Fundamentalist–modernist controversy

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of God, and changes in language; 2) historical differences going back to the Old School-New School split; 3) disagreements about church polity, particularly the role of General Assembly, and lack of representation of women in the church; 4) theological changes; and 5) misunderstanding. The report went on to conclude that the Presbyterian system had traditionally allowed a diversity of views when the core of truth was identical; and that the church flourished when it focused on its unity of spirit. Toleration of doctrinal diversity, including in how to interpret the Westminster Confession, was to be encouraged. In short, the report essentially affirmed the views of the Auburn Affirmation. The committee affirmed that General Assembly could not amend the Westminster Confession without the permission of the presbyteries, though it could issue judicial rulings consistent with the Confession that were binding on the presbyteries. The Five Fundamentals, though, had no binding authority.

1414:, the denomination seemed determined to put the Fosdick controversy behind them. Charles R. Erdman was elected as moderator, which was widely seen as a blow against the fundamentalists. Erdman, a professor at Princeton Theological Seminary, had been engaged in a series of debates with J. Gresham Machen and Clarence Macartney throughout the year, and in spring 1925, he was ousted as Princeton Seminary's student advisor for being insufficiently enthusiastic about the League of Evangelical Students, set up as a counterweight to more liberal intervarsity organizations. Erdman was himself theologically conservative, but was more concerned with pursuing "purity and peace and progress" (his slogan during the election for moderator) than he was with combatting liberalism. Machen felt that men like Erdman would ultimately be responsible for agnostic Modernism triumphing in the Presbyterian Church. 95: 1418:

commissioners, led by Henry Sloane Coffin protested that General Assembly had no right to change or add to the conditions for entrance to the ministry beyond those affirmed in the reunions of 1870 and 1906. Coffin and the liberals were prepared to walk out of the Assembly and take their churches out of the denomination rather than submit to the further "Bryanizing of the Presbyterian Church." A special commission of fifteen was appointed to study the constitutional issues involved. Erdman was able to convince Coffin not to leave the denomination, arguing that, as his interpretation of the constitution was the correct one, he would prevail when the Special Commission issued its report.

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commitment to the Westminster Confession, but leave the matter to New York Presbytery, which was investigating. The Committee's minority report recommended a declaration re-affirming the denomination's commitment to the Five Fundamentals of 1910 and to require New York Presbytery to force First Presbyterian Church to conform to the Westminster Confession. A fiery debate ensued, with Bryan initially seeking a compromise to drop the prosecution of Fosdick in exchange for a reaffirmation of the Five Fundamentals. When this proved impossible, he lobbied intensely for the minority report, and was successful in having the minority report adopted by a vote of 439–359.

587:, which argued that all these heresy trials were bad for the church and that the church should be less concerned with theories about inerrancy and more concerned with getting on with its spiritual work. Indeed, it is probably fair to say that most clergymen in the period took the moderate view, being willing to tolerate Higher Criticism within the church because they were open to the points Higher Criticism was making or they wanted to avoid the distraction and dissension of heresy trials. For many, that came out of the traditional New School resistance to heresy trials and the rigid imposition of the Confession. 246: 1550:, a number of more moderate New Schoolers were brought in, including Charles Erdman and J. Ross Stevenson, who by 1920 was the president of the seminary. As stated earlier, the tension between Old Schoolers and moderates revealed itself in debates about the proposed Church Union of 1920; Machen's anti-liberal preaching which resulted in the public fall-out with Harry van Dyke; the controversy about Erdman's approach to the League of Evangelical Students; and splits about how to deal with the splits in the wider church. 38: 1611: 684:

then be appealed to the Synod of New York and from there to the General Assembly. However, the 1910 General Assembly, acting outside its scope of authority, dismissed the complaint against the three men and at the same time instructed its Committee on Bills and Overtures to prepare a statement for governing future ordinations. The committee reported, and the General Assembly passed the Doctrinal Deliverance of 1910, which declared that five doctrines were "necessary and essential" to the Christian faith:

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this tradition, but it flew in the face of the Presbyterian Church's constitution, which required all doctrinal changes be approved by the presbyteries. While some members of the church could regard the Five Fundamentals as a satisfactory explanation of Scriptures and the Confession, there were others who could not, and therefore, the Presbyteries should be free to hold to whatever theories they saw fit in interpreting Scripture and the Confession.

1478:, persuaded William Jennings Bryan to act as its counsel. Bryan invited his major allies in the Presbyterian General Assembly to attend the trial with him, but J. Gresham Machen refused to testify, saying he had not studied biology in enough detail to testify at trial, while Clarence Macartney had a previous engagement. In response to the announcement that Bryan would be attending the trial, renowned lawyer and committed 1084: 937: 360: 3310: 909:

recommendation which included "organic union" with 17 other denominations – the new organization, to be known as the United Churches of Christ in America, would be a sort of "federal government" for member churches: denominations would maintain their distinctive internal identities, but the broader organization would be in charge of things like missions and lobbying for things like prohibition. Under the terms of

551:, affirming that the Presbyterian Church holds that the Bible is without error and that ministers who believe otherwise should withdraw from the ministry. Briggs' case was remanded to New York Presbytery, which conducted a second heresy trial for Briggs in late 1892, and in early 1893 again found Briggs not guilty of heresy. Again, Briggs' opponents appealed to General Assembly, which in 1893 was held in 3324: 1569:

Princeton Seminary: A Plea for Fair Play." He argued that Princeton was the only seminary continuing to defend orthodoxy among the older theological institutions in the English-speaking world. The loss of the seminary would be a major blow for orthodoxy. The moderates and liberals already had control of practically every seminary in the denomination: why couldn't the conservatives be left with one?

995:, responded to Fosdick with a sermon of his own, entitled "Shall Unbelief Win?" which was quickly published in a pamphlet. He argued that liberalism had been progressively "secularizing" the church and, if left unchecked, would lead to "a Christianity of opinions and principles and good purposes, but a Christianity without worship, without God, and without Jesus Christ." 1576:, recommending re-organizing the seminary to give more powers to the president of the seminary and to replace the two ruling boards with one unified board. In response, Clarence Macartney responded that his party were prepared to take legal action to stop this from happening. Wary, General Assembly simply appointed a committee to continue studying the matter. 1708: 1507:

the debate that it had while Bryan was alive. (Probably the reason why the issue of evolution has obtained such an iconic status within the popular consciousness about the fundamentalist–modernist controversy is that it represented the one point where internal church politics intersected with government, specifically public school, policy.)

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General Assembly calling on it to ensure that in future, only solidly evangelical Christians be appointed to the Board of Foreign Missions. Machen and Speer faced off in the Presbytery, with Speer arguing that conflict and division were bad for the church — the presbytery agreed and refused to make the recommendation.

1742:, Buck decried gauging the success of missions by the numbers of new church members. Instead she advocated humanitarian efforts to improve the agricultural, educational, medical, and sanitary conditions of the community. She described the typical missionary as "narrow, uncharitable, unappreciative, ignorant." In the 432:. His inaugural address, entitled "The Authority of Holy Scripture", proved to be highly controversial. Whereas previously, higher criticism had seemed a fairly technical, scholarly issue, Briggs now spelt out its full implications. In the address, he announced that higher criticism had now definitively proven that 1857:

The dispute between the fundamentalists and modernists would be played out in nearly every Christian denomination. By the 1920s, it was clear that every mainstream Protestant denomination was going to be willing to accommodate modernism, with the exception of the Presbyterians, Southern Baptists, and

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J. Gresham Machen now published a book arguing that the Board of Foreign Missions was insufficiently evangelical and particularly that its secretary, Robert E. Speer, had refused to require missionaries to subscribe to the Five Fundamentals. In New Brunswick Presbytery, Machen proposed an overture to

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On the question of Harry Fosdick, moderates in 1924 steered debate away from his theology and towards matters of polity. As Fosdick was a Baptist, General Assembly instructed First Presbyterian Church, New York to invite Fosdick to join the Presbyterian Church, and if he would not, to get rid of him.

