine Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes, National Research Council of the National Academies, 2006 1537:

spilled 1.1 billion gallons of coal ash into the Emory and Clinch Rivers and damaged nearby residential areas. It is the largest industrial spill in the U.S.

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EPA (2023-03-29). "Supplemental Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." Proposed rule.

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Scott, Allan N. .; Thomas, Michael D. A. (January–February 2007). "Evaluation of Fly Ash From Co-Combustion of Coal and Petroleum Coke for Use in Concrete".

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processes use a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique, which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits.

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Usmani, Zeba; Kumar, Vipin (17 May 2017). "Characterization, partitioning, and potential ecological risk quantification of trace elements in coal fly ash".

776: t) were reused in various applications. Environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin materials that would need 2589: 3680: 3211: 90:

applications to treat undesirable soil conditions and to improve crop performance. Other FGD materials are used in mining and land reclamation activities.

3734: 2912:"Physical–mechanical properties and morphology of filled low-density polypropylene: Comparative study on calcium carbonate with oil shale and coal ashes" 625: 1142: 793:

beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with

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facility to produce electricity, the ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than coal ash. In that case the ash produced is often classified as

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2000, EPA stated that coal fly ash did not need to be regulated as a hazardous waste. As a result, most power plants were not required to install

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Murata, Natsuki; Feest, Alan (15 June 2015). "A case study of evidence for showing 'no net loss' of bird biodiversity in a development project".

1956:, giving fly ash a pH somewhere between 10 and 12, a medium to strong base. This can also cause lung damage if present in sufficient quantities. 1545:

Groundwater surrounding every single one of the 16 coal-burning power plants in Texas has been polluted by coal ash, according to a study by the

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in their concrete. As pozzolan greatly improves the strength and durability of concrete, the use of ash is a key factor in their preservation.

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Made on old fly-ash lagoons from the nearby coal fired power stations 20 years ago with the aim to provide habitat for bitterns to breed in.

2745: 1766:(CCR) regulation in 2015. The agency continued to classify coal ash as non-hazardous (thereby avoiding strict permitting requirements under 5293: 3651: 3072:

Manimaran, R.; Jayakumar, I.; Giyahudeen, R. Mohammad; Narayanan, L. (2018-04-19). "Mechanical properties of fly ash composites—A review".

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and other substances that are known to be detrimental to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace elements in coal include

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Fly ash, in view of its alkalinity and water absorption capacity, may be used in combination with other alkaline materials to transform

316:. In the United States, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, often used as a 4363: 3904:

El-Mogazi, Dina (1988). "A Review of Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Fly Ash and Effects on Agricultural Ecosystems".

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Fly ash can leach toxic constituents that can be anywhere from one hundred to one thousand times greater than the federal standard for

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has been involved in several major lawsuits related to its coal ash storage and spills into the leakage of ash into the water basin.

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The National Academy of Sciences noted in 2007 that "the presence of high contaminant levels in many CCR (coal combustion residue)

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The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in

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phases in the pulverized coal do not melt (entirely), and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material.

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Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock feed yards, and agricultural stakes

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ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack.

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Class "F": The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is

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or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally

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but may include one or more of the following elements or compounds found in trace concentrations (up to hundreds of ppm):

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EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities." 80

3338: 2951:"Recent Advances in Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymers: Potential on the Utilization for Sustainable Environmental Remediation" 2578:(Report). Docklands, Victoria: Australia Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. 2020-11-04. p. 36. 1075: 828: 5493: 4678:

Evaluation of Dust Exposures at Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Union Bridge, MD, a NIOSH Report, HETA 2000-0309-2857

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generated with fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e., the burning of coal, produces approximately 20 to 30 tons of CO

1736:. Cleanup costs may exceed $ 1.2 billion. This spill was followed a few weeks later by a smaller TVA-plant spill in 5679: 5203: 5098: 4516: 4403: 2408: 2078: 1921: 1781:

Existing ash ponds and landfills must comply with structural and location restrictions, where applicable, or close.

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Existing ash ponds that are contaminating groundwater must stop receiving CCR, and close or retrofit with a liner.

5715: 5576: 5516: 5331: 5246: 4896: 2364:"ASTM C618 – 08 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete" 1763: 1550: 1483: 1159: 1033:

particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of fly ash in embankments include grain size distribution,

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In the case that fly (or bottom) ash is not produced from coal, for example when solid waste is incinerated in a

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DIRK group (1996). "Pulverised fuel ash products solve the sewage sludge problems of the wastewater industry".

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Lankapati, Henilkumar M.; Lathiya, Dharmesh R.; Choudhary, Lalita; Dalai, Ajay K.; Maheria, Kalpana C. (2020).

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increasing the pH and affecting the plants and animals in the surrounding ecosystem. Trace elements, such as,

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containing up to 50% Class C fly ash. Testing shows bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed in

3453:"Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category" 2510: 5488: 5128: 3599: 3580: 3193: 1938: 1669: 1534: 1034: 1005:"footprint" of concrete, as the production of one ton of Portland cement generates approximately one ton of 753: 172: 152: 85:

are produced by chemical "scrubber" emission control systems that remove sulfur and oxides from power plant

5273: 5586: 5463: 5387: 5278: 5103: 4911: 4591: 2157: 1486:, were told that "coal ash pits near their homes could be leaching dangerous materials into groundwater". 2632: 1574:

dust. This alkaline dust can have a pH ranging from 8 to as high as 12. Fly ash dust can be deposited on

5669: 5412: 4958: 4856: 2531: 1725: 1530: 1443: 1386: 1189: 871: 167:. Ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler's combustion chamber (commonly called a firebox) is called 4734:

A web site providing further information on technologies and trade related to coal combustion products.

4142: 2473: 1642: 4379: 4248:

EPA (2000-05-22). "Notice of Regulatory Determination on Wastes From the Combustion of Fossil Fuels."

2491: 5705: 5606: 5601: 5561: 5473: 5336: 4963: 4938: 4641: 4554:"Environmental Groups File Lawsuits Against Trump Administration for Toxic Water Pollution Rollbacks" 3947: 3913: 3368: 3151: 2310: 2223: 1673: 1459: 1107: 1046: 756:. As of 2017, coal-fired power plants in the US reported producing 38.2 million short tons (34.7 711:

90%. Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial quantities before the end of 2009.

