328:, or ICF. The magnetic approaches, MCF for short, are generally designed to operate in the (quasi) steady state. That is, the plasma is maintained in fusion conditions for time scales much longer than the fusion reactions, on the order of seconds or minutes. The goal is to allow most of the fuel time to undergo a fusion reaction. In contrast, ICF reactions last only for a time on the order of dozens of fusion reactions, and instead attempt to ensure the conditions are such that the much of fuel will undergo fusion even in this very short time span. To do so, ICF devices compress the fuel to extreme conditions, where the self-heating reactions occur very rapidly.
3103:
3466:
3346:
3768:
2971:
3934:
3242:
3975:
3739:
3599:
3358:
4002:
3831:
3780:
3722:
3682:
3641:
3587:
3404:
2983:
1392:= 1.25 running on D-D fuel, thus reaching extrapolated breakeven. This measurement was based on the JET definition of Q*. Using this definition, JET had also reached extrapolated breakeven some time earlier. If one considers the energy balance in these conditions, and the analysis of previous machines, it is argued the original definition should be used, and thus both machines remain well below break-even of any sort.
3195:
3441:
3322:
3207:
3183:
3540:
3922:
3230:
3071:
3506:
3283:
3963:
3946:
3670:
3334:
3266:
3054:
3899:
3629:
3528:
3478:
3300:
3159:
3142:
20:
506:. Neutrons are electrically neutral and will travel out of any plasma before they can deposit energy back into it. This means that only the charged particles from the reactions can be captured within the fuel mass and give rise to self-heating. If the fraction of the energy being released in the charged particles is
868:
369:, that is, all the energy being fed into the system, then ICF devices are hopelessly inefficient. For instance, the NIF uses over 400 MJ of electrical power to produce an output of 3.15 MJ. In contrast to MCF, this energy has to be supplied to spark every reaction, not just get the system up and running.
1068:
As the temperature of the plasma increases, the rate of fusion reactions grows rapidly, and with it, the rate of self-heating. In contrast, non-capturable energy losses like x-rays do not grow at the same rate. Thus, in overall terms, the self-heating process becomes more efficient as the temperature
449:
The records for extrapolated breakeven are slightly higher than the records for scientific breakeven. Both JET and JT-60 have reached values around 1.25 (see below for details) while running on D-D fuel. When running on D-T, only possible in JET, the maximum performance is about half the extrapolated
372:
ICF proponents point out that alternative "drivers" could be used that would improve this ratio at least ten times. If one is attempting to understand improvements in the performance of an ICF system, then it is not the performance of the drivers that is interesting, but the performance of the fusion
1146:
Most fusion reactor designs being studied as of 2017 are based on the D-T reaction, as this is by far the easiest to ignite, and is energy-dense. This reaction gives off most of its energy in the form of a single highly energetic neutron, and only 20% of the energy in the form of an alpha. Thus, for
335:
devices requires very little energy to run. Once set up, the steady state is maintained by injecting heat into the plasma with a variety of devices. These devices represent the vast majority of the energy needed to keep the system running. They are also relatively efficient, with perhaps as much as
1238:
There is an additional complication. During the heating phase when the system is being brought up to operational conditions, some of the energy released by the fusion reactions will be used to heat the surrounding fuel, and thus not be released to the environment. This is no longer true when the
1133:
Commercial breakeven relies on factors outside the technology of the reactor itself, and it is possible that even a reactor with a fully ignited plasma operating well beyond engineering breakeven will not generate enough electricity rapidly enough to pay for itself. Whether any of the mainline
277:, is lost through a variety of mechanisms, mostly convection of the fuel to the walls of the reactor chamber and various forms of radiation that cannot be captured to generate power. In order to keep the reaction going, the system has to provide heating to make up for these losses, where
1239:
plasma reaches its operational temperature and enters thermal equilibrium. Thus, if one averages over the entire cycle, this energy will be included as part of the heating term, that is, some of the energy that was captured for heating would otherwise have been released in P
483:
depending on the source, considers the need to extract the energy from the reactor, turn that into electrical energy, and feed some of that back into the heating system. This closed loop sending electricity from the fusion back into the heating system is known as
1479:
to be only the amount energy delivered to "the hottest portion of the fuel", calculating that only 10 kJ of the original laser energy reached the part of the fuel that was undergoing fusion reactions. This release has been heavily criticized in the field.
746:
103:
Over time, several related terms have entered the fusion lexicon. Energy that is not captured within the fuel can be captured externally to produce electricity. That electricity can be used to heat the plasma to operational temperatures. A system that is
1214:
system while using the compression from the confinement as the heating source. Lawson defined breakeven in this context as the total energy released by the entire reaction cycle compared to the total energy supplied to the machine during the same cycle.
343:
in the steady state is something fairly close to all of the energy being fed into the reactor, and the efficiency of the heating systems is generally ignored. When the total efficiency is considered then it is generally not part of the calculation of
1198:= 0.4, ITER (in theory) could produce as much as 112 MW of heating. This means ITER would operate at engineering breakeven. However, ITER is not equipped with power-extraction systems, so this remains theoretical until follow-on machines like
256:. Expanding on all of these, Lawson's paper made detailed predictions for the amount of power that would be lost through various mechanisms, and compared that to the energy needed to sustain the reaction. This balance is today known as the
1084:. In the case of D-T fuel, where only 20% of the energy is released as alphas that give rise to self-heating, this cannot occur until the plasma is releasing at least five times the power needed to keep it at its working temperature.