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Led by Macartney, the Presbytery of Philadelphia requested that the General Assembly direct the Presbytery of New York to take such actions as to ensure that the teaching and preaching in the First Presbyterian Church of New York City conform to the Westminster Confession of Faith. This request would

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Macartney urged Machen to compromise, but he refused. In June 1935, he set up the Presbyterian Constitutional Covenant Union. In October, the split between Macartney and Machen spread to Westminster Seminary, where the faculty, led by Machen, called on the board of trustees to announce their support

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The 1934 General Assembly declared that the Independent Board violated the Presbyterian constitution and ordered the Board to cease collecting funds within the church and ordered all Presbyterian clergy and laity to sever their connections with the Board or face disciplinary action. (This motion was

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This led Machen to declare that the 1927 General Assembly was "probably the most disastrous meeting, from the point of view of evangelical Christianity, that has been held in the whole history of our Church." Machen composed and had circulated in the denomination a document entitled "The Attack Upon

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As noted earlier, opposition to Darwinism was always much more important to Bryan than it was to other conservative Presbyterian Church leaders. Thus, following Bryan's death in 1925, the debate about evolution, while it remained an issue within church politics, never again assumed the prominence to

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The Auburn Affirmation opened by affirming the Westminster Confession of Faith, but argued that within American Presbyterianism, there had been a long tradition of freedom of interpretation of the Scriptures and the Confession. The General Assembly's issuance of the Five Fundamentals not only eroded

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Even before the end of General Assembly, this decision was controversial. 85 commissioners filed an official protest, arguing that the Fosdick case was not put properly before the General Assembly, and that, as the General Assembly was a court, not a legislative body, the Five Fundamentals could not

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would come to be hegemonic among scientists, as refutations and alternate systems were still being proposed and debated. Then, when evolution became widely accepted, most churchmen were far less concerned with refuting it than they were with establishing schemes whereby Darwinism could be reconciled

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In this sermon, Fosdick presented the liberals in both the Presbyterian and Baptist denominations as sincere evangelical Christians who were struggling to reconcile new discoveries in history, science, and religion with the Christian faith. Fundamentalists, on the other hand, were cast as intolerant

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and the Missouri Synod as the only large, national denominations where orthodox Protestants were still active within the denomination. The conflict continued to roil both churches for most of the 20th century and the triumph of orthodox Protestantism in those denominations would not be secure until

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The Special Committee delivered its report on May 28. It argued that there were five major causes of unrest in the Presbyterian Church: 1) general intellectual movements, including "the so-called conflict between science and religion", naturalistic worldviews, different understandings of the nature

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in May 1924. During the campaign for moderator, William Jennings Bryan threw his weight behind Clarence E. Macartney (the Philadelphia minister who was instrumental in bringing charges against Fosdick), who narrowly beat out moderate Princeton Theological Seminary faculty member Charles Erdman by a

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By 1905, Bryan had concluded that Darwinism and the modernism of Higher Criticism were allies in promoting liberalism within the church, thereby in his view undermining the foundations of Christianity. In lectures from 1905, Bryan spoke out against the spread of Darwinism, which he characterized as

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and were willing to cooperate with non-Presbyterians in doing so. The Old Siders/Schoolers felt that evangelism and missions should be conducted through agencies managed by the denomination and not involving outsiders, since it would involve a watering down of the church's theological distinctives.

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When the US did finally join World War I in 1917, Bryan volunteered for the army, though he was never allowed to enlist. At a time of widespread revulsion at alleged German atrocities, Bryan linked evolution to Germany, and claimed that Darwinism provided a justification for the strong to dominate

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Under the order of the Presbyterian Church in the USA, the General Assembly was not authorized to accept or dismiss the complaint. It should have demitted the complaint to the presbytery and could have done so with instructions that the presbytery hold a heresy trial. The result of the trial could

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taught at Princeton Theological Seminary "is a ghost of modern evangelicalism to frighten children." Not only was the Westminster Confession in error but also the very foundation of the Confession, the Bible, could not be used to create theological absolutes. He now called on other rationalists in

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The Old Side/Old School responded that the Westminster Confession was the foundational constitutional document of the Presbyterian Church and that since the Confession was simply a summary of the Bible's teachings, the church had a responsibility to ensure that its ministers' preaching was in line

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based on scripture. Therefore, they placed less emphasis on receiving a seminary education and the Westminster Confession (to the degree Old Side/Old School required). Their emphasis was more on the authority of scripture and a conversion experience, rather than on the Westminster Confession. They

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The committee reported back at the General Assembly of 1927, where the moderate Robert E. Speer was elected as moderator. Their report concluded that the source of the difficulties at Princeton was that some of the Princeton faculty (i.e. Machen) were trying to keep Princeton in the service of a

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Now that Bryan had linked Darwinism and Higher Criticism as the twin evils facing the Presbyterian Church, Harry Emerson Fosdick responded by defending Darwinism, as well as Higher Criticism, from Bryan's attack. In the early 1920s, Bryan and Fosdick squared off against each other in a series of

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opponent of Church Union, which he argued would destroy Presbyterian distinctives, and effectively cede control of the denomination to modernists and their New School allies. However, chinks were starting to show in the Princeton faculty's armor. Charles Erdman and the president of the seminary,

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Eight ministers, including Machen, were tried in the General Assembly of 1936. They were convicted and removed from the ministry. Machen then led the Presbyterian Constitutional Covenant Union to form a new denomination, the Presbyterian Church of America, later forced to change its name to the

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as overly harsh.) Less than a month later, New Brunswick Presbytery asked Machen for his response. He replied that General Assembly's actions were illegal and that he would not shut down the Independent Board. The presbytery consequently brought charges against Machen including violation of his

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and asked for their response to Buck's statements. Erdman responded that the Board was committed to historic Evangelical standards and that they felt that Pearl S. Buck's comments were unfortunate, but he hoped she might yet be won back to the missionary cause. She would eventually resign as a

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Before he could accept or refuse, however, General Assembly intervened, and in the 1926 General Assembly, moderates succeeded in securing a committee to study how to reconcile the two parties at Princeton. (The seminary was governed by a board of directors subject to the supervision of General

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It seemed to many observers that the licensing of Van Dusen and Lehman was likely to cause a split in the church. General Assembly required all candidates to the ministry to affirm the virgin birth and returned the matter to New York Presbytery for proper proceedings. In response, the New York

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published a conservative manifesto that had been in circulation within the denomination entitled "Back to Fundamentals". Liberal Presbyterian magazines replied that if conservatives wanted a fight, they should bring heresy charges in the church's courts or keep quiet. No charges were brought.

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At the same time he had been campaigning against Darwinism (largely unsuccessfully) within the Presbyterian Church, William Jennings Bryan had also been encouraging state lawmakers to pass laws banning the teaching of evolution in public schools. Several states had responded to Bryan's call,

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The major question dealt with at the General Assembly of 1923 was not, however, Darwinism. It was the question of what to do about Harry Emerson Fosdick and his provocative sermon of the previous year. The Committee on Bills and Overtures recommended that the assembly declare its continuing

1233:, he said that "Darwinism is not a science at all; it is a string of guesses strung together" and that there is more science in the Bible's "And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature..." than in all of Darwin. These lectures were published and became a national bestseller. 2862: 908:

However, the debate between modernists and conservatives over the issue of the IWM was small compared to the Church Union debate. In 1919, the General Assembly sent a delegation to a national ecumenical convention that was proposing church union, and in 1920, General Assembly approved a

326:, and other errors to be taught in the Presbyterian Church. They criticized the New Side/School's revivals as being emotionally manipulative and shallow. Another major division had to do with their attitude towards other denominations: New Siders/Schoolers were willing to set up 1274:, the first time General Assembly had debated the matter. He proposed a resolution that the denomination should cease payments to any school, college, or university where Darwinism was taught. Opponents argued that there were plenty of Christians in the church who believed in 1363:

On December 31, 1923, Henry van Dyke publicly relinquished his pew at First Presbyterian Church, Princeton as a protest against Machen's fundamentalist preaching. Van Dyke would ultimately return to his pew in December 1924 when Charles Erdman replaced Machen in the pulpit.

390:, published 70 articles against higher criticism, and the number increased in the years after 1850. However, it was not until the years after 1880 that higher criticism really had any advocates within American seminaries. When higher criticism arrived, it arrived in force. 1534:

Following the reunion of the Old School and New School in 1870, Princeton Theological Seminary remained the bulwark of Old School thought within the Presbyterian Church. Indeed, by 1920, it was arguably the only remaining Old School institution in the Presbyterian Church.

298:(PCCSA). In 1864, the United Synod merged with PCCSA, with the Southern New School Presbyterians ultimately being absorbed into an Old School denomination. In 1869, the Northern New School Presbyterians returned to the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America. 680:. (They did not deny the doctrine outright but said that they were not prepared to affirm it.) The majority eventually ordained the men; the minority complained to the General Assembly, and it was that complaint that would form the basis of the subsequent controversy. 1598:, would leave Princeton to teach at Westminster. Clarence Macartney initially opposed setting up Westminster, arguing that conservatives should stay at Princeton where they could continue to provide an orthodox voice. Machen responded that Princeton was in a state of 1565:

certain party in the church rather than doing what was in the best interest of the denomination as a whole. They recommended re-organization of the seminary. General Assembly renewed the committee's mandate and ordered them to study how to re-organize the seminary.