686:

lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and

4517:"Trump administration rolls back Obama-era rule aimed at limiting toxic wastewater from coal plants" 2768: 2001:

some aspects of the 2020 rule and impose more stringent wastewater limitations for some facilities.

1720:

In December 2008, the collapse of an embankment at an impoundment for wet storage of fly ash at the

1154:

was constructed of roller-compacted concrete that included fly ash from one of Ameren's coal plants.

5684: 5652: 5571: 5341: 5283: 5149:

Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.

5041: 4901: 4801: 4346: 2083: 1997: 1699: 1562: 1467: 1297: 1233: 1126:, where the reactivity of the fly ash glasses can be used to create a binder similar to a hydrated 950: 819: 702:) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes. At least one US manufacturer has announced a 309: 258: 312:, but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting 5657: 5566: 5483: 5113: 5056: 5026: 5016: 4973: 4752: 3787: 3307: 3253: 3175: 3124: 3089: 2931: 2749: 1638: 1111: 878: 612: 4677: 3659: 1747:

In 2014, 39,000 tons of ash and 27 million gallons (100,000 cubic meters) of contaminated water

3561: 3414:"Case Summary: Duke Energy Agrees to $ 3 Million Cleanup for Coal Ash Release in the Dan River" 41:(CCRs), are categorized in four groups, each based on physical and chemical forms derived from 5795: 5751: 5551: 5546: 5521: 5503: 5417: 5397: 5233: 5218: 5118: 5046: 4993: 4846: 4657: 4022: 3929: 3864: 3836: 3779: 3299: 3167: 2980: 2607: 2455: 2239: 1953: 1845: 1619: 1439: 1301: 1221: 606: 574: 274: 4682: 2590:

Coal Combustion Residual Beneficial Use Evaluation: Fly Ash Concrete and FGD Gypsum Wallboard

2131: 1296:

and other toxic sludges. This process has been used since 1996 to stabilize large amounts of

5647: 5556: 5422: 5382: 5261: 5223: 5108: 4861: 4649: 4567: 4538: 4466: 4432: 4360: 4297: 4253: 4215:"Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance" 4124:"Duke Energy Corporation agrees to $ 6 million fine for coal ash spill, North Carolina says" 4014: 3921: 3826: 3818: 3771: 3617: 3526: 3507: 3488: 3436: 3376: 3291: 3245: 3159: 3116: 3081: 2970: 2962: 2923: 2798: 2445: 2318: 2231: 2190: 2182: 1677: 1269: 1090: 922: 853: 847: 468: 321: 73: 4270: 5591: 5442: 5346: 5256: 4806: 4630:"Catastrophic dispersion of coal fly ash into oceans during the latest Permian extinction" 4598: 4367: 4341: 2863: 2662: 2415: 2391: 1741: 1127: 1042: 970: 954: 942: 781: 675: 633: 602: 383: 361: 340: 336: 325: 203: 195: 187: 68: 4618:

Obla, K H. Specifying Fly Ash for Use in Concrete. Concrete in Focus (Spring 2008) 60–66.

4359:

Citizens Coal Council, Hoosier Environmental Council, Clean Air Task Force (March 2000),

2432:

Chen, Yi; Fan, Yingjie; Huang, Yu; Liao, Xiaoling; Xu, Wenfeng; Zhang, Tao (2024-01-01).

4645: 3917: 3372: 3155: 3019: 2911: 2556:"Fly Ash Use in Concrete Increases Slightly As Overall Coal Ash Recycling Rate Declines" 2314: 2227: 76:. Fly ash also serves as filler in wood and plastic products, paints and metal castings. 51: 5821: 5664: 5596: 5437: 5356: 5326: 5321: 5213: 4988: 4916: 4891: 4570: 4541: 4469: 4435: 4256: 4214: 3831: 3806: 3529: 3510: 3491: 3439: 3231:"Pyrolysis of low-density polyethylene using synthetic catalysts produced from fly ash" 2975: 2836: 2027: 1930: 1796: 1634: 1626: 1196:. They are naturally more thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates. 1038: 1006: 1002: 982: 978: 938: 746: 671: 403: 140: 64: 3380: 2434:"A comprehensive review of toxicity of coal fly ash and its leachate in the ecosystem" 2211: 2186: 1732:

of 5.4 million cubic yards of coal fly ash, damaging three homes and flowing into the

1705:

Where fly ash is stored in bulk, it is usually stored wet rather than dry to minimize

5810: 5637: 5536: 5526: 5432: 4745: 3925: 3311: 3229:

Na, Jeong-Geol; Jeong, Byung-Hwan; Chung, Soo Hyun; Kim, Seong-Soo (September 2006).

3179: 3128: 3093: 2998: 2935: 2669: 2235: 1900: 1706: 1293: 1253: 1071: 1050: 958: 946: 838: 703: 654: 554: 486:

Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by

451: 368: 313: 215: 199: 3257: 2301:

Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. (2012). "Supplementary cementitious materials".

1641:

landing on the water surface, contaminated ground water moving into surface waters,

1622:, can be found at higher concentrations compared to bottom ash and the parent coal. 653:

an optimal way to replace cement in concrete production, it must be processed using

5674: 5541: 5427: 5402: 5133: 3791: 2530:(Report). Farmington Hills, MI: American Coal Ash Association. 2018. Archived from 1813: 1713:) are typically large and stable for long periods, but any breach of their dams or 1514: 1277: 1164: 926: 902: 546: 156: 4483:"Revisions to the Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) Closure Regulations; Fact sheet" 3085: 2719: 4361:"Laid to Waste: The Dirty Secret of Combustion Waste from America's Power Plants" 2450: 601:

and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to those found in

5642: 5361: 5298: 5066: 5061: 5003: 4953: 4928: 3706:"Neglected threat: Kingston's toxic ash spill shows the other dark side of coal" 3681:"New Report Reveals Severe Groundwater Contamination at Illinois Coal Ash Dumps" 2088: 1905: 1792: 1784:

A pond no longer receiving CCR is still subject to all regulations unless it is

1733: 1518: 1193: 1123: 914: 864: 742: 3807:"Technogenic Magnetic Particles in Alkaline Dusts from Power and Cement Plants" 3735:"Records Show 100 Percent of Texas Coal Power Plants Contaminating Groundwater" 2433: 1470:, during 1996 to 2007. The ash contaminated groundwater with heavy metals. The 5746: 5531: 5511: 5303: 4826: 4811: 4581:

Report of the Committee National Green Tribunal (NGT), New Delhi, 2015. 42 pp.