1106:. More importantly, this number is more likely to be near-constant, meaning that further improvements in plasma performance will result in more energy that can be directly used for commercial generation, as opposed to recirculation.
1317:
1079:
reaches zero, that is, all of the energy needed to keep the plasma at the operational temperature is being supplied by self-heating, and the amount of external energy that needs to be added drops to zero. This point is known as
581:
is typically on the order of 1.1 to 1.3, meaning it produces a small amount of energy as well. The net result, the total amount of energy released to the environment and thus available for energy production, is referred to as
243:
was the first to explore the energy balance mechanisms in detail, initially in classified works but published openly in a now-famous 1957 paper. In this paper he considered and refined work by earlier researchers, notably
1098:
drops to zero as the other power sinks in the system, like the magnets and cooling systems, still need to be powered. Generally, however, these are much smaller than the energy in the heaters, and require a much smaller
921:
is self-supplied. We need a total of 10 MW of heating and get 4 of that through alphas, so we need another 6 MW of power. Of the original 20 MW of output, 4 MW are left in the fuel, so we have 16 MW of net output. Using
1230:
may be quite high while the system is being set up, and then drop to zero when it is fully developed, so one may be tempted to pick an instant in time when it is operating at its best to determine a high, or infinite,
112:. Operating above engineering breakeven, a machine would produce more electricity than it uses and could sell that excess. One that sells enough electricity to cover its operating costs is sometimes known as
1189:
Using these values and considering ITER, the reactor produces 500 MW of fusion power for 50 MW of supply. If 20% of the output is self-heating, that means 400 MW escape. Assuming the same
984:= 4 one needs 5 MW of heating, 4 of which come from the fusion, leaving 1 MW of external power required, which can easily be generated by the 18.4 MW net output. Thus for this theoretical design the
217:, in normal operating conditions. For those designs that do not run in the steady state, but are instead pulsed, the same calculation can be made by summing all of the fusion energy produced in
604:
and generators. That electricity is then fed back into the heating system. Each of these steps in the generation chain has an efficiency to consider. In the case of the plasma heating systems,
1370:
1487:
value of 0.7, producing 1.35 MJ of energy from a fuel capsule by focusing 1.9 MJ of laser energy on the capsule. The result was an eight-fold increase over any prior energy output.
1052:
3418:
1656:
Nuckolls, John; Wood, Lowell; Thiessen, Albert; Zimmerman, George (15 September 1972). "Laser
Compression of Matter to Super-High Densities: Thermonuclear (CTR) Applications".
4028:
1605:
863:{\displaystyle Q_{E}\equiv {\frac {P_{\text{fus}}}{P_{\text{heat}}}}={\frac {1}{\eta _{\text{heat}}\cdot f_{\text{recirc}}\cdot \eta _{\text{elec}}\cdot (1-f_{\text{ch}})}}}
92:
increases past this point, increasing self-heating eventually removes the need for external heating. At this point the reaction becomes self-sustaining, a condition called
1253:
678:
638:
967:
711:
1118:, which occurs when the economic value of any net electricity left over after recirculation is enough to pay for the reactor. This value depends both on the reactor's
3063:
1025:
435:
In order to lower costs, many experimental machines are designed to run on test fuels of hydrogen or deuterium alone, leaving out the tritium. In this case, the term
1414:
as the energy delivered by the driver to the capsule, as opposed to the energy put into the driver by an external power source. This definition produces much higher
897:
738:
84: = 1 will cool without external heating. With typical fuels, self-heating in fusion reactors is not expected to match the external sources until at least
3112:
1235:. A better solution in these cases is to use the original Lawson definition averaged over the reaction to produce a similar value as the original definition.
1226:
that run for several minutes. In this case, the definition of "the entire reaction cycle" becomes blurred. In the case of an ignited plasma, for instance, P
391:
of 1.5. This is, ultimately, the same definition as the one used in MCF, but the upstream losses are smaller in those systems and no distinction is needed.
1432:= 1. On occasion, they referred to this definition as "scientific breakeven". This term was not universally used; other groups adopted the redefinition of
446:, is used to define the expected performance of the machine running on D-T fuel based on the performance when running on hydrogen or deuterium alone.
3168:
540:
is captured in the fuel, that means the power available for generating electricity is the power that is not released in that form, or (1 −
2975:
1684:
3433:
3372:
3731:
3691:
3046:
2465:
1400:
557:
In the case of neutrons carrying most of the practical energy, as is the case in the D-T fuel, this neutron energy is normally captured in a "
3107:
2288:
2061:
1381:
is the power applied to raise the internal energy of the plasma. It is this definition that was used when reporting JET's record 0.67 value.
2280:
3350:
3019:
1498:≥ 1 milestone on 5 December 2022. This was achieved by producing 3.15 MJ after delivering 2.05 MJ to the target, for an equivalent
994:
Considering real-world losses and efficiencies, Q values between 5 and 8 are typically listed for magnetic confinement devices to reach
2217:
1322:
380:
for ICF devices as the amount of driver energy actually hitting the fuel, about 2 MJ in the case of NIF. Using this definition of
2836:
1491:
2513:
2434:
2155:
1855:
358:
In contrast, in ICF devices the energy needed to create the required conditions is enormous, and the devices that do so, typically
2302:
1736:
1597:
80:. Most fusion reactions release at least some of their energy in a form that cannot be captured within the plasma, so a system at
3367:
2793:
2102:
Ahlstrom, H. G. (June 1981). "Laser fusion experiments, facilities, and diagnostics at
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory".