639:, a modernist who had been a major supporter of Briggs in 1893, now headed a movement of modernists and New Schoolers to revise the Westminster Confession of Faith. Since 1889, Van Dyke had been calling for credal revision to affirm that all dying infants (not just 1495:

Although the prosecution of Scopes was successful, the trial is widely seen as a crucial moment in discrediting the fundamentalist movement in America, particularly after Darrow called Bryan to the stand and he appeared little able to defend his view of the Bible.

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Clarence Macartney, however, was able to get a similar motion through the Presbytery of Philadelphia, so the issue came before the General Assembly of 1933. The majority report of the Standing Committee of Foreign Missions affirmed the church's adherence to the

1349:. In this book, Machen argued that liberalism, far from being a set of teachings that could be accommodated within the church, was in fact antithetical to the principles of Christianity and was currently engaged in a struggle against historic Christianity. 968:

conservatives who refused to deal with these new discoveries and had arbitrarily drawn the line as to what was off limits in religious discussion. Many people, Fosdick argued, simply found it impossible to accept the virgin birth of Christ, the doctrine of

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movement more broadly. The Council's Social Creed of the Churches was adopted by the Presbyterian Church in 1910, but conservatives in General Assembly were able to resist endorsing most of the Council's specific proposals, except for those calling for

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As a result of the departure of Machen and the denominational conservatives, especially of the Old School, the shape of the Presbyterian Church in the USA as a modernist, liberal denomination was secured. The PCUSA would eventually merge with the

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applied to nations as well as to individuals, and that "The same science that manufactured poisonous gases to suffocate soldiers is preaching that man has a brute ancestry and eliminating the miraculous and the supernatural from the Bible."

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as its chairman. The Executive Committee of the Presbyterian Church offered millions of dollars worth of support to help the IWM with fundraising. When the IWM collapsed financially, the denomination was on the hook for millions of dollars.

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There was no subsequent attempt to ferret out followers of Higher Criticism in the years following the Portland Deliverance and the de-frocking of Briggs. Most followers of Higher Criticism were like the 87 clergymen who had signed the

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professor William Adams Brown. Following the war, they worked hard to build on this legacy of unity. The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions consequently called for a meeting of Protestant leaders on the topic and in early 1919 the

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circuit, where his speeches often involved religious as well as political themes. For the next 25 years until his death, Bryan was one of the most popular Chautauqua lecturers and he spoke in front of hundreds of thousands of people.

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was circulating a paper in which he argued that the Old School-New School reunion of 1870 and the merger with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church of 1906 had created a church specifically designed to accommodate doctrinal diversity.

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of the fundamentalists, "I think this is the only book I have ever read that seems to me literally true in its every observation and right in its every conclusion." Then, in a November 1932 speech before a large audience at the

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petitioned for reunification, and in 1906, over 1000 Cumberland Presbyterian ministers joined the Presbyterian Church in the USA. The arrival of so many liberal ministers strengthened the New School's position in the church.

532:, Old Schoolers successfully raised a motion to veto Briggs' appointment, which passed by a vote of 449–60. The faculty of Union Theological Seminary, however, refused to remove Briggs, saying that it would be a violation of 647:

for all mankind, not just the elect. In 1901, he chaired a 25-man committee (with a New School majority). Also in 1901, he drew up a non-binding summary of the church's faith. It mentioned neither biblical inerrancy nor

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of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church in New York City issued a statement saying that he did not accept the Five Fundamentals and that if Fosdick were removed from his pulpit, they would need to get rid of him too.

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Fosdick's sermon was re-packaged as "The New Knowledge and the Christian Faith" and quickly published in three religious journals, and then distributed as a pamphlet to every Protestant clergyman in the country.

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The Special Committee appointed at the General Assembly of 1925 consisted mainly of moderates. The committee solicited testimony from both sides, and received statements from Machen, Macartney, and Coffin.

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The five propositions would become known to history as the "Five Fundamentals" and by the late 1910s, theological conservatives rallying around the Five Fundamentals came to be known as "fundamentalists."

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involving "the operation of the law of hate – the merciless law by which the strong crowd out and kill off the weak", and warned that it could undermine the foundations of morality. In 1913 he became

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This committee reported to the 1929 General Assembly. Machen gave a fiery speech on the floor of General Assembly, but he could not prevent General Assembly from voting to re-organize the seminary.

294:, with the southern New School Presbyterians forming the United Synod of the Presbyterian Church. In 1861, the Old School Presbyterians split, with the Southern Presbyterians taking on the name the 2756: 976:

of Christ in the light of modern science. Given the different points of view within the church, only tolerance and liberty could allow for these different perspectives to co-exist in the church.

1278:. Ultimately, Bryan could not convince even Machen to back his position, and the Assembly simply approved a resolution condemning materialistic (as opposed to theistic) evolutionary philosophy. 1328:

The Auburn Affirmation was circulated beginning in November 1923 and ultimately signed by 174 clergymen. In January 1924, it was released to the press, along with the names of 150 signatories.

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There were two further heresy trials in subsequent years, which would be the last major heresy trials in the history of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. In late 1892,

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Rather than contesting this decision in the courts as had been threatened, Machen now decided to set up a new seminary to be a bastion of conservative thought. This institution would become

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return of Christ to the status of a fundamental of the Christian faith. None of the "fundamentalist" leaders (Machen, Van Til, Macartney) in the Presbyterian Church were dispensationalists.

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Presbytery brought heresy charges against Briggs, but these were defeated by a vote of 94–39. The committee that had brought the charges then appealed to the 1892 General Assembly, held in

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seminaries, publishing houses, and denominational hierarchies in the United States. More conservative Christians withdrew from the mainstream, founding their own publishing houses (such as

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as to Darwin, and viewed by modern biologists as a misuse of his theory. Germany, or so Bryan's argument ran, had replaced Christ's teachings with Nietzsche's philosophy based on ideas of

1124:. After his 1900 defeat, Bryan re-examined his life and concluded that he had let his passion for politics obscure his calling as a Christian. Beginning in 1900, he began lecturing on the 213:). This would remain the state of affairs until the 1970s, when conservative Protestantism emerged on a larger scale in the United States, resulting in the rise of conservatism among the 1629:

concluded that it was time for a serious re-evaluation of the effectiveness of foreign missions. With Rockefeller's financial backing, they convinced seven major denominations – the

794:. These twelve pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 eventually included 90 essays written by 64 authors from several denominations. The series was conservative and critical of 3215: 1383:

No action was taken at this General Assembly about the Auburn Affirmation. The ordination of Van Dusen and Lehman was referred to the Synod of New York for "appropriate action."

170:, who advocated a conscious adaptation of the Christian faith in response to the new scientific discoveries and moral pressures of the age. At first, the schism was limited to 1862:, where the situation was still unclear. The departure of Machen and other conservatives brought the Presbyterians into the camp willing to accommodate modernism, leaving the 310:

argued the importance of an encounter with God mediated by the Holy Spirit. They saw the Old Side/Old School as being formalists who fetishized the Westminster Confession and

2779: 1872: 1805: 1650: 371: 214: 127: 3270: 3070: 305:. The New Side/New School opposed a rigid interpretation of the Westminster Confession. Their stance was based on spiritual renewal/revival through an experience with the 249: 3207: 798:

but also broad in its approach, and the scholars who contributed articles included several Presbyterian moderates who would later be opposed to "fundamentalism" such as

1788:. The minority report argued that the Board was not orthodox and proposed a slate of conservatives candidates for the Board. The majority report passed overwhelmingly. 1341:

The most significant conservative preparation for the General Assembly of 1924 actually occurred slightly before the 1923 General Assembly. This was the publication of

613:, but declined to apply sanctions. This decision was appealed to General Assembly, but McGiffert quietly resigned from the denomination and the charges were withdrawn. 1646: 887:, the FCC established the General War-Time Commission to coordinate the work of Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish programs related to the war and work closely with the 560: 3062: 187: 948:

The splits between fundamentalists and modernists had been bubbling in the Presbyterian Church for some time. The event which was to bring the issue to a head was

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was not a prerequisite to being a Christian. She said that the only need is to acknowledge that one cannot live without Christ and to reflect that in one's life.

1445:, in many states in 1925, evolution continued to be taught in church-run institutions at the same time that its teaching was banned in state-run public schools.) 916:

The plans for Church Union were roundly denounced by the Old School Princeton Theological Seminary faculty. It was at this point in 1920 that Princeton professor

3354: 3223: 496:. The Old Testament was merely a historical record that showed man in a lower state of moral development, with modern man having progressed morally far beyond 1704:

issued a statement reaffirming the board's commitment to the evangelistic basis of the missionary enterprise and to Jesus Christ as the only Lord and Savior.

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New York Presbytery, which had been ordered by General Assembly to deal with Fosdick, adopted a report that essentially exonerated Fosdick of any wrongdoing.