3822: 3775: 3249: 2277: 2067: 2061: 1942: 1849: 1785: 1658: 1566: 1435: 1217: 1079: 918: 898: 679: 629: 598: 499: 427: 278: 168: 94: 45: 4661: 4026: 3805:

Magiera, Tadeusz; Gołuchowska, Beata; Jabłońska, Mariola (27 November 2012).

3303: 3120: 2966: 2880:

Hennis, K. W.; Frishette, C. W. (1993). "A New Era in Control Density Fill".

2459: 2243: 1130:

in appearance, but with potentially superior properties, including reduced CO

5777: 5138: 5123: 5071: 5021: 5011: 3163: 2606:(Report). Washington, DC: National Research Council (United States). 2006. 1964: 1934: 1889: 1821: 1583: 1411: 1285: 1281: 1237: 1095: 986: 910: 894: 594: 590: 558: 550: 542: 538: 286: 270: 242: 4301: 3840: 3783: 3295: 3171: 3043: 2984: 2950: 1985:

remanded certain portions of the regulation to EPA for further rulemaking.

720:

In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in

4699:

United States Geological Survey – Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash

4629: 4288:

Kessler, K. A. (1981). "Wet Disposal of Fossil Plant Waste Case History".

4031:

The analysis showed the compensation habitat was better than the original.

3933: 2322: 1188:

In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make

5761: 5756: 5392: 5351: 5313: 5195: 5187: 5088: 5036: 4943: 4921: 4886: 4866: 4841: 4816: 4045:"TVA to auction 62 parcels in Kingston after ash spill cleanup completed" 2116:. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2019-05-07. 2093: 1873: 1861: 1833: 1752: 1710: 1662: 1603: 1571: 1494: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1382: 1305: 1273: 1241: 1200: 990: 974: 969:

Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for

930: 812: 808:

Coal ash uses include (approximately in order of decreasing importance):

730: 726: 721: 667: 645: 534: 329: 317: 294: 290: 282: 254: 230: 164: 86: 4705:

Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility: Coal Combustion Waste

4231: 2195: 1381:

The majority of CCPs are landfilled, placed in mine shafts or stored in

17: 5720: 5288: 4948: 4796: 4592:

https://www.cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/tcd/flyash_final_1516.pdf

2156:"Human and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coal Combustion Wastes", RTI, 1885: 1869: 1865: 1825: 1817: 1737: 1714: 1650: 1646: 1630: 1615: 1611: 1575: 1506: 1498: 1419: 1403: 1257: 825:

Fly-ash pellets which can replace normal aggregate in concrete mixture.

687: 637: 586: 582: 566: 562: 530: 375: 250: 238: 234: 219: 4018: 3568:. Vol. 87, no. 8. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. 2927: 5447: 5407: 5241: 4933: 4851: 4728:

A web site providing further information on the applications for PFA.

4653: 4628:

Grasby, Stephen E.; Sanei, Hamed; Beauchamp, Benoit (February 2011).

4533:

EPA (2020-10-13). "Steam Electric Reconsideration Rule." Final rule.

2056: 1926: 1857: 1853: 1837: 1829: 1607: 1599: 1591: 1502: 1407: 1147: 906: 794: 777: 649: 578: 570: 526: 491: 262: 160: 2802: 1983:

United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit

1053:. Nearly all the types of fly ash used in embankments are Class F. 5366: 5268: 4786: 4335:"Above ground golf course, Just beneath if potential health risks" 2014: 1893: 1415: 1168: 1141: 834: 495: 324:

or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or partial replacement for

246: 50: 3197: 2686: 937:, house siding and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled 5031: 4983: 4871: 4791: 4768: 3652:"Riverkeeper: Coal ash from Buck steam plant poses toxic threat" 3212:"From ash to eco-friendly solution for hazardous metals removal" 2882:

Proceedings of the Tenth International Ash Utilization Symposium

1877: 1841: 1595: 1587: 1579: 1030: 859: 766: t) of fly ash, of which 24.1 million short tons (21.9 707: 266: 42: 5160: 4741: 2525:

2017 Coal Combustion Product Production & Use Survey Report

2351:

Fly ash contains approximately one part per million of mercury.

1561:

The effect of fly ash on the environment can vary based on the

815:

production, as a substitute material for Portland cement, sand.

4978: 4731: 4683:

Determination of Airborne Crystalline Silica Treatise by NIOSH

4103:

Chakravorty, Shubhankar; Gopinath, Swetha (18 February 2015).

1565:

where it is produced, as well as the proportion of fly ash to

1321: 4317:"Chesapeake takes steps toward Superfund designation of site" 2113: 120:

and back-scatter detector: cross section of fly ash particles

4449:"EPA Letting Some Hazardous Coal Ash Ponds Stay Open Longer" 1106:

Coal and shale oil fly ashes have been used as a filler for

5156: 4712: : A site promoting the many uses of fly ash in the UK 4380:"Substances Listed in the Thirteenth Report on Carcinogens" 4160:

Lessard, Paul C.; Vannasing, Davis; Darby, William (2016).

2816:

Halstead, W. (October 1986). "Use of Fly Ash in Concrete".