432:, and highly mobile, it represents a significant safety concern and adds to the cost of designing and operating such a reactor.
65: = 1, when the power being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the required heating power, is referred to as
4033:
3875:
3009:
1218:
Over time, as performance increased by orders of magnitude, the reaction times have extended from microseconds to seconds, and
1453:
On 7 October 2013, LLNL announced that roughly one week earlier, on 29 September, it had achieved scientific breakeven in the
3423:
1800:
428:
as their primary fuel; other fuels have attractive features but are much harder to ignite. As tritium is radioactive, highly
2191:
324:
Over time, new types of fusion devices were proposed with different operating systems. Of particular note is the concept of
1182:= 0.2 approximately. Lower would be better but will be hard to achieve. Using these values we find for a practical reactor
3362:
3270:
1175:= 0.4 (40%). The purpose of a fusion reactor is to produce power, not to recirculate it, so a practical reactor must have
3850:
2697:
128:. A reactor running on these fuels that reaches the conditions for breakeven if tritium was introduced is said to be at
3804:
3726:
3696:
3036:
3029:
2916:
2821:
2808:
2689:
1211:
325:
188:= 1.54 with a 3.15 MJ output from a 2.05 MJ laser heating, which remains the record for any fusion scheme as of 2023.
181:
1829:
1464:
was approximately 14 kJ, while the laser output was 1.8 MJ. By their previous definition, this would be a
3860:
3408:
3275:
3014:
2905:
2881:
2508:
2503:
2458:
1454:
240:
177:
4068:
3784:
3633:
2947:
1199:
2326:
2261:
96:, and is generally regarded as highly desirable for practical reactor designs. Ignition corresponds to infinite
3789:
3701:
3603:
3309:
2798:
3554:
2645:
4011:
3757:
3686:
3645:
3413:
2785:
2670:
2601:
3572:
2952:
2719:
2665:
2650:
1210:
Many early fusion devices operated for microseconds, using some sort of pulsed power source to feed their
1693:
1030:
4058:
3608:
3304:
3024:
2886:
2869:
2451:
3075:
3618:
3487:
3234:
2729:
2660:
2613:
2561:
2392:
2111:
1766:
144:
3428:
3251:
2891:
680:
around 35 to 40%. Combining these we get a net efficiency of the power conversion loop as a whole,
429:
263:
In a successful fusion reactor design, the fusion reactions generate an amount of power designated
2065:
647:
607:
3510:
3211:
2992:
2724:
2371:
2016:
1782:
1154:= 0.2. This means that self-heating does not become equal to the external heating until at least
939:
683:
158:(the theoretical Q value of D-T fusion as extrapolated from D-D results) in a tokamak is held by
3950:
1952:
331:
In an MCF device, the initial plasma is set up and maintained by large magnets, which in modern
3549:
2775:
2756:
2623:
2523:
2518:
2430:
2151:
2127:
1737:"Lessons from fusion ignition and the implications for fusion energy science and engineering"
1563:
was used to denote the total energy released by the individual fusion reactions, in MeV, and
1483:
On 17 August 2021, the NIF announced that in early August 2021, an experiment had achieved a
997:
231:. However, there are several definitions of breakeven that consider additional power losses.
3938:
3674:
3515:
3146:
3004:
2826:
2702:
2571:
2556:
2400:
2363:
2225:
2199:
2119:
1774:
1665:
914:
is 10 MW. Of that original 20 MW about 20% is alphas, so assuming complete capture, 4 MW of
558:
257:
2239:
1598:"DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition | Department of Energy"
875:
743:
Thus, the fusion energy gain factor required to reach engineering breakeven is defined as:
716:
31:
was the first device able to achieve fusion energy gain factor significantly larger than 1.
4063:
3855:
3659:
3520:
3246:
3187:
3151:
2997:
2707:
2655:
2541:
1063:
336:
half of the electricity fed into them ending up as energy in the plasma. For this reason,
332:
249:
1863:
1602:
DOE National
Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition | Department of Energy
76:
The energy given off by the fusion reactions may be captured within the fuel, leading to
2396:
2172:
2115:
1770:
3772:
3338:
3256:
3080:
2590:
2546:
2498:
2490:
1123:
597:
503:
54:
50:
2443:
1250:
Operators of the JET reactor argued that this input should be removed from the total:
4052:
4006:
3840:
3794:
3287:
3058:
2987:
2816:
2608:
2536:
2404:
2375:
1786:
1312:{\displaystyle Q^{*}\equiv {\frac {P_{\text{fus}}}{P_{\text{heat}}-P_{\text{temp}}}}}
641:
601:
593:
245:
28:
1755:"The Mirror Fusion Test Facility: An Intermediate Device to a Mirror Fusion Reactor"
420:
Since the 1950s, most commercial fusion reactor designs have been based on a mix of
3979:
3967:
3870:
3591:
2638:
2628:
2474:
1119:
253:
200:
58:
46:
2383:
Lawson, John (1957). "Some
Criteria for a Power Producing Thermonuclear Reactor".
1806:
362:, are extremely inefficient, about 1%. If one were to use a similar definition of
2424:
2145:
3880:
3845:
3835:
3482:
3386:
2746:
2734:
2712:
570:
1754:
488:. In this case, the basic definition changes by adding additional terms to the
394:
To make this distinction clear, modern works often refer to this definition as
3865:
2367:
2203:
1127:
566:
1997:
3903:
3544:
3041:
2761:
2680:
2675:
2618:
565:
that produces more tritium that is used to fuel the reactor. Due to various
421:
125:
2131:
1069:
increases, and less energy is needed from external sources to keep it hot.