3359: 1839: 1654: 892: 790: 348: 806:. It was apparently from the title of the pamphlets that the term "fundamentalist" was coined, with the first reference to the term being an article by 3168: 3145: 2967: 2062: 1189:

and militarism. Bryan argued that Germany's militarism and "barbarism" came from their belief that the "struggle for survival" described in Darwin's

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of the Independent Board of Foreign Missions and the Covenant Union. Thirteen trustees, including Macartney, refused to do so and resigned in 1936.

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Although the controversies involved many other issues, the overarching issue had to do with the nature of church authority and the authority of the

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and resulted in the Presbyterian Church in 1741 being divided into an Old Side and New Side. The two churches reunified in 1758. The second was the

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ordination vows and renouncing the authority of the church. A trial was held, and in March 1935, he was convicted and suspended from the ministry.

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William Greene seemed to solidify the Old School majority on the faculty. However, when Macartney turned the job down, Machen was offered the job.

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In 1909, there was heated debate in the New York Presbytery about whether or not to ordain three men who refused to assent to the doctrine of the

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By the end of the 1930s, proponents of theological liberalism had, at the time, effectively won the debate, with the modernists in control of all

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Most churchmen, however, took a far more prosaic attitude. In the early period, it must have appeared far from clear that Darwin's theory of

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at Union Theological Seminary in 1876 was the first salvo of higher criticism within American Presbyterianism. Briggs was active in founding

1586:(named to stress its fidelity to the Westminster Confession of Faith) and several conservatives on the Princeton faculty, including Machen, 1561:

Assembly.) (On a sidenote, some members of the General Assembly seem to have been wary of Machen because of his opposition to Prohibition.)

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By 1925, the Old School's majority on the faculty was threatened, but the selection of Clarence Macartney to replace outgoing Professor of

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The inaugural address provoked widespread outrage in the denomination and led Old Schoolers in the denomination to move against him, with

409:, president of Princeton Theological Seminary, initially serving as Briggs' co-editor. In 1881, Briggs published an article in defense of 59: 2681: 2087: 1067:

with Christianity. This was true even among prominent Old Schoolers at Princeton Theological Seminary such as Charles Hodge's successors

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to truly promote biblical and Presbyterian work. Macartney refused to go along with Machen in setting up an independent missions board.

1442: 1222:'s 1916 study indicating that a considerable number of college students lost their faith during the four years they spent in college. 183: 2834: 749: 272: 2012: 1642: 1256: 1178: 81: 2347:"A Poultice for the Bite of the Cobra: The Hocking Report and Presbyterian Missions in the Middle Decades of the Twentieth Century" 1360:

In June 1923, New York Presbytery ordained two men—Henry P. Van Dusen and Cedric O. Lehman—who refused to affirm the virgin birth.

2918: 1583: 1138: 1106: 849: 179: 1387:

Fosdick refused to join the Presbyterian Church and ultimately resigned from his post at First Presbyterian Church in October.

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for teaching that there were errors in the Bible, and, upon appeal, his conviction was upheld by the General Assembly of 1894.

512:, David, and Solomon. At any rate, according to Briggs, the Scriptures as a whole were riddled with errors and the doctrine of 302: 1255:, Bryan was determined to strike against Darwinism and against Fosdick, so he organized a campaign to have himself elected as 1215:, and the implication was that America would suffer the same fate if unchecked. This fear was reinforced by the report of the 1055:

responded that Christianity was compatible with Darwin's science. Both he and many other Christians accepted various forms of

821:

It is worth pointing out that the only people who actually embraced the name "fundamentalist" during the 1910s were committed

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The seven denominations who had agreed to participate in the Laymen's Inquiry now distanced themselves from the report. The

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Yet Saints Their Watch Are Keeping: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and the Development of Evangelical Ecclesiology, 1887–1937

318:

with the Confession. They accused the New Side/New School of being lax about the purity of the church and willing to allow

2736: 1919:

Longfield, Bradley J. (2000). "For Church and Country: The Fundamentalist–Modernist Conflict in the Presbyterian Church".

1796:

Disapproving of General Assembly's decision not to appoint a new slate of conservatives to the Board of Foreign Missions,

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Bryan launched his campaign against Darwinism in 1921 when he was invited to give the James Sprunt Lectures at Virginia's

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the denomination to join him in sweeping away the dead orthodoxy of the past and work for the unity of the entire church.

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In May 1924, the Auburn Affirmation was republished, along with supplementary materials, and listed 1,274 signatories.

616: 3097: 2995: 2960: 2911: 2897: 2890: 2451: 1681:. These two inquiries led to the publication of a one-volume summary of the findings of the Laymen's Inquiry entitled 1634: 1346: 1306: 1226: 921: 856: 306: 210: 206: 52: 46: 351:

was more willing to allow non-Presbyterians to teach at the school and was more broadminded in its academic output.

3002: 2386: 2238: 1761: 1756:, saying "I believe that most of us start out wanting to do right and to be good." She asserted that belief in the 1638: 1630: 897: 643:

dying infants) go to heaven, to say that God loved the whole world (not just the elect), and to affirm that Christ

1526:

In spite of Clarence Macartney's opposition on the floor of General Assembly, the committee's report was adopted.

528:

had earned the right to veto all appointments to seminary professorships so at the 1891 General Assembly, held in

3278: 3262: 3023: 2988: 1851: 1503:, who reported on the trial in his columns and denounced fundamentalism as irrational, backwards and intolerant. 969: 944:(1878–1969), whose 1922 sermon "Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" sparked the fundamentalist–modernist controversy. 715: 644: 595: 406: 147: 2596:

Defending the Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Crisis of Conservative Protestantism in Twentieth-Century America

245: 63: 3314: 2929: 1767:

Macartney quickly called on the Board of Foreign Missions, under the presidency of Charles Erdman, to denounce

1727:, she praised the report, saying it should be read by every Christian in America and, ironically mimicking the 1191: 784: 606: 264: 159: 555:

The General Assembly now voted to overturn the New York decision and declared Briggs guilty of heresy. He was

1850:(the "Southern Presbyterians" who had split with the PCUSA in 1861 due to the Civil War) to form the current 1801: 2233:

Paul, Diane B. (2003). "Darwin, Social Darwinism and Eugenics". In Hodge, Jonathan; Radick, Gregory (eds.).

1894: 1748: 1657:– to participate in their "Laymen's Foreign Missions Inquiry". They commissioned a study of missionaries in 1626: 1614: 1212: 860: 509: 410: 397:, who had studied higher criticism in Germany (in 1866). His inaugural address upon being made Professor of 394: 363: 327: 3086: 2904: 2421: 1898: 1781: 1733: 1678: 1464: 1376: 1094: 1087: 799: 722: 284: 111: 2876: 2827: 1757: 1723: 1595: 1046: 984: 949: 941: 708: 677: 591: 521: 414: 343:, the leading institution of the Old School, demanded credal subscription and dedicated a large part of 276: 143: 1267:, a strong proponent of allowing evolution to be taught at Presbyterian-run colleges and universities. 2748: 3113: 3105: 2925: 2869: 2848: 1163: 803: 689: 461: 268: 167: 139: 1602:

and that he couldn't serve alongside apostates. Macartney was eventually won over to Machen's side.

1286:

be imposed upon church officers without violating the constitution of the church. At the same time,

382:(the historical-critical method) as a development of the German academy. Between 1829 and 1850, the 17: 3030: 2941: 1813: 1728: 1610: 1399: 1395: 1287: 1102: 910: 525: 445: 194: 234: 3137: 2974: 2937: 2794: 1985: 1950: 1928: 1591: 1547: 1471: 1318: 1314: 1300: 1264: 1260: 1056: 1037: 1003: 822: 701: 513: 344: 135: 2318: 2624:

Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate over Science and Religion

2484: 1317:, and, using Nichols' paper as a base, ultimately issued a declaration known to history as the 2855: 2488: 2455: 2394: 2354: 2346: 2322: 2313:

The Religious History of America: The Heart of the American Story from Colonial Times to Today

2289: 2242: 2213: 2178: 2155: 2125: 2095: 2008: 2000: 1889: 1863: 1797: 1587: 1539: 1457: 1342: 1141:, then resigned in 1915 because he believed that the Wilson administration was about to enter 1063: 917: 841: 779: 429: 335: 2182: 1200: 1166:

of German officers discussing the Darwinian rationale for their declaration of war, and the

807: 795: 761: 552: 544: 533: 485: 449: 379: 367: 202: 182:

when Princeton went in a liberal direction. However, it soon spread, affecting nearly every

1784:; expressed its confidence that Speer and the Board shared this conviction; and repudiated 2815: 2617: 2524:

The Broadening Church: A Study of Theological Issues in the Presbyterian Church Since 1869

2417: 1884: 1573: 1482: 1452:

was seeking a test case to challenge these anti-evolutionary laws. This led to the famous

1305:

Even before the General Assembly of 1923, Robert Hastings Nichols, a history professor at

1204: 868: 567: 477: 398: 287:

and which saw the Presbyterian Church split into two denominations starting in 1836–1838.