889:

Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control

229:

The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon the specific

72:

stabilization, road base, structural fill, embankments and

4725: 4709: 4692: 4105:"Duke Energy Close To Settling With Government Over Spill" 3471:"D.C. Circuit Court Remands CCR Deadline Extension to EPA" 2629:"Coal Combustion Products Production & Use Statistics" 2394:". Chusid, Michael; Miller, Steve; & Rapoport, Julie. 1653:, gold, cerium, chromium, selenium, cadmium, and mercury. 909:, utensils, tool handles, picture frames, auto bodies and 831:

and other structural fills (usually for road construction)

3865:"Coal Ash The toxic threat to our health and environment" 2712:"Mine Tailings and Fly Ash Beneficial Use Photo Showcase" 1482:

In 2014, residents living near the Buck Steam Station in

1070:

Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of

4687: 4404:"Headwaters Resources Class F Fly Ash Safety Data Sheet" 3600:"Constellation, Gambrills residents settle fly-ash suit" 3044:"FAQs – Fly Ash Bricks – Puzzolana Green Fly-Ash bricks" 2895:

Zimmer, F. V. (1970). "Fly Ash as a Bituminous Filler".

2561:. Denver, CO: American Coal Ash Association. 2020-12-15. 2511:"Spill spews tons of coal ash into North Carolina river" 2257: 350: 4737: 3543:"2 Tennessee Cases Bring Coal's Hidden Hazard to Light" 3396:"2 Tennessee Cases Bring Coal's Hidden Hazard to Light" 1680:, providing habitat for rare birds and other wildlife. 1346: 1122:

More recently, fly ash has been used as a component in

2409:

Coal by-product to be used to make bricks in Caledonia

1402:

Coal contains trace levels of trace elements (such as

308:

In the past, fly ash was generally released into the

5094:

Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

3622:"Dukeville concerns over coal ash: 5 things to know" 1941:

and US National Toxicology Program as a known human

1318:

Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

55:

Diagram of the disposition of coal combustion wastes

5770: 5739: 5693: 5630: 5502: 5456: 5375: 5312: 5232: 5194: 5084:

Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia

5002: 4834: 4775: 4296:(2). American Society of Civil Engineers: 199–208. 3469:Green, Douglas H.; Houlihan, Michael (2019-04-24). 3020:"What is Fly Ash? - Definition from Corrosionpedia" 2897:

Proceedings of the Second Ash Utilization Symposium

2763:Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility. 1199:Ash bricks have been used in house construction in 989:(which possesses similar properties to fly ash) as 2011:Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 1967:may create human health and ecological concerns". 1937:, if inhaled. Crystalline silica is listed by the 218:(CaO), the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing 4556:. New York, NY: Waterkeeper Alliance. 2020-11-02. 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3881: 2687:"Rotary celebrates naming of Paul Harris Fellows" 901:, kitchen counter tops, floor and ceiling tiles, 37:s), also called coal combustion wastes (CCWs) or 5731:International Federation for Structural Concrete 4167:. Loomis, CA: Tons Per Hour, Inc. Archived from 4075:"Tennessee: Gypsum pond leaks into Widows Creek" 3858: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3850: 2128:"Fly Ash & The Lightweight Aggregate Market" 1629:. Fly ash can contaminate surface water through 662:mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai Municipality. 4716:Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste 3335:"Toxic Sludge stabilisation for INAG, Portugal" 3238:Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 2592:(Report). EPA. February 2014. EPA 530-R-14-001. 1696:Fly Ash containment failure on 23 December 2008 874:substitute material (e.g. for brick production) 4515:Dennis, Brady; Eilperin, Juliet (2020-08-31). 3757: 3755: 3059:"List of important IS Codes related to bricks" 1337:deal primarily with US and do not represent a 850:production (as a substitute material for clay) 63:is captured after coal combustion by filters ( 5172: 4753: 2818:National Cooperative Highway Research Project 2162:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1908:or leachate collection systems in ash ponds. 1335:The examples and perspective in this section 1192:. They are widely used for the inner skin of 780:and cheap substitution for materials such as 8: 4498:"Groups challenge rollback of coal ash rule" 3954:. Living Levels Partnership. 25 January 2019 3764:Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2143: 2141: 2026:Due to the ignition of coal deposits by the 605:can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes. The 4315:McCabe, Robert; Mike Saewitz (2008-07-19). 3477:. Washington, DC: American Bar Association. 3431: 3429: 3427: 2838:The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete 1216:density decreases. The presence of fly ash 1158:Another application of using fly ash is in 961:, and filler in wood and plastic products. 957:, binding agent, paints and undercoatings, 5179: 5165: 5157: 4760: 4746: 4738: 3475:Environment, Energy, and Resources Section 2604:Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines 2492:"Duke Energy plant reports coal-ash spill" 1740:, which contaminated Widows Creek and the 1353:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 678:(water glass) to a Class F ash can form a 626:American Society for Testing and Materials 297:, along with very small concentrations of 3830: 2974: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2797:(1). American Concrete Institute: 62–70. 2449: 2210:Fang, Zheng; Gesser, H. D. (1996-06-01). 2194: 1812:Fly ash contains trace concentrations of 1369:Learn how and when to remove this message 1134:emissions, depending on the formulation. 3502: 3500: 2916:Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology 1687: 111: 4208: 4206: 3977:"Newport Wetlands Nature Reserve (NRW)" 3464: 3462: 2212:"Recovery of gallium from coal fly ash" 2105: 1791:New ponds and landfills must include a 1288:and utilized in waste water treatment. 886:Loose application on rivers to melt ice 347:Chemical composition and classification 3144:Environmental Science & Technology 2478:Duke Energy Coal Ash Spill in Eden, NC 2438:Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2303:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 2258:"ACAA – American Coal Ash Association" 1996:In October 2020 EPA published a final 1772:Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1517:, the Prairie Rivers Network, and the 1472:Maryland Department of the Environment 844:Waste stabilization and solidification 624:Two classes of fly ash are defined by 5052:mining disasters in the United States 4693:Fly Ash Info, the Ash Library Website 4213:US Geological Survey (October 1997). 4162:"Large-Scale Fly Ash Pond Dewatering" 2864:"Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers" 2765:"Coal Combustion Wastes in Our Lives" 2509:Shoichet, Catherine E. (2014-02-09). 1284:in a high-temperature process called 670:in nature, and contains less than 7% 7: 5294:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 3906:The Science of the Total Environment 3863:Gottlieb, Barbara (September 2010). 3080:(8). Taylor & Francis: 887–893. 2385:The Building Brick of Sustainability 1760:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1668:In the UK, fly ash lagoons from old 1466:at a former sand and gravel mine in 545:. Other phases often identified are 494:in shape and range in size from 0.5 305:, and other trace carbon compounds. 5711:Institution of Structural Engineers 4275:U.S. Congressional Research Service 4122:Broome, Gerry (25 September 2016). 3541:Schlossberg, Tatiana (2017-04-15). 3394:Schlossberg, Tatiana (2017-04-15). 2160:, August 6, 2007, prepared for the 1774:(RCRA), but with new restrictions: 175:, fly ash is generally captured by 5079:Environmental issues in Appalachia 4143:"EPA coal ash rule still not done" 4141:Martinson, Erica (24 March 2014). 4055:from the original on June 16, 2019 3560:Johnson, Jeffrey W. (2009-02-23). 1462:disposed fly ash generated by its 1220:in a pure Al matrix decreases its 648:of 45 μm or less, and have a 159:that are driven out of coal-fired 25: 2860:US Federal Highway Administration 2742:US Federal Highway Administration 2032:Permian–Triassic extinction event 1717:is rapid and on a massive scale. 1464:Brandon Shores Generating Station 1248:Waste treatment and stabilization 352:Fly ash composition by coal type 5791: 5790: 4825: 3811:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 3115:(13). Sage Journals: 1163–1174. 2949:Adewuyi, Yusuf G. (2021-06-22). 1326: 1272:, appears to function well as a 1222:coefficient of thermal expansion 799:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 4073:Koch, Jacqueline (2009-01-10). 3566:Chemical & Engineering News 3562:"The Foul Side Of 'Clean Coal'" 2627:American Coal Ash Association. 2474:"History and Response Timeline" 1948:Lime (CaO) reacts with water (H 1882:United States Geological Survey 1547:Environmental Integrity Project 1511:Environmental Integrity Project 1244:from fly ash and recycle them. 941:, utility poles and crossarms, 48:methods and emission controls: 5209:Roman architectural revolution 4290:Journal of the Energy Division 3581:"Coal Ash Dump in City Fought" 3109:Journal of Composite Materials 2663:"Coal ash will fight flooding" 1709:. The resulting impoundments ( 27:By-products of coal combustion 1: 4688:American Coal Ash Association 4043:Flessner, Dave (2015-05-29). 4007:Water and Environment Journal 3381:10.1016/S0956-053X(96)00060-8 3086:10.1080/15567036.2018.1463319 3001:. Portland Cement Association 2342:. perkinswill.com. 2011-11-17 2278:"Renelux Commodities Fly Ash" 2187:10.1016/S0378-3820(02)00245-X 2073:Energetically modified cement 1392:2014 Dan River coal ash spill 1152:Taum Sauk hydroelectric plant 985:in Rome used volcanic ash or 921:, roofing granules, decking, 4273:(Report). Washington, D.C.: 4269:Luther, Linda (2013-08-06). 4079:Chattanooga Times Free Press 4049:Chattanooga Times Free Press 3926:10.1016/0048-9697(88)90127-1 3712:. 2019-02-19. Archived from 3337:. DIRK group. Archived from 2451:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115905 2236:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00055-L 1385:at coal-fired power plants. 