2413:
1778:
1384:
Some debate over this definition continues. In 1998, the operators of the
640:
is on the order of 60 to 70%, while modern generator systems based on the
120:, are very expensive, so many experiments run on various test gasses like
3955:
2849:
2281:"With explosive new result, laser-powered fusion effort nears 'ignition'"
2123:
1550:
in Lawson's original paper, but changed here to match modern terminology.
121:
24:
3743:
3314:
2927:
2766:
2751:
2739:
2566:
1717:
562:
499:
425:
140:
117:
2091:(Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. p. 2.
1161:
Efficiency values depend on design details but may be in the range of
3326:
3292:
3134:
1669:
2303:"DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition"
348:, but instead included in the calculation of engineering breakeven,
19:
3173:
3926:
3532:
3470:
3445:
3199:
3163:
3129:
3124:
2874:
2844:
1385:
1054:
and thus require much higher Q values, on the order of 50 to 100.
359:
159:
18:
3117:
2942:
2633:
2044:
2042:
1219:
1135:
2447:
1968:
1966:
1964:
2415:
Q, Break-even and the nτE Diagram for
Transient Fusion Plasmas
1571:
to refer to the power balance, as it is used in this article.
1027:, while inertial devices have dramatically lower values for
2218:"Latest Fusion Results from the National Ignition Facility"
533:. If this self-heating process is perfect, that is, all of
2150:. National Academies Press. July 2013. pp. 45, 53.
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
899:
is used, consider a reactor operating at 20 MW and
2354:
Entler, Slavomir (June 2015). "Engineering
Breakeven".
2192:"Laser fusion experiment extracts net energy from fuel"
1494:
announced that NIF had exceeded the previously elusive
1418:
values, and changes the definition of breakeven to be
1403:(LLNL), the leader in ICF research, uses the modified
713:, of around 0.20 to 0.25. That is, about 20 to 25% of
495:
side to consider the efficiencies of these processes.
224:
and all of the energy expended producing the pulse in
2327:"National Ignition Facility achieves fusion ignition"
2062:"JT-60U Reaches 1.25 of Equivalent Fusion Power Gain"
1627:
1625:
1623:
1325:
1256:
1033:
1000:
942:
878:
749:
719:
686:
650:
610:
573:
reactions, the blanket may have a power gain factor M
203:
being released by the fusion reactions in a reactor,
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1830:"Fusion reactors: Not what they're cracked up to be"
1087:
Ignition, by definition, corresponds to an infinite
4029:
International Fusion
Materials Irradiation Facility
3992:
3912:
3889:
3821:
3814:
3803:
3756:
3712:
3658:
3617:
3571:
3496:
3454:
3394:
3385:
3220:
3091:
2961:
2935:
2926:
2915:
2904:
2862:
2835:
2807:
2784:
2688:
2600:
2589:
2580:
2489:
2482:
1468:of 0.0077. For this press release, they re-defined
1138:can reach this goal is being debated in the field.
1364:
1311:
1243:and is therefore not indicative of an operational
1046:
1019:
961:
891:
862:
732:
705:
672:
632:
143:(as recorded during actual D-T fusion) was set by
2418:. 17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering.
2147:Assessment of Inertial Confinement Fusion Targets
1365:{\displaystyle P_{\text{temp}}={\frac {dWp}{dt}}}
16:Ratio of energy in to out in a fusion power plant
2262:"Fusion "Breakthrough" at NIF? Uh, Not Really …"
1567:referred to the power balance. Later works used
210:, to the constant heating power being supplied,
1534:In this case, "heat" is somewhat of a misnomer.
502:and a smaller amount as charged particles like
2385:Proceedings of the Physical Society, Section B
2048:
2033:
1984:
1972:
1686:An Introduction to Inertial Confinement Fusion
498:D-T reactions release most of their energy as
373:process itself. Thus, it is typical to define
53:reactor to the power required to maintain the
2459:
1122:and any financing costs related to that, its
8:
2173:"Nuclear fusion milestone passed at US lab"
1692:. CRC Press. pp. 13–24. Archived from
980:= 2 cannot reach engineering breakeven. At
3818:
3811:
3577:
3391:
2932:
2923:
2912:
2597:
2586:
2486:
2466:
2452:
2444:
1957:. Department of Energy. 1981. p. 8.5.
2017:"Fusion Research: Time to Set a New Path"
1339:
1330:
1324:
1300:
1287:
1276:
1270:
1261:
1255:
1038:
1032:
1005:
999:
947:
941:
883:
877:
848:
826:
813:
800:
790:
779:
769:
763:
754:
748:
724:
718:
691:
685:
655:
649:
615:
609:
116:. Additionally, fusion fuels, especially
108:in this way is referred to as running at
2240:"Scientific Breakeven for Fusion Energy"
1126:including fuel and maintenance, and the
2423:McCracken, Garry; Stott, Peter (2005).
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1718:"ITER Applauds NIF Fusion Breakthrough"
1589:
1511:
589:, the net power output of the reactor.
513:, then the power in these particles is
169:= 1.25, slightly besting JET's earlier
2002:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
1939:
1927:
1906:
1643:
1631:
1401:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
1894:
1559:In Lawson's original paper, the term
1114:The final definition of breakeven is
412:, to contrast it with similar terms.