190:, eventually were embroiled in the controversy, leading to a schism in the United States. 1621:

In 1930, as a result of widespread second thoughts about missions in general, a group of

1519:

At the 1926 General Assembly, another moderate, W.O. Thompson, was elected as moderator.

2742: 2578:

The Pluralistic Vision: Presbyterians and Mainstream Protestant Education and Leadership

2390: 2379: 1697:, Christians should ally with other world religions, rather than struggle against them. 956:" Fosdick was ordained as a Baptist, but had been given special permission to preach in 2477: 2311: 1543: 1492:, with reporters from across the country descending on the small town of 1,900 people. 1411: 1239: 1219: 1208: 1134: 1083: 1072: 1042: 660:. It was adopted by General Assembly in 1902 and ratified by the presbyteries in 1904. 636: 620: 584: 493: 457: 422: 2730: 936: 855:

Several leading Presbyterians, notably Robert E. Speer, played a role in founding the

425:

became co-editor and refused to publish one of Briggs' articles, a key turning point.

359: 3343: 2981: 2945: 1718: 1711: 1500: 1170: 1147: 1049:, it was effectively atheism and could not be reconciled with biblical Christianity. 1020: 973: 961: 864: 826: 771: 752: 640: 540: 387: 155: 2351:

The Diversity of Discipleship: Presbyterians and Twentieth-century Christian Witness

2841: 1753: 1489: 1453: 1427: 1252: 1216: 1160: 992: 481: 323: 131: 99: 2479:

Pulpit Politics: Faces of American Protestant Nationalism in the Twentieth Century

928:

Ultimately, the presbyteries defeated church union by a vote of 150–100 in 1921.

393:

The first major proponent of higher criticism within the Presbyterian Church was

1738: 1554: 1538:

The majority of the faculty in 1920 remained convinced Old Schoolers, including

1186: 1142: 1068: 1028: 884: 873: 697: 649: 413:

which led to a series of responses and counter-responses between Briggs and the

319: 3323: 609:

was tried by New York Presbytery, which condemned certain portions of his book

1979: 1946: 1694: 1673:

and launched a separate inquiry under the chairmanship of the philosopher and

1438: 1156: 1125: 859:

in 1908. This organization (which received 5% of its first year's budget from

657: 599: 437: 339:

The two sides also had different attitudes towards their seminary professors:

331: 536:. In October 1892, the faculty would vote to withdraw from the denomination. 2808: 2696: 2630:

Toward a Sure Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Dilemma of Biblical Criticism

1499:

Among the media, Bryan's loudest and ultimately most influential critic was

1434: 1275: 1182: 1167: 1024: 913:, the measure would have to be approved by the presbyteries to take effect. 901: 788:, decided to use his wealth to sponsor a series of pamphlets to be entitled 775: 756: 556: 311: 198: 171: 163: 2353:. Louisville, Kentucky, United States: Westminster Press. pp. 105–25. 1059:, and Darwin had not excluded the work of the Creator as a primary cause. 1023:, was one of the few Presbyterian controversialists to turn their guns on 748: 2708: 2005:

The Making of Liberal Theology – Imagining Progressive Religion 1805–1900

1599: 1479: 1052: 877: 453: 2560:

The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates

1932: 953: 263:

twice in the past, and these divisions were important precursors to the

162:, who insisted upon the timeless validity of each doctrine of Christian 1868: 1707: 1674: 1622: 1101:(part of which would merge with the PC-USA in 1906) and who was also a 837: 529: 501: 473: 103: 999:

lead to over a decade of bitter wrangling in the Presbyterian Church.

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The Confessional Mosaic: Presbyterians and Twentieth-Century Theology

2448:

Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions

1461: 632:

The movement to revise the Westminster Confession of Faith, 1900–1910

489: 469: 386:, the leading Old School theological journal under the editorship of 260: 123: 2536:

The Making of a Minister: The Autobiography of Clarence E. Macartney

2262: 1792:

Creation of the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions

1075:

who came to endorse the ideas now described as theistic evolution.

1002:

Throughout the proceedings, Fosdick's defense was led by lay elder

2602:

Crossed Fingers: How the Liberals Captured the Presbyterian Church

2580:. ed. Milton J. Coalter, John M. Mulder, and Louis B. Weeks (1992) 2574:, ed. Milton J. Coalter, John M. Mulder, and Louis B. Weeks (1991) 2349:. In Coalter, Milton J.; Mulder, John M.; Weeks, Louis B. (eds.). 1706: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1609: 1394: 1313:

Two weeks after the General Assembly of 1923, 36 clergymen met in

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and the source of a major controversy within the church, 1880–1893

358: 244: 233: 151: 98:

A fundamentalist cartoon portraying modernism as the descent from

93: 428:

In 1891, Briggs was appointed as Union's first-ever professor of

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Re-Thinking Missions: A Laymen's Inquiry after One Hundred Years

2088:"Darwin Correspondence Project » Essay: What is Darwinism?" 1684:

Re-Thinking Missions: A Laymen's Inquiry After One Hundred Years

1449: 1270:

Undaunted, Bryan took to opposing Darwinism on the floor of the

653: 605:

In 1898, Union Theological Seminary Professor of Church History

497: 441: 2752: 1511:

The Special Commission of 1925 and the General Assembly of 1926

2584:

Princeton Theological Seminary: A Narrative History, 1812–1982

347:

to the defense of Calvinist orthodoxy; while the New School's

186:. Denominations that were not initially affected, such as the 31: 2183:"Creationism History: The Antievolution Crusade of the 1920s" 1572:

The committee reported to the 1928 General Assembly, held in

1488:

The stage was thus set for a trial which would prove to be a

1251:

In these circumstances, when General Assembly met in 1923 in

1181:

represented an interpretation of Darwinism, to conclude that

355:

The rise of higher criticism and the Briggs Affair, 1880–1893

2422:"Pearl Buck's "Several Worlds" and the "Inasmuch" of Christ" 2049:

La Bible au pied de la lettre, Le fondamentalisme questionné

1380:

vote of 464–446. Macartney named Bryan his vice-moderator.

1199:

Bryan was, in essence, fighting what would later be called

3017:

United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

1844:

United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

1337:

Conservative activities prior to the 1924 General Assembly

1097:, a former lawyer who had been brought up in the Arminian 652:, affirmed God's love of all mankind, and denied that the 2064:

The American Evangelical Story: A History of the Movement

672:

The Doctrinal Deliverance of 1910 (the Five Fundamentals)

623:(1852–1933), a modernist who pushed for revisions to the 524:

taking the lead. Under the terms of the reunion of 1869,

1530:

The Battle for Princeton Theological Seminary, 1926–1929

1259:. He lost the election by a vote of 451–427 to the Rev. 1151:

and he opposed American intervention in a European war.

296:

Presbyterian Church of the Confederate States of America

130:. At issue were foundational disputes about the role of 2530:

A Half Century of Union Theological Seminary, 1896–1945

2122:

Critical Issues in American Religious History: A Reader

1010:

William Jennings Bryan and the General Assembly of 1923

1721:

now weighed into the debate. In a review published in

1112:

candidate for three unsuccessful presidential bids in

2711:

by William Jennings Bryan (1922) at Project Gutenberg

2590:

A Righteous Cause: The Life of William Jennings Bryan

1752:

published in May 1933, Buck rejected the doctrine of

1546:. However, to combat a perceived lack of training in 1353:

Liberal activities prior to the 1924 General Assembly

920:

first gained prominence within the denomination as a

252:, headquarters of the New School Presbyterians (1910) 241:, headquarters of the Old School Presbyterians (1879) 2737:

H.L. Mencken's newspaper columns on the Scopes Trial

1984:(Presentation). Denton, Texas: Denton Bible Church. 1981:"Church History: The Rise of Theological Liberalism" 1019:

A giant of Old School Presbyterianism at Princeton,

3250: 3187: 3156: 3085: 3040: 2786: 2780:

Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

2642:

Monkey Business: The True Story of the Scopes Trial

1873:

Southern Baptist Convention conservative resurgence

1806:

Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions

1651:

Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

1105:, was elected to Congress in 1890, then became the 755:(1840–1923), Presbyterian layman and co-founder of 372:

Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

290:In 1857, the New School Presbyterians divided over 128:

Presbyterian Church in the United States of America

3286:Faith Presbytery, Bible Presbyterian Church (2008) 3071:ECO: A Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians 2476: 2378: 2310: 2286:The Scientific Case Against Scientific Creationism 1441:in March 1925. (Given the present-day contours of 1185:'s and Darwin's ideas were the impetus for German 925:William Robinson, came out in favor of the union. 250:Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York 126:that originated in the 1920s and 1930s within the 3216:Reformed Presbyterian Church – Hanover Presbytery 3208:Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States 2309:Gaustad, Edwin S.; Leigh Schmidt (July 6, 2004). 663:As a result of the changes, the Arminian-leaning 547:. The General Assembly responded with its famous 2648:A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan 2636:The Scopes Trial: A Brief History with Documents 2548:Harry Emerson Fosdick: Preacher, Pastor, Prophet 2152:The Scopes Trial: A Brief History with Documents 2007:. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 358–60. 1647:Episcopal Church in the United States of America 1155:the weak and was therefore the source of German 2677:(1909) (the online version is the 1917 edition) 2566:Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism 598:, was convicted of heresy by the Presbytery of 178:, whose fundamentalist faculty members founded 2483:. State University of New York Press. p. 1485:volunteered to serve on Scopes' defense team. 611:A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age 3224:Reformed Presbyterian Church General Assembly 2764: 2542:Henry Sloane Coffin: The Man and His Ministry 1846:and in 1983, the UPCUSA would merge with the 1456:for teaching evolution in a public school in 1203:, social and economic ideas owing as much to 574:The aftermath of the Briggs Affair, 1893–1900 378:American Presbyterians first became aware of 8: 2745:by William Ernest Hocking (1932) archive.org 184:Protestant denomination in the United States 2345:Fitzmier, John R.; Balmer, Randall (1991). 2340: 2338: 1840:United Presbyterian Church of North America 1655:United Presbyterian Church of North America 559:as a result (but only until 1899, when the 106:, first published in 1922 and then used in 3082: 3046: 2771: 2757: 2749: 2682:The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth 2554:Harry Emerson Fosdick: Persuasive Preacher 2446:Hutchison, William R. (November 1, 1993). 2120:Mathisen, Robert R., ed. (November 2001). 2115: 2113: 2038:, Oxford University Press, UK, 1980, p. 20 791:The Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth 366:(1841–1913), the first major proponent of 3169:Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America 3146:Christian Churches and Churches of Christ 2412: 2410: 2173: 2171: 1237:articles and replies in the pages of the 82:Learn how and when to remove this message 3189:Presbyterian Church in the United States 2145: 2143: 2141: 2124:. Baylor University Press. p. 462. 1973: 1971: 1848:Presbyterian Church in the United States 1476:World Christian Fundamentals Association 770:In 1910, a wealthy Presbyterian layman, 570:, ordained him as an Episcopal priest.) 45:This article includes a list of general 2372: 2370: 1988:from the original on December 21, 2021. 1911: 932:"Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" (1922) 2644:by Marvin Olasky and John Perry (2005) 1901:, a parallel divide within Catholicism 1871:schism in the Lutheran church and the 1804:, announced that they were forming an 1702:Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions 1410:At the 1925 General Assembly, held in 1015:Background: Darwinism and Christianity 891:. It was chaired by Speer and liberal 714:The belief that Christ's death was an 230:Early controversies in Presbyterianism 3130:American Christian Missionary Society 2067:. Baker Publishing Group. p. 165 7: 3355:Presbyterianism in the United States 3177:Upper Cumberland Presbyterian Church 2968:Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy 2614:A Brief History of the Presbyterians 2284:Alston, John Paul (September 2003). 2208:Wilcox, Clyde (September 20, 2000). 2150:Moran, Jeffrey P. (April 20, 2002). 1693:argued that in the face of emerging 283:, which occurred in the wake of the 120:fundamentalist–modernist controversy 18:Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy 3360:Protestantism-related controversies 2685:, edited by R.A. Torrey (1910–1915) 2654:Fundamentalism and American Culture 2608:Pearl S. Buck: A Cultural Biography 2381:Pearl S. Buck: A Cultural Biography 2036:Fundamentalism and American Culture 1921:The Journal of Presbyterian History 813:In 1915, the conservative magazine 2863:Moderators of the General Assembly 2154:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 16. 1295:The Auburn Affirmation (1923–1924) 1145:in response to the sinking of the 1041:was published, and argued that if 863:) was heavily associated with the 51:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 2954:Old School–New School Controversy 2235:The Cambridge Companion to Darwin 2051:, Mediaspaul, France, 1995, p. 20 1257:Moderator of the General Assembly 782:as taught in the newly published 704:of Scripture as a result of this. 281:Old School–New School controversy 3329:Reformed Christianity portal 3322: 3309: 3308: 2919:American Home Missionary Society 2697:"Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" 2377:Conn, Peter (January 28, 1998). 1772:Presbyterian missionary in May. 1584:Westminster Theological Seminary 954:“Shall the Fundamentalists Win?” 850:Westminster Theological Seminary 759:, who funded the publication of 594:, Professor of Old Testament at 180:Westminster Theological Seminary 36: 3271:Evangelical Presbyterian Church 3063:Evangelical Presbyterian Church 2705:by Clarence E. Macartney (1922) 2699:by Harry Emerson Fosdick (1922) 2538:by Clarence E. Macartney (1961) 2526:by Lefferts A. Loetscher (1954) 1474:, founder and president of the 989:Arch Street Presbyterian Church 625:Westminster Confession of Faith 303:Westminster Confession of Faith 271:controversy. The first was the 3200:Presbyterian Church in America 3158:Cumberland Presbyterian Church 2884:Princeton Theological Seminary 2690:The Origins of Paul's Religion 2562:by Bradley J. Longfield (1991) 2426:Princeton Theological Seminary 2212:. Westview Press. p. 31. 1812:opposed by both Macartney and 1746:article along with another in 1099:Cumberland Presbyterian Church 665:Cumberland Presbyterian Church 341:Princeton Theological Seminary 239:Princeton Theological Seminary 176:Princeton Theological Seminary 1: 2835:Old Side–New Side Controversy 2662:by J. Michael Utzinger (2006) 2550:by Robert Moats Miller (1985) 2544:by Morgan Phelps Noyes (1964) 2532:by Henry Sloane Coffin (1954) 2475:Vinz, Warren L. (June 1997). 1443:the evolution–creation debate 273:Old Side–New Side controversy 3350:Orthodox Presbyterian Church 3279:American Presbyterian Church 3252:Orthodox Presbyterian Church 3240:Vanguard Presbyterian Church 3232:Covenant Presbyterian Church 3010:United Andean Indian Mission 2674:The Scofield Reference Bible 2061:Sweeney, Douglas A. (2005). 1827:Orthodox Presbyterian Church 1460:. The ACLU sent in renowned 1402:(1877–1954) on the cover of 1391:The General Assembly of 1925 1332:The General Assembly of 1924 1247:The General Assembly of 1923 1159:. He drew on reports by the 952:'s sermon of May 21, 1922, " 846:Orthodox Presbyterian Church 844:(1881–1937), founder of the 275:, which occurred during the 154:. Two broad factions within 2996:Federal Council of Churches 2961:Gardiner Spring Resolutions 2912:Presbyterian Mission Agency 2898:Auburn Theological Seminary 2891:Union Presbyterian Seminary 2727:by J. Gresham Machen (1923) 2725:Christianity and Liberalism 2693:by J. Gresham Machen (1921) 2656:by George M. Marsden (2006) 2632:by Terry A. Chrisope (2001) 2592:by Robert W. Cherney (1994) 2586:by William K. Selden (1992) 2568:by George M. Marsden (1991) 2514:by J. Gresham Machen (1923) 2512:Christianity and Liberalism 2452:University of Chicago Press 2189:. Counterbalance Foundation 2187:Counterbalance Meta-Library 1635:Northern Baptist Convention 1606:Foreign missions, 1930–1936 1347:Christianity and Liberalism 1307:Auburn Theological Seminary 1035:in 1874, three years after 900:(IWM) was established with 857:Federal Council of Churches 211:Fuller Theological Seminary 207:Dallas Theological Seminary 205:), and seminaries (such as 3376: 3003:Interchurch World Movement 2638:by Jeffrey P. Moran (2002) 2626:by Edward J. Larson (1998) 2387:Cambridge University Press 2239:Cambridge University Press 2086:Gray, Asa (May 28, 1874). 