737:water and local ecosystems. 118:scanning electron microscope 116:Photomicrograph made with a 5726:Portland Cement Association 5701:American Concrete Institute 3650:Fisher, Hugh (2014-05-06). 3579:Wheeler, Tim (2009-09-07). 1349:, discuss the issue on the 1268:Fly ash, when treated with 1256:into organic fertilizer or 935:structural insulated panels 893:Other applications include 716:Disposal and market sources 488:electrostatic precipitators 314:pollution control equipment 177:electrostatic precipitators 5838: 5204:Ancient Roman architecture 5099:Health effects of coal ash 4907:power in the United States 4732:Asian Coal Ash Association 4726:UK Quality Ash Association 4710:UK Quality Ash Association 4496:Smoot, D.E. (2020-12-11). 2999:"Taum Sauk Reconstruction" 2573:National Waste Report 2020 2396:The Construction Specifier 2175:Fuel Processing Technology 2079:Health effects of coal ash 1922:Health effects of coal ash 1919: 1749:spilled into the Dan River 1722:Tennessee Valley Authority 1693:Tennessee Valley Authority 1315: 1280:into substance similar to 1232:It may be possible to use 1035:compaction characteristics 660:Bureau of Indian Standards 5786: 5716:Indian Concrete Institute 5147: 4823: 3823:10.1007/s11270-012-1389-9 3776:10.1007/s11356-017-9171-6 3598:Cho, Hanah (2008-11-01). 3494:. Final rule. 2020-08-28. 3250:10.1007/s10163-006-0156-7 2052:Alkali–aggregate reaction 1764:Coal Combustion Residuals 1670:coal-fired power stations 1551:Maximum Contaminant Level 1484:Dukeville, North Carolina 1398:Groundwater contamination 1160:roller compacted concrete 1138:Roller compacted concrete 1102:Filler for thermoplastics 356: 145:coal combustion residuals 39:coal combustion residuals 4969:Greenhouse gas emissions 4695:, University of Kentucky 3121:10.1177/0021998305057379 2967:10.1021/acsomega.1c00662 1676:nature reserves such as 1207:environmental benefits. 1190:concrete building blocks 644:the fly ash must have a 328:in concrete production. 155:that is composed of the 81:Flue-gas desulfurization 31:Coal combustion products 5129:Problems in coal mining 4220:. Fact Sheet FS-163-97. 3164:10.1021/acs.est.0c08784 3046:. Fly Ash Bricks Delhi. 2064:– a CCP, often recycled 1211:Metal matrix composites 1146:The upper reservoir of 1110:that could be used for 1021:of fly ash as a given. 754:sustainable development 173:coal-fired power plants 153:coal combustion product 5494:Alkali–silica reaction 5252:Energetically modified 5104:History of coal mining 4409:. Headwaters Resources 4302:10.1061/JDAEDZ.0000063 3948:"Newport Wetlands NNR" 3296:10.1002/slct.201903715 3194:"N-Viro International" 3061:. Fly Ash Bricks Info. 2158:Research Triangle Park 2046:Alkali–silica reaction 2022:In the geologic record 1795:liner over a layer of 1702: 1684:Spills of bulk storage 1155: 121: 56: 4959:Fossil fuel phase-out 4857:Black coal equivalent 4013:(3). Wiley: 419–429. 2791:ACI Materials Journal 2337:"Fly Ash in Concrete" 2323:10.2138/rmg.2012.74.6 1726:Kingston Fossil Plant 1691: 1531:Kingston Fossil Plant 1444:groundwater pollution 1387:Groundwater pollution 1316:Further information: 1312:Environmental impacts 1145: 913:, cellular concrete, 905:, flotation devices, 818:Corrosion control in 115: 54: 5479:Environmental impact 5337:Reversing drum mixer 4964:Great Smog of London 4897:pollution mitigation 3716:on February 20, 2021 2910:Krasnou, I. (2021). 2676:, February 17, 2010. 2366:. ASTM International 1788:and covered by 2018. 1460:Constellation Energy 1347:improve this section 1236:in order to extract 1051:frost susceptibility 533:and the iron oxides 231:coal bed composition 4882:fired power station 4877:combustion products 4802:Sub-bituminous coal 4779:(lowest to highest) 4776:Coal types by grade 4720:Scientific American 4646:2011NatGe...4..104G 4521:The Washington Post 4347:The Virginian-Pilot 4321:The Virginian-Pilot 4051:. Chattanooga, TN. 3983:. Llywodraeth Cymru 3918:1988ScTEn..74....1E 3770:(18): 15547–15566. 3373:1996WaMan..16...51D 3200:on August 23, 2010. 3156:2021EnST...55.4027Z 2961:(24): 15532–15542. 2418:". Burke, Michael. 2315:2012RvMG...74..211S 2228:1996HydMe..41..187F 2084:Pozzolanic reaction 1998:effluent guidelines 1700:Kingston, Tennessee 1563:thermal power plant 1468:Gambrills, Maryland 1234:vacuum distillation 1012:, compared to no CO 820:reinforced concrete 353: 259:hexavalent chromium 137:pulverised fuel ash 5582:Self-consolidating 5274:Water–cement ratio 5017:Black lung disease 4994:Toxic heavy metals 4974:Metallurgical coal 4722:(13 December 2007) 4597:2020-10-11 at the 4366:2008-01-15 at the 4340:2013-05-16 at the 4238:. EPA. 2018-11-29. 3547:The New York Times 3455:. EPA. 2018-11-30. 3420:. EPA. 2017-03-15. 3400:The New York Times 2716:Tons Per Hour, Inc 2674:Omaha World-Herald 2496:Charlotte Observer 2480:. EPA. 2017-03-14. 2414:2010-09-18 at the 2390:2009-06-28 at the 1927:Crystalline silica 1762:(EPA) published a 1703: 1639:airborne particles 1228:Mineral extraction 1156: 1057:Soil stabilization 879:asphaltic concrete 877:Mineral filler in 609:content can reach 589:-bearing minerals 351: 163:together with the 122: 57: 5804: 5803: 5796:Category:Concrete 5577:Roller-compacting 5398:Climbing formwork 5247:Calcium aluminate 5219:Roman engineering 5154: 5153: 4912:preparation plant 4847:Asian brown cloud 4780: 4634:Nature Geoscience 4535:Federal Register, 4485:. EPA. July 2020. 4429:Federal Register, 4250:Federal Register, 4019:10.1111/wej.12124 3604:The Baltimore Sun 3585:The Baltimore Sun 3523:Federal Register, 2928:10.1002/vnl.21869 2691:observertoday.com 2420:The Journal Times 1954:calcium hydroxide 1916:Exposure concerns 1643:flooding drainage 1379: 1378: 1371: 1201:Windhoek, Namibia 1112:injection molding 923:fireplace mantles 858:Stabilization of 484: 483: 16:(Redirected from 5829: 5794: 5793: 5706:Concrete Society 5517:Fiber-reinforced 5332:Volumetric mixer 5224:Roman technology 5181: 5174: 5167: 5158: 5109:Hydrogen sulfide 4829: 4778: 4762: 4755: 4748: 4739: 4666: 4665: 4654:10.1038/ngeo1069 4625: 4619: 4616: 4610: 4607: 4601: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4573: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4550: 4544: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4502:Muskogee Phoenix 4493: 4487: 4486: 4479: 4473: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4445: 4439: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4408: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4384: 4376: 4370: 4357: 4351: 4333:McCabe, Robert. 4331: 4325: 4324: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4266: 4260: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4232:"Special Wastes" 4228: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4210: 4201: 4198: 4192: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4180: 4179: 4173: 4166: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4090: 4081:. Archived from 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3990: 3988: 3973: 3967: 3966: 3961: 3959: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3901: 3876: 3875: 3869: 3860: 3845: 3844: 3834: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3759: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3721: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3692: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3667: 3658:. Archived from 3647: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3628:. Archived from 3618:Associated Press 3614: 3608: 3607: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3538: 3532: 3519: 3513: 3504: 3495: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3466: 3457: 3456: 3449: 3443: 3433: 3422: 3421: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3361:Waste Management 3356: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3346: 3331: 3325: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3290:(3): 1193–1198. 