7:
39:, usually expressed with the symbol
1735:Hurricane, Omar (24 October 2023).
1608:from the original on April 22, 2024
1047:{\displaystyle \eta _{\text{heat}}}
592:The blanket is then cooled and the
2224:. 13 February 2014. Archived from
1802:17th IAEA Fusion Energy Conference
1753:Karpenko, V. N. (September 1983).
1492:United States Department of Energy
14:
2260:Clery, Daniel (10 October 2013).
2190:Ball, Philip (12 February 2014).
1834:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1805:. 19 October 1998. Archived from
291:to maintain thermal equilibrium.
4000:
3973:
3961:
3944:
3932:
3920:
3897:
3829:
3778:
3766:
3737:
3720:
3680:
3668:
3639:
3627:
3597:
3585:
3538:
3526:
3504:
3476:
3464:
3439:
3402:
3356:
3344:
3332:
3320:
3298:
3281:
3264:
3240:
3228:
3205:
3193:
3181:
3157:
3140:
3101:
3069:
3052:
2981:
2969:
2279:Clery, Daniel (17 August 2021).
1828:Jassby, Daniel (19 April 2017).
929:of 1.15 for the blanket, we get
199:is simply the comparison of the
4034:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility
2171:Rincon, Paul (7 October 2013).
2064:. 7 August 1998. Archived from
1472:once again, this time equating
936:about 18.4 MW. Assuming a good
151:= 0.67 in 1997. The record for
135:The current record for highest
2015:Hirsch, Robert (Summer 2015).
854:
835:
270:. Some amount of this energy,
176:= 1.14. In December 2022, the
1:
969:of 0.25, that requires 24 MW
294:The most basic definition of
2698:Field-reversed configuration
2412:Meade, Dale (October 1997).
2087:Moses, Edward (4 May 2007).
1091:, but it does not mean that
673:{\displaystyle \eta _{elec}}
633:{\displaystyle \eta _{heat}}
2023:. Vol. 31, no. 4.
1954:Laser Program Annual Report
1759:Nuclear Technology - Fusion
1457:(NIF). In this experiment,
1396:Scientific breakeven at NIF
962:{\displaystyle \eta _{NPC}}
706:{\displaystyle \eta _{NPC}}
326:inertial confinement fusion
4087:
2405:10.1088/0370-1301/70/1/303
2049:McCracken & Stott 2005
2034:McCracken & Stott 2005
1985:McCracken & Stott 2005
1973:McCracken & Stott 2005
1455:National Ignition Facility
1436:but continued to refer to
1061:
907:= 2 at 20 MW implies that
252:, and a review article by
178:National Ignition Facility
4024:
3580:
2552:Fusion energy gain factor
2368:10.1007/s10894-014-9830-2
2204:10.1038/nature.2014.14710
2089:Status of the NIF Project
1490:On 13 December 2022, the
37:fusion energy gain factor
2356:Journal of Fusion Energy
1987:, pp. 43, 130, 166.
1388:claimed to have reached
2477:, processes and devices
1206:Transient vs. continual
1020:{\displaystyle Q_{E}=1}
1366:
1313:
1048:
1021:
963:
893:
864:
734:
707:
674:
634:
458:Another related term,
437:extrapolated breakeven
416:Extrapolated breakeven
130:extrapolated breakeven
69:, or in some sources,
32:
1779:10.13182/FST83-A22885
1683:Pfalzner, S. (2006).
1604:. December 13, 2022.
1450:simply as breakeven.
1367:
1314:
1130:of electrical power.
1062:Further information:
1049:
1022:
964:
894:
892:{\displaystyle Q_{E}}
865:
740:can be recirculated.
735:
733:{\displaystyle P_{R}}
708:
675:
635:
600:driving conventional
460:engineering breakeven
454:Engineering breakeven
110:engineering breakeven
23:The explosion of the
22:
2614:Triple-alpha process
2562:Magnetohydrodynamics
2514:List of technologies
2124:10.1364/AO.20.001902
2021:Issues in Technology
1502: of 1.54.
1323:
1254:
1222:is designed to have
1212:magnetic confinement
1116:commercial breakeven
1110:Commercial breakeven
1031:
998:
991:is between 2 and 4.
940:
876:
747:
717:
684:
648:
608:
396:scientific breakeven
320:Scientific breakeven
182:inertial confinement
71:scientific breakeven
3692:Lockheed Martin CFR
2646:Proton–proton chain
2509:List of experiments
2397:1957PPSB...70....6L
2116:1981ApOpt..20.1902A
2036:, pp. 33, 186.
1942:, pp. 514–515.
1856:"Plasma Dictionary"
1809:on 15 December 2018
1771:1983NucTF...4..308K
1724:. 12 December 2022.
387:, one arrives at a
88: ≈ 5. If
61:. The condition of
27:hydrogen bomb. The
2725:Dense plasma focus
2429:. Academic Press.
1362:
1309:
1147:the D-T reaction,
1044:
1017:
976:, so a reactor at
959:
889:
872:To understand how
860:
730:
703:
670:
630:
184:facility, reached
114:economic breakeven
45:, is the ratio of
33:
4046:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4020:
4019:
3988:
3987:
3939:Asterix IV (PALS)
3752:
3751:
3654:
3653:
3567:
3566:
3381:
3380:
2900:
2899:
2858:
2857:
2817:Bubble (acoustic)
2799:Magnetized target
2776:Toroidal solenoid
2532:
2531:
2068:on 6 January 2013
1860:Nagoya University
1664:(5368): 139–142.