1639:Reformed Church in America 1631:Methodist Episcopal Church 1425: 1298: 1227:Union Theological Seminary 898:Interchurch World Movement 893:Union Theological Seminary 764:: A Testimony to the Truth 744:and "Back to Fundamentals" 728:The historical reality of 492:did not write half of the 468:did not write most of the 349:Union Theological Seminary 108:Seven Questions in Dispute 3302: 3263:Bible Presbyterian Church 3081: 3049: 3024:Presbyterian Church (USA) 2989:Evangelical Protestantism 2556:by Halford R. Ryan (1989) 2518:The Presbyterian Conflict 2288:. iUniverse. p. 39. 2210:Onward Christian Soldiers 1852:Presbyterian Church (USA) 1625:laymen at the request of 1103:Presbyterian ruling elder 970:substitutionary atonement 958:First Presbyterian Church 596:Lane Theological Seminary 407:Archibald Alexander Hodge 201:), universities (such as 27:Christian religious issue 3055:New School Presbyterians 2930:Nathaniel William Taylor 1978:Tom Nelson (June 1999). 1860:Missouri Synod Lutherans 1375:General Assembly met in 1192:On the Origin of Species 810:editor Curtis Lee Laws. 785:Scofield Reference Bible 607:Arthur Cushman McGiffert 257:American Presbyterianism 174:and centered around the 2650:by Michael Kazin (2006) 2520:by Edwin H. Rian (1940) 2265:. Online Parallel Bible 2001:"A Compend of Heresies" 1895:Traditional Catholicism 1802:H. McAllister Griffiths 1627:John D. Rockefeller Jr. 1615:John D. Rockefeller Jr. 1422:The Scopes trial (1925) 1231:The Menace of Darwinism 1213:survival of the fittest 1045:'s theory excluded the 861:John D. Rockefeller Jr. 581:Plea for Peace and Work 419:The Presbyterian Review 411:William Robertson Smith 403:The Presbyterian Review 395:Charles Augustus Briggs 364:Charles Augustus Briggs 66:more precise citations. 3087:Springfield Presbytery 2905:Second Great Awakening 2731:The Auburn Affirmation 1999:Dorrien, Gary (2001). 1899:Second Vatican Council 1782:Westminster Confession 1715: 1679:William Ernest Hocking 1618: 1465:John Randolph Neal Jr. 1407: 1377:Grand Rapids, Michigan 1371:Convening the Assembly 1179:Nietzsche's philosophy 1095:William Jennings Bryan 1091: 1088:William Jennings Bryan 1079:William Jennings Bryan 1031:. Hodge published his 945: 852: 767: 723:resurrection of Christ 628: 375: 330:ministries to conduct 285:Second Great Awakening 253: 242: 136:authority of the Bible 115: 112:William Jennings Bryan 2877:Plan of Union of 1801 2849:Synod of Philadelphia 2828:First Great Awakening 2715:"Who is Fundamental?" 2703:"Shall Unbelief Win?" 2317:. HarperOne. p. 1736:, later published in 1724:The Christian Century 1710: 1613: 1596:Oswald Thompson Allis 1398: 1229:. At the end of one, 1177:which contended that 1086: 985:Clarence E. Macartney 950:Harry Emerson Fosdick 942:Harry Emerson Fosdick 940:A 1926 photograph of 939: 840: 800:Charles R. Erdman Sr. 751: 678:virgin birth of Jesus 619: 592:Henry Preserved Smith 583:manifesto drafted by 522:Francis Landey Patton 415:Princeton theologians 362: 345:its academic theology 277:First Great Awakening 248: 237: 97: 3114:Restoration Movement 3106:Christian Connection 2926:New England theology 2870:Princeton University 2820:in the United States 2610:by Peter Conn (1996) 2604:by Gary North (1996) 2598:by D. G. Hart (1995) 2454:. pp. 169–170. 1842:in 1958 to form the 1786:Re-Thinking Missions 1769:Re-Thinking Missions 1691:Re-Thinking Missions 1454:trial of John Scopes 1175:The Science of Power 833:Ecumenism, 1908–1921 804:Robert Elliott Speer 549:Portland Deliverance 514:scriptural inerrancy 444:did not write Ezra, 3122:Disciples of Christ 3031:Mainline Protestant 2942:Archibald Alexander 2034:George M. Marsden, 1814:Henry Sloane Coffin 1729:Biblical literalism 1400:Henry Sloane Coffin 1288:Henry Sloane Coffin 1263:, president of the 1090:(1860–1925) in 1907 911:presbyterian polity 825:, who elevated the 778:and a proponent of 195:mainline Protestant 3138:Churches of Christ 2975:Auburn Affirmation 2938:Princeton theology 2795:Church of Scotland 2739:(July 17–20, 1925) 2098:on October 1, 2012 1955:Tabletalk Magazine 1951:"Holding the Line" 1762:divinity of Christ 1716: 1619: 1592:Robert Dick Wilson 1548:practical divinity 1501:H. L. Mencken 1472:William Bell Riley 1467:to defend Scopes. 1408: 1319:Auburn Affirmation 1315:Syracuse, New York 1301:Auburn Affirmation 1265:College of Wooster 1261:Charles F. Wishart 1139:secretary of state 1092: 1057:theistic evolution 1038:The Descent of Man 1033:What is Darwinism? 1004:John Foster Dulles 946: 853: 823:dispensationalists 768: 629: 564:bishop of New York 456:did not write the 436:did not write the 376: 254: 243: 116: 3337: 3336: 3298: 3297: 3294: 3293: 2856:Synod of New York 2494:978-0-7914-3175-7 2461:978-0-226-36310-3 2400:978-0-521-63989-7 2360:978-0-664-25196-3 2328:978-0-06-063056-0 2295:978-0-595-29108-3 2248:978-0-521-77730-8 2219:978-0-8133-9759-7 2161:978-0-312-29426-7 2131:978-0-918954-79-4 1890:Continuity thesis 1864:Southern Baptists 1798:J. Gresham Machen 1588:Cornelius Van Til 1540:J. Gresham Machen 1458:Dayton, Tennessee 1343:J. Gresham Machen 1064:natural selection 972:, or the literal 918:J. Gresham Machen 889:Department of War 842:J. Gresham Machen 780:dispensationalism 774:, the founder of 730:Christ's miracles 539:In the meantime, 534:scholarly freedom 430:Biblical theology 215:Southern Baptists 188:Lutheran churches 172:Reformed churches 148:atoning sacrifice 92: 91: 84: 16:(Redirected from 3367: 3327: 3326: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3287: 3282: 3274: 3266: 3243: 3235: 3227: 3219: 3211: 3203: 3180: 3172: 3149: 3141: 3133: 3125: 3117: 3109: 3101: 3083: 3074: 3066: 3058: 3047: 3033: 3026: 3019: 3012: 3005: 2998: 2991: 2984: 2977: 2970: 2963: 2956: 2949: 2933: 2921: 2914: 2907: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2879: 2872: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2844: 2837: 2830: 2823: 2811: 2804: 2797: 2773: 2766: 2759: 2750: 2499: 2498: 2482: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2420:(January 2004). 2414: 2405: 2404: 2384: 2374: 2365: 2364: 2342: 2333: 2332: 2316: 2306: 2300: 2299: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2205: 2199: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2175: 2166: 2165: 2147: 2136: 2135: 2117: 2108: 2107: 2105: 2103: 2094:. Archived from 2083: 2077: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2058: 2052: 2045: 2039: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2021: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1975: 1966: 1964: 1963: 1961: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1916: 1272:General Assembly 1201:Social Darwinism 815:The Presbyterian 808:Northern Baptist 796:Higher Criticism 762:The Fundamentals 742:The Fundamentals 553:Washington, D.C. 545:Portland, Oregon 526:General Assembly 417:in the pages of 384:Princeton Review 380:higher criticism 368:higher criticism 203:Biola University 87: 80: 76: 73: 67: 62:this article by 53:inline citations 40: 39: 32: 21: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3321: 3306: 3290: 3285: 3277: 3269: 3261: 3254: 3246: 3238: 3230: 3222: 3214: 3206: 3198: 3191: 3183: 3175: 3167: 3160: 3152: 3144: 3136: 3128: 3120: 3112: 3104: 3096: 3089: 3077: 3069: 3061: 3053: 3036: 3029: 3022: 3015: 3008: 3001: 2994: 2987: 2980: 2973: 2966: 2959: 2952: 2936: 2924: 2917: 2910: 2903: 2896: 2889: 2882: 2875: 2868: 2861: 2854: 2847: 2840: 2833: 2826: 2816:Presbyterianism 2814: 2807: 2802:Synod of Ulster 2800: 2793: 2782: 2777: 2721:magazine (1923) 2669: 2618:James H. Smylie 2508: 2506:Further reading 2503: 2502: 2495: 2474: 2473: 2469: 2462: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2430: 2428: 2418:Smylie, James H 2416: 2415: 2408: 2401: 2376: 2375: 2368: 2361: 2344: 2343: 2336: 2329: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2296: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2268: 2266: 2261: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2241:. p. 214. 