3275: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3235: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3196:. Archived from 3190: 3184: 3183: 3150:(6): 4027–4036. 3139: 3133: 3132: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3031: 3030: 3016: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3006: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2978: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2868: 2856: 2843: 2842: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2776: 2767:. Archived from 2760: 2754: 2753: 2748:. Archived from 2738: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2718:. Archived from 2707: 2701: 2700: 2698: 2697: 2683: 2677: 2661:Gaarder, Nancy. 2659: 2653: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2640: 2631:. Archived from 2624: 2618: 2617: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2577: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2552: 2546: 2545: 2543: 2542: 2536: 2529: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2470: 2464: 2463: 2453: 2429: 2423: 2405: 2399: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2372: 2371: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2341: 2333: 2327: 2326: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2288: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2264: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2170: 2164: 2154: 2148: 2145: 2136: 2135: 2130:. Archived from 2124: 2118: 2117: 2110: 1892:rock, and black 1678:Newport Wetlands 1374: 1367: 1363: 1360: 1354: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1270:sodium hydroxide 1183: 1091:Asphalt concrete 1086:Asphalt concrete 943:railway sleepers 854:Mine reclamation 822:(RC) structures 772: 771: 762: 761: 701: 700: 699: 615: 354: 322:hydraulic cement 74:mine reclamation 21: 5837: 5836: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5828: 5827: 5826: 5817:Coal technology 5807: 5806: 5805: 5800: 5782: 5766: 5735: 5689: 5626: 5498: 5452: 5371: 5347:Flow table test 5308: 5228: 5190: 5185: 5155: 5150: 5143: 4998: 4835:Coal combustion 4830: 4821: 4807:Bituminous coal 4777: 4771: 4766: 4674: 4669: 4627: 4626: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4608: 4604: 4599:Wayback Machine 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4565: 4561: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4532: 4528: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4504:. Muskogee, OK. 4495: 4494: 4490: 4481: 4480: 4476: 4464: 4460: 4447: 4446: 4442: 4425: 4421: 4412: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4388: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4377: 4373: 4368:Wayback Machine 4358: 4354: 4342:Wayback Machine 4332: 4328: 4314: 4313: 4309: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4247: 4243: 4236:Hazardous Waste 4230: 4229: 4225: 4217: 4212: 4211: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4140: 4139: 4135: 4121: 4120: 4116: 4102: 4101: 4097: 4088: 4086: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4056: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4004: 4003: 3999: 3986: 3984: 3975: 3974: 3970: 3957: 3955: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3903: 3902: 3879: 3867: 3862: 3861: 3848: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3761: 3760: 3753: 3744: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3719: 3717: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3690: 3688: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3665: 3663: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3635: 3633: 3626:The Denver Post 3616: 3615: 3611: 3597: 3596: 3592: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3540: 3539: 3535: 3520: 3516: 3505: 3498: 3486: 3482: 3468: 3467: 3460: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3434: 3425: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3344: 3342: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3284:ChemistrySelect 3277: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3233: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3192: 3191: 3187: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3071: 3070: 3066: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3028: 3026: 3018: 3017: 3013: 3004: 3002: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2909: 2908: 2904: 2894: 2893: 2889: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2866: 2858: 2857: 2846: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2774: 2772: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2725: 2723: 2722:on 5 March 2016 2710:Lessard, Paul. 2709: 2708: 2704: 2695: 2693: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2638: 2636: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2558: 2554: 2553: 2549: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2472: 2471: 2467: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2416:Wayback Machine 2406: 2402: 2392:Wayback Machine 2382: 2378: 2369: 2367: 2362: 2361: 2357: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2300: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2284: 2282:www.renelux.com 2276: 2275: 2271: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2255: 2251: 2216:Hydrometallurgy 2209: 2208: 2204: 2172: 2171: 2167: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2139: 2126: 2125: 2121: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2041: 2024: 2007: 1978: 1973: 1951: 1924: 1918: 1810: 1742:Tennessee River 1686: 1559: 1543: 1492: 1480: 1457: 1452: 1400: 1375: 1364: 1358: 1355: 1344: 1331: 1327: 1320: 1314: 1302:leather sludges 1276:for converting 1266: 1250: 1230: 1213: 1181: 1177: 1140: 1133: 1128:Portland cement 1120: 1104: 1088: 1068: 1059: 1043:compressibility 1027: 1019: 1015: 1010: 971:Portland cement 967: 965:Portland cement 955:artificial reef 790: 782:Portland cement 769: 767: 759: 757: 725:disposed of in 718: 698: 695: 694: 693: 691: 676:sodium silicate 622: 610: 603:Portland cement 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 435: 431: 411: 407: 387: 349: 341:hazardous waste 337:waste-to-energy 326:Portland cement 213: 209: 204:aluminium oxide 193: 188:silicon dioxide 110: 83:(FGD) materials 69:Portland cement 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5835: 5833: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5809: 5808: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5780: 5774: 5772: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5743: 5741: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5665:Concrete block 5662: 5661: 5660: 5655: 5653:voided biaxial 5650: 5645: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5508: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5379: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5357:Concrete cover 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5327:Concrete mixer 5324: 5318: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5238: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5214:Roman concrete 5211: 5206: 5200: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5184: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5161: 5152: 5151: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5114:Mining regions 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5042:homogenization 5039: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5008: 5006: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4989:Sulfur dioxide 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4902:power in China 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4838: 4836: 4832: 4831: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4783: 4781: 4773: 4772: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4757: 4750: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4713: 4707: 4702: 4696: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4673: 4672:External links 4670: 4668: 4667: 4640:(2): 104–107. 