1543:This was denoted
1360:
1333:
1307:
1303:
1290:
1279:
1142:Practical example
1041:
858:
851:
829:
816:
803:
785:
782:
772:
4076:
4069:Energy economics
4005:
4004:
4003:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3937:
3936:
3935:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3819:
3812:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3758:Magneto-inertial
3742:
3741:
3740:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3578:
3558:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3516:Wendelstein 7-AS
3509:
3508:
3507:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3392:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3260:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3198:
3197:
3196:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3177:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3084:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3010:Electric Tokamak
2986:
2985:
2984:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2933:
2924:
2913:
2794:Magnetized liner
2786:Magneto-inertial
2703:Levitated dipole
2598:
2587:
2557:Lawson criterion
2487:
2468:
2461:
2454:
2445:
2440:
2419:
2408:
2379:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2299:
2293:
2292:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2228:on 24 June 2021.
2214:
2208:
2207:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1959:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1862:. Archived from
1851:
1838:
1837:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1765:(2P2): 308–315.
1750:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1698:
1691:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1670:10.1038/239139a0
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1594:
1572:
1557:
1551:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1526:
1518:Or very rarely,
1516:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1351:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1292:
1291:
1288:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1266:
1265:
1168:= 0.7 (70%) and
1053:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1042:
1039:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1010:
1009:
968:
966:
965:
960:
958:
957:
898:
896:
895:
890:
888:
887:
869:
867:
866:
861:
859:
857:
853:
852:
849:
831:
830:
827:
818:
817:
814:
805:
804:
801:
791:
786:
784:
783:
780:
774:
773:
770:
764:
759:
758:
739:
737:
736:
731:
729:
728:
712:
710:
709:
704:
702:
701:
679:
677:
676:
671:
669:
668:
639:
637:
636:
631:
629:
628:
258:Lawson criterion
4086:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4038:
4016:
4001:
3999:
3984:
3974:
3972:
3962:
3960:
3945:
3943:
3933:
3931:
3921:
3919:
3908:
3898:
3896:
3885:
3830:
3828:
3806:
3799:
3779:
3777:
3767:
3765:
3748:
3738:
3736:
3721:
3719:
3708:
3681:
3679:
3669:
3667:
3650:
3640:
3638:
3628:
3626:
3613:
3598:
3596:
3586:
3584:
3563:
3552:
3539:
3537:
3527:
3525:
3521:Wendelstein 7-X
3505:
3503:
3492:
3477:
3475:
3465:
3463:
3456:
3450:
3440:
3438:
3403:
3401:
3377:
3357:
3355:
3345:
3343:
3333:
3331:
3321:
3319:
3299:
3297:
3282:
3280:
3265:
3263:
3254:
3241:
3239:
3229:
3227:
3216:
3206:
3204:
3194:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3171:
3158:
3156:
3141:
3139:
3102:
3100:
3093:
3087:
3078:
3070:
3068:
3053:
3051:
2982:
2980:
2970:
2968:
2957:
2918:
2907:
2896:
2854:
2831:
2803:
2780:
2708:Magnetic mirror
2684:
2671:Silicon-burning
2656:Lithium burning
2593:
2582:
2576:
2542:Nuclear reactor
2528:
2478:
2472:
2437:
2422:
2411:
2382:
2362:(3): 513–518}.
2353:
2350:
2345:
2344:
2335:
2333:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2311:
2309:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2110:(11): 1902–24.
2101:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2047:
2040:
2032:
2028:
2014:
2013:
2009:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1962:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1913:
1905:
1901:
1893:
1878:
1869:
1867:
1853:
1852:
1841:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1646:, pp. 8–9.
1642:
1638:
1630:
1621:
1611:
1609:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1575:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1478:
1463:
1449:
1442:
1431:
1424:
1413:
1398:
1380:
1352:
1341:
1326:
1321:
1320:
1296:
1283:
1282:
1272:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1242:
1229:
1208:
1197:
1193:
1181:
1174:
1167:
1153:
1144:
1124:operating costs
1112:
1105:
1097:
1078:
1066:
1064:Fusion ignition
1060:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1001:
996:
995:
989:
974:
943:
938:
937:
934:
927:
920:
913:
879:
874:
873:
844:
822:
809:
796:
795:
775:
765:
750:
745:
744:
720:
715:
714:
687:
682:
681:
651:
646:
645:
611:
606:
605:
588:
580:
576:
553:
546:
539:
532:
526:
519:
512:
504:alpha particles
494:
482:
475:
468:
456:
445:
418:
411:
404:
386:
379:
368:
354:
342:
333:superconducting
322:
315:
308:
290:
283:
276:
269:
250:Peter Thonemann
237:
230:
223:
216:
209:
194:
175:
168:
157:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4084:
4083:
4080:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4051:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4009:
3996:
3994:
3990:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3970:
3958:
3953:
3941:
3929:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3825:
3823:
3816:
3809:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3775:
3762:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3734:
3729:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3694:
3689:
3677:
3664:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3636:
3623:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3594:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3535:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3473:
3460:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3398:
3396:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3353:
3341:
3329:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3295:
3290:
3278:
3273:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3202:
3190:
3178:
3166:
3154:
3149:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3110:
3097:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3085:
3066:
3061:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2978:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2930:
2921:
2910:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2887:Muon-catalyzed
2884:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2870:Colliding beam
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2759:
2749:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2730:Reversed field
2727:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2705:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2666:Oxygen-burning
2663:
2658:
2653:
2651:Carbon-burning
2648:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2604:
2595:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2547:Atomic nucleus
2544:
2539:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2499:Burning plasma
2495:
2493:
2491:Nuclear fusion
2484:
2480:
2479:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2463:
2456:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2435:
2420:
2409:
2380:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2318:
2294:
2271:
2252:
2231:
2209:
2182:
2163:
2156:
2137:
2104:Applied Optics
2094:
2079:
2053:
2051:, p. 166.