2232: 2231: 2227: 2220: 2207: 2206: 2202: 2192: 2190: 2179:Numbers, Ronald 2177: 2176: 2169: 2162: 2149: 2148: 2139: 2132: 2119: 2118: 2111: 2101: 2099: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2070: 2068: 2060: 2059: 2055: 2047:Luc Chartrand, 2046: 2042: 2033: 2029: 2019: 2017: 2015: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1977: 1976: 1969: 1959: 1957: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1918: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1885:Conflict thesis 1881: 1835: 1794: 1608: 1574:Tulsa, Oklahoma 1532: 1513: 1483:Clarence Darrow 1470:Baptist pastor 1437:, which passed 1430: 1424: 1393: 1373: 1355: 1339: 1334: 1303: 1297: 1249: 1205:Herbert Spencer 1081: 1047:design argument 1017: 1012: 934: 883:In response to 867:, and with the 835: 746: 674: 634: 576: 568:Henry C. Potter 484:but only a few 478:Song of Solomon 357: 232: 227: 160:fundamentalists 88: 77: 71: 68: 58:Please help to 57: 41: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3373: 3371: 3363: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3342: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3319: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3296: 3295: 3292: 3291: 3289: 3288: 3283: 3275: 3267: 3258: 3256: 3248: 3247: 3245: 3244: 3236: 3228: 3220: 3212: 3204: 3195: 3193: 3185: 3184: 3182: 3181: 3173: 3164: 3162: 3154: 3153: 3151: 3150: 3142: 3134: 3126: 3118: 3110: 3102: 3093: 3091: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3075: 3067: 3059: 3050: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3034: 3027: 3020: 3013: 3006: 2999: 2992: 2985: 2978: 2971: 2964: 2957: 2950: 2934: 2922: 2915: 2908: 2901: 2894: 2887: 2880: 2873: 2866: 2859: 2852: 2845: 2838: 2831: 2824: 2812: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2783: 2778: 2776: 2775: 2768: 2761: 2753: 2747: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2728: 2722: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2686: 2678: 2668: 2667:External links 2665: 2664: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2500: 2493: 2467: 2460: 2438: 2406: 2399: 2366: 2359: 2334: 2327: 2301: 2294: 2276: 2263:"Genesis 1:24" 2254: 2247: 2225: 2218: 2200: 2167: 2160: 2137: 2130: 2109: 2078: 2053: 2040: 2027: 2013: 1991: 1967: 1949:(March 2008), 1938: 1910: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1892: 1887: 1880: 1877: 1875:of 1979–1990. 1834: 1831: 1793: 1790: 1643:Congregational 1607: 1604: 1544:Geerhardus Vos 1531: 1528: 1512: 1509: 1426:Main article: 1423: 1420: 1412:Columbus, Ohio 1392: 1389: 1372: 1369: 1354: 1351: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1299:Main article: 1296: 1293: 1248: 1245: 1240:New York Times 1220:James H. Leuba 1209:Thomas Malthus 1164:Vernon Kellogg 1135:Woodrow Wilson 1080: 1077: 1073:B. B. Warfield 1043:Charles Darwin 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 933: 930: 922:fundamentalist 834: 831: 745: 739: 734: 733: 726: 719: 712: 705: 673: 670: 637:Henry van Dyke 633: 630: 621:Henry van Dyke 585:Henry van Dyke 575: 572: 494:book of Isaiah 476:wrote not the 458:books of Kings 423:B. B. Warfield 405:in 1880, with 356: 353: 265:fundamentalist 259:had gone into 231: 228: 226: 223: 221:, and others. 90: 89: 44: 42: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3372: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3039: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3018: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2983: 2982:Neo-orthodoxy 2979: 2976: 2972: 2969: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2946:Charles Hodge 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2920: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2774: 2769: 2767: 2762: 2760: 2755: 2754: 2751: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2480: 2471: 2468: 2463: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2442: 2439: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2382: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2314: 2305: 2302: 2297: 2291: 2287: 2280: 2277: 2264: 2258: 2255: 2250: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2226: 2221: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2201: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2163: 2157: 2153: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2127: 2123: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2082: 2079: 2066: 2065: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2028: 2016: 2014:9780664223540 2010: 2006: 2002: 1995: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1982: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1939: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1912: 1905: 1900: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1822: 1818: 1815: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1800:, along with 1799: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1750: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1719:Pearl S. 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A. Hodge 1029:World War I 885:World War I 874:Prohibition 869:Progressive 721:The bodily 698:Holy Spirit 690:inspiration 650:reprobation 627:, 1900–1910 421:. In 1889, 370:within the 320:Arminianism 307:Holy Spirit 122:is a major 64:introducing 3344:Categories 3098:Christians 2385:. London: 2237:. London: 2092:The Nation 1947:Hart, D.G. 1695:secularism 1677:professor 1439:such a law 1433:including 1157:militarism 1126:Chautauqua 1107:Democratic 711:of Christ. 658:Antichrist 600:Cincinnati 446:Chronicles 438:Pentateuch 332:evangelism 328:parachurch 225:Background 168:modernists 138:; and the 47:references 2809:Calvinism 2193:August 1, 2020:March 14, 1906:Footnotes 1829:in 1939. 1687:in 1932. 1435:Tennessee 1406:magazine. 1276:evolution 1183:Nietzsche 1027:prior to 1025:Darwinism 902:John Mott 776:Union Oil 757:Union Oil 716:atonement 702:inerrancy 561:Episcopal 557:defrocked 312:Calvinism 269:modernist 199:Zondervan 164:orthodoxy 158:emerged: 72:July 2018 3315:Category 2431:July 26, 2269:July 25, 1986:Archived 1933:23335297 1879:See also 1739:Harper's 1653:and the 1600:apostasy 1480:agnostic 1173:'s book 1053:Asa Gray 848:and the 718:for sin. 700:and the 656:was the 541:New York 486:Proverbs 454:Jeremiah 450:Nehemiah 336:missions 2787:History 2391:148–154 1869:Seminex 1760:or the 1744:Harpers 1675:Harvard 1623:Baptist 696:by the 692:of the 530:Detroit 502:Abraham 474:Solomon 460:or the 440:; that 292:slavery 104:atheism 60:improve 3307: 3281:(1979) 3273:(1956) 3265:(1937) 3255:(1936) 3242:(2020) 3234:(2006) 3226:(1991) 3218:(1991) 3210:(1983) 3202:(1973) 3192:(1861) 3179:(1955) 3171:(1874) 3161:(1810) 3140:(1906) 3132:(1849) 3124:(1849) 3116:(1832) 3108:(1810) 3100:(1804) 3090:(1803) 3073:(2012) 3065:(1981) 3057:(1838) 2733:(1924) 2620:(1996) 2491: 2458: 2397: 2357: 2325: 2292: 2245: 2216: 2158: 2128: 2011: 1931: 1833:Legacy 1669:, and 1649:, the 1641:, the 1637:, the 1633:, the 1594:, and 1462:lawyer 1120:, and 645:atoned 490:Isaiah 488:; and 470:Psalms 399:Hebrew 261:schism 166:; and 146:, and 134:; the 124:schism 49:, but 2717:from 1929:JSTOR 1671:Japan 1667:China 1663:Burma 1659:India 694:Bible 641:elect 510:Judah 506:Jacob 466:David 434:Moses 140:death 2944:and 2719:Time 2489:ISBN 2456:ISBN 2433:2007 2395:ISBN 2355:ISBN 2323:ISBN 2290:ISBN 2271:2007 2243:ISBN 2214:ISBN 2195:2007 2156:ISBN 2126:ISBN 2104:2011 2073:2023 2022:2014 2009:ISBN 1962:2017 1897:and 1867:the 1858:the 1542:and 1450:ACLU 1448:The 1404:Time 1207:and 1122:1908 1118:1900 1114:1896 1071:and 876:and 802:and 707:The 688:The 654:Pope 498:Noah 442:Ezra 334:and 209:and 118:The 2616:by 2319:271 1345:'s 1137:'s 991:in 960:in 480:or 448:or 150:of 110:by 102:to 3346:: 2487:. 2485:79 2450:. 2424:. 2409:^ 2393:. 2369:^ 2337:^ 2321:. 2185:. 2181:. 2170:^ 2140:^ 2112:^ 2090:. 2003:. 1970:^ 1953:, 1925:78 1923:. 1854:. 1665:, 1661:, 1590:, 1321:. 1243:. 1116:, 1006:. 964:. 880:. 566:, 508:, 504:, 500:, 472:; 464:; 452:; 322:, 314:. 217:, 142:, 2948:) 2940:( 2932:) 2928:( 2822:) 2818:( 2772:e 2765:t 2758:v 2497:. 2464:. 2435:. 2403:. 2363:. 2331:. 2298:. 2273:. 2251:. 2222:. 2197:. 2164:. 2134:. 2106:. 2075:. 2024:. 1965:. 1935:. 732:. 725:. 267:– 114:. 85:) 79:( 74:) 70:( 56:. 20:)

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Knowledge (XXG)

Fundamentalist–modernist controversy

Index