4620: 4611: 4602: 4583: 4574: 4559: 4545: 4526: 4507: 4488: 4474: 4458: 4440: 4419: 4395: 4371: 4352: 4326: 4307: 4280: 4261: 4241: 4223: 4202: 4193: 4184: 4152: 4133: 4114: 4095: 4065: 4035: 3997: 3968: 3939: 3877: 3846: 3797: 3751: 3726: 3697: 3672: 3656:Salisbury Post 3642: 3620:(2014-06-17). 3609: 3590: 3571: 3552: 3533: 3514: 3496: 3480: 3458: 3444: 3423: 3405: 3386: 3367:(1–3): 51–57. 3351: 3326: 3317: 3270: 3244:(2): 126–132. 3221: 3203: 3185: 3134: 3099: 3074:Energy Sources 3064: 3057:Real, Bricks. 3049: 3035: 3024:Corrosionpedia 3011: 2990: 2941: 2902: 2887: 2872: 2844: 2835:Moore, David. 2827: 2808: 2803:10.14359/18496 2781: 2755: 2752:on 2007-06-21. 2733: 2702: 2678: 2668:2012-09-08 at 2654: 2645: 2619: 2612: 2595: 2581: 2564: 2547: 2516: 2501: 2483: 2465: 2424: 2422:April 1, 2009. 2400: 2376: 2355: 2328: 2309:(1): 211–278. 2293: 2269: 2249: 2222:(2): 187–200. 2202: 2181:(3): 209–223. 2165: 2149: 2137: 2134:on 2018-11-05. 2119: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2070: 2065: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2028:Siberian Traps 2023: 2020: 2006: 2003: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1949: 1917: 1914: 1809: 1806: 1801: 1800: 1797:compacted soil 1789: 1782: 1779: 1685: 1682: 1635:surface runoff 1627:drinking water 1558: 1555: 1542: 1539: 1491: 1488: 1479: 1478:North Carolina 1476: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1399: 1396: 1377: 1376: 1341:of the subject 1339:worldwide view 1334: 1332: 1325: 1313: 1310: 1265: 1262: 1249: 1246: 1229: 1226: 1212: 1209: 1176: 1173: 1139: 1136: 1131: 1119: 1116: 1114:applications. 1108:thermoplastics 1103: 1100: 1087: 1084: 1067: 1064: 1058: 1055: 1039:shear strength 1026: 1023: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1003:greenhouse gas 966: 963: 959:metal castings 951:marine pilings 947:noise barriers 939:plastic lumber 891: 890: 887: 884: 881: 875: 868: 862: 856: 851: 848:Cement clinker 845: 842: 832: 826: 823: 816: 789: 786: 747:North Carolina 717: 714: 713: 712: 696: 683: 621: 620:Classification 618: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 482: 481: 478: 475: 472: 465: 464: 461: 458: 455: 448: 447: 444: 441: 438: 433: 429: 424: 423: 420: 417: 414: 409: 405: 400: 399: 396: 393: 390: 385: 380: 379: 372: 365: 358: 348: 345: 211: 207: 191: 141:plurale tantum 109: 106: 105: 104: 91: 77: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5834: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5812: 5797: 5789: 5788: 5785: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5769: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5744: 5742: 5738: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5694:Organizations 5692: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5659: 5658:slab on grade 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5587:Self-leveling 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5455: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5388:Cast-in-place 5386: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5374: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5311: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5284:Reinforcement 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5235: 5231: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5201: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5182: 5177: 5175: 5170: 5168: 5163: 5162: 5159: 5146: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5057:mining region 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4758: 4756: 4751: 4749: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4724: 4721: 4717: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4621: 4615: 4612: 4606: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4587: 4584: 4578: 4575: 4572: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4555: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4540: 4536: 4530: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4489: 4484: 4478: 4475: 4472:. 2020-08-28. 4471: 4468: 4462: 4459: 4455:. 2020-10-16. 4454: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4438:. 2019-08-14. 4437: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4420: 4405: 4399: 4396: 4381: 4375: 4372: 4369: 4365: 4362: 4356: 4353: 4349: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4336: 4330: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4265: 4262: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4245: 4242: 4237: 4233: 4227: 4224: 4216: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4197: 4194: 4188: 4185: 4174:on 2016-03-05 4170: 4163: 4156: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4134: 4129: 4128:CBS News / AP 4125: 4118: 4115: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4096: 4085:on 2022-08-09 4084: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4066: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4001: 3998: 3994: 3982: 3978: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3953: 3952:Living Levels 3949: 3943: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3872:Earth Justice 3866: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3727: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3686: 3682: 3676: 3673: 3662:on 2016-02-12 3661: 3657: 3653: 3646: 3643: 3632:on 2016-02-12 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3553: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3515: 3512: 3509: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3490: 3484: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3448: 3445: 3442:, 2015-04-17. 3441: 3438: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3406: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3355: 3352: 3341:on 2008-08-20 3340: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3271: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3222: 3217: 3213: 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In modern 157:particulates 148: 144: 139:(in the UK)— 136: 132: 128: 124: 123: 99: 93: 79: 60: 38: 34: 30: 29: 5648:hollow-core 5607:Waste light 5602:Translucent 5562:Prestressed 5489:Segregation 5474:Degradation 5362:Cover meter 5299:Silica fume 5234:Composition 5004:Coal mining 4954:Fossil fuel 3817:(1): 1389. 3710:Environment 3418:Enforcement 3263:14 November 2089:Silica fume 2030:during the 1952:O) to form 1793:geomembrane 1734:Emory River 1519:Sierra Club 1218:cenospheres 1167:Project in 1124:geopolymers 1118:Geopolymers 915:geopolymers 829:Embankments 743:Duke Energy 575:portlandite 320:to produce 220:rock strata 200:crystalline 100:boiler slag 5811:Categories 5747:Eurocode 2 5685:Structures 5572:Reinforced 5532:Lunarcrete 5512:AstroCrete 5469:Durability 5464:Properties 5342:Slump test 5314:Production 5304:Metakaolin 5027:Coalfields 4812:Anthracite 4701:(document) 4413:2016-05-12 4389:2016-05-12 4178:2016-03-05 4089:2023-12-13 4059:2019-06-16 3745:2022-03-27 3720:2021-06-26 3691:2022-03-27 3666:2014-06-17 3636:2014-06-17 3345:2009-04-09 3029:2022-06-17 3005:2012-11-15 2922:: 94–103. 2775:2010-11-23 2696:2022-03-27 2639:2010-11-23 2541:2019-05-09 2444:: 115905. 2370:2008-09-18 2346:2013-11-19 2287:2022-06-17 2263:2022-03-27 2114:"Coal Ash" 2101:References 2068:Coal waste 2062:Cenosphere 1971:Regulation 1943:carcinogen 1920:See also: 1850:molybdenum 1768:Subtitle C 1672:have been 1659:molybdenum 1567:bottom ash 1436:molybdenum 1031:clay-sized 1025:Embankment 945:, highway 919:roof tiles 911:boat hulls 899:toothpaste 860:soft soils 841:production 722:flue gases 680:geopolymer 668:pozzolanic 634:bituminous 630:anthracite 599:akermanite 500:refractory 362:Bituminous 357:Component 310:atmosphere 279:molybdenum 169:bottom ash 165:flue gases 95:Bottom ash 65:bag houses 46:combustion 5778:Hempcrete 5740:Standards 5567:Ready-mix 5484:Recycling 5279:Aggregate 5262:Rosendale 5139:Whitedamp 5124:Peak coal 5119:Outbursts 5022:Coal dust 5012:Blackdamp 4917:seam fire 4892:phase-out 4662:1752-0894 4453:U.S. News 4277:. 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