2038:
2026:
2007:
1989:
1977:
1960:
1944:
1932:
1930:, p. 514.
1911:
1909:, p. 513.
1899:
1876:
1854:Razzak, M. A.
1839:
1820:
1792:
1745:
1727:
1709:
1675:
1648:
1636:
1619:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1552:
1547:
1536:
1527:
1522:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1476:
1461:
1447:
1440:
1429:
1422:
1411:
1397:
1394:
1378:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1338:
1329:
1299:
1295:
1286:
1275:
1269:
1264:
1260:
1240:
1227:
1207:
1204:
1195:
1191:
1179:
1172:
1165:
1151:
1143:
1140:
1134:concepts like
1111:
1108:
1103:
1095:
1076:
1059:
1056:
1037:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1004:
987:
972:
956:
953:
950:
946:
932:
925:
918:
911:
886:
882:
856:
847:
843:
840:
837:
834:
825:
821:
812:
808:
799:
794:
789:
778:
768:
762:
757:
753:
727:
723:
700:
697:
694:
690:
667:
664:
661:
658:
654:
627:
624:
621:
618:
614:
602:steam turbines
598:heat exchanger
586:
578:
574:
551:
544:
537:
530:
524:
517:
510:
492:
480:
473:
466:
455:
452:
443:
417:
414:
409:
402:
384:
377:
366:
352:
340:
321:
318:
313:
306:
302:= 1, that is,
288:
281:
274:
267:
236:
233:
228:
221:
214:
207:
193:
190:
173:
166:
155:
51:nuclear fusion
49:produced in a
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4082:
4081:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4023:
4013:
4010:
4008:
3998:
3997:
3995:
3991:
3981:
3971:
3969:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3930:
3928:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3905:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3817:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3802:
3796:
3795:Fusion Engine
3793:
3791:
3790:FRX-L – FRCHX
3788:
3786:
3776:
3774:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3759:
3755:
3745:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3678:
3676:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3647:
3637:
3635:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3583:
3582:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3556:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3546:
3536:
3534:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3474:
3472:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3453:
3447:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3354:
3352:
3342:
3340:
3330:
3328:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3288:ASDEX Upgrade
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3238:
3236:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3203:
3201:
3191:
3189:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3090:
3082:
3077:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2988:Alcator C-Mod
2979:
2977:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:International
2934:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2903:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2882:Metal lattice
2880:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2837:Electrostatic
2834:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2777:
2774:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:Alpha process
2607:
2605:
2603:
2602:Gravitational
2599:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2537:Nuclear power
2535:
2534:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2462:
2457:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2438:
2436:9780123846563
2432:
2428:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2248:
2241:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2157:9780309270625
2153:
2149:
2148:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2095:
2090:
2083:
2080:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1978:
1975:, p. 42.
1974:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1948:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1866:on 2018-10-03
1865:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1738:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1699:on 2021-01-09
1695:
1688:
1687:
1679:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1583:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1546:
1540:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1421:
1417:
1410:
1407:that defines
1406:
1402:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1336:
1327:
1297:
1293:
1284:
1273:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1248:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1187:
1185:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1150:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1107:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1057:
1055:
1035:
1014:
1011:
1006:
1002:
992:
990:
983:
979:
975:
954:
951:
948:
944:
935:
928:
917:
910:
906:
902:
884:
880:
870:
845:
841:
838:
832:
823:
819:
810:
806:
797:
792:
787:
776:
766:
760:
755:
751:
741:
725:
721:
698:
695:
692:
688:
665:
662:
659:
656:
652:
643:
642:Rankine cycle
625:
622:
619:
616:
612:
603:
599:
595:
594:cooling fluid
590:
585:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
550:
543:
536:
529:
523:
516:
509:
505:
501:
496:
491:
487:
486:recirculation
479:
472:
465:
461:
453:
451:
447:
442:
438:
433:
431:
427:
423:
415:
413:
408:
405:or sometimes
401:
397:
392:
390:
383:
376:
370:
365:
361:
356:
355:(see below).
351:
347:
339:
334:
329:
327:
319:
317:
312:
305:
301:
297:
292:
287:
280:
273:
266:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:Hans Thirring
242:
234:
232:
227:
220:
213:
206:
202:
198:
191:
189:
187:
183:
179:
172:
165:
161:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
133:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
43:
38:
30:
29:hydrogen bomb
26:
21:
4059:Fusion power
3592:Perhapsatron
2892:Pyroelectric
2822:Laser-driven
2661:Neon-burning
2629:Helium flash
2551:
2475:Fusion power
2425:
2414:
2388:
2384:
2359:
2355:
2348:Bibliography
2334:. Retrieved
2331:www.llnl.gov
2330:
2321:
2310:. Retrieved
2306:
2297:
2284:
2274:
2265:
2255:
2246:
2234:
2226:the original
2221:
2212:
2195:
2185:
2176:
2166:
2146:
2140:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2088:
2082:
2070:. Retrieved
2066:the original
2056:
2029:
2020:
2010:
2001:
1992:
1980:
1953:
1947:
1935:
1902:
1868:. Retrieved
1864:the original
1859:
1833:
1823:
1811:. Retrieved
1807:the original
1801:
1795:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1730:
1721:
1712:
1701:. Retrieved
1694:the original
1685:
1678:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1639:
1634:, p. 6.
1610:. Retrieved
1601:
1592:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1544:
1539:
1530:
1519:
1514:
1499:
1495:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1452:
1444:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1389:
1383:
1375:
1373:
1249:
1244:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1188:
1183:
1176:
1169:
1162:
1160:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1132:
1120:capital cost
1115:
1113:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1073:
1071:
1067:
993:
985:
981:
977:
970:
930:
923:
915:
908:
904:
900:
871:
742:
591:
583:
556:
548:
541:
534:
527:
521:
514:
507:
497:
489:
485:
477:
470:
463:
459:
457:
448:
440:
436:
434:
419:
406:
399:
395:
393:
388:
381:
374:
371:
363:
357:
349:
345:
337:
330:
323:
310:
303:
299:
295:
293:
285:
278:
271:
264:
262:
254:Richard Post
238:
225:
218:
211:
204:
196:
195:
185:
170:
163:
152:
148:
136:
134:
129:
113:
109:
105:
102:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
78:self-heating
77:
75:
70:
66:
62:
59:steady state
47:fusion power
41:
40:
36:
34:
3807:confinement
3553: [
3483:Heliotron J
3387:Stellarator
3255: [
3172: [
3079: [
2919:confinement
2908:experiments
2863:Other forms
2747:Stellarator
2713:Bumpy torus
2591:Confinement
2483:Core topics
2391:(6): 6–10.
1940:Entler 2015
1928:Entler 2015
1907:Entler 2015
1644:Lawson 1957
1632:Lawson 1957
1194:= 0.7 and η
1072:Eventually
571:endothermic
241:John Lawson
4053:Categories
2827:Ion-driven
2581:Processes,
2524:Aneutronic
2519:Commercial
2336:2022-12-13
2312:2022-12-13
2307:Energy.gov
2072:5 December
1998:"Glossary"
1895:Meade 1997
1870:2017-07-27
1813:13 October
1703:2018-10-13
1579:References
1128:spot price
596:used in a
567:exothermic
462:, denoted
4012:Z machine
3993:Non-laser
3904:GEKKO XII
3856:Long path
3550:Uragan-3M
3545:Uragan-2M
3042:Riggatron
2762:Spheromak
2757:Spherical
2681:S-process
2676:R-process
2619:CNO cycle
2376:189913715
1787:117938343
1584:Citations
1374:That is,
1294:−
1268:≡
1263:∗
1036:η
945:η
842:−
833:⋅
824:η
820:⋅
807:⋅
798:η
761:≡
689:η
653:η
613:η
430:bioactive
422:deuterium
296:breakeven
239:In 1955,
235:Breakeven
126:deuterium
67:breakeven
3956:LULI2000
3822:Americas
3805:Inertial
3395:Americas
2962:Americas
2917:Magnetic
2906:Devices,
2850:Polywell
2809:Inertial
2690:Magnetic
2639:remnants
2504:Timeline
2177:BBC News
2132:20332859
1606:Archived
1082:ignition
1058:Ignition
500:neutrons
298:is when
122:hydrogen
94:ignition
25:Ivy Mike
3841:Cyclops
3773:SPECTOR
3744:Trisops
3604:Sceptre
3457:Oceania
3429:Model C
3315:IGNITOR
3247:COMPASS
3094:Oceania
3076:Novillo
3037:Pegasus
2928:Tokamak
2767:Dynomak
2752:Tokamak
2583:methods
2567:Neutron
2393:Bibcode
2285:Science
2266:Science
2112:Bibcode
1767:Bibcode
1319:where:
563:lithium
559:blanket
450:value.
426:tritium
192:Concept
162:, with
141:tokamak
118:tritium
106:powered
4064:Energy
3980:Vulcan
3913:Europe
3687:Astron
3660:Mirror
3497:Europe
3363:MAST-U
3327:ISTTOK
3293:TEXTOR
3221:Europe
3147:ADITYA
3135:SUNIST
3005:DIII-D
2976:STOR-M
2572:Plasma
2433:
2426:Fusion
2374:
2196:Nature
2154:
2130:
1785:
1658:Nature
1612:May 1,
1186:= 22.
1180:recirc
1104:recirc
1096:recirc
815:recirc
410:plasma
360:lasers
55:plasma
4007:PACER
3968:ISKRA
3927:HiPER
3881:Shiva
3876:OMEGA
3846:Janus
3836:Argus
3815:Laser
3785:Linus
3713:Other
3573:Pinch
3557:]
3533:TJ-II
3471:H-1NF
3455:Asia,
3446:SCR-1
3419:HIDRA
3368:START
3259:]
3252:GOLEM
3200:KSTAR
3188:GLAST
3176:]
3169:QUEST
3164:JT-60
3152:SST-1
3130:HL-2M
3125:HL-2A
3108:CFETR
3092:Asia,
3083:]
3064:TCABR
2998:SPARC
2953:PROTO
2875:Migma
2845:Fusor
2735:Theta
2720:Pinch
2624:Fusor
2372:S2CID
2243:(PDF)
2222:HiPER
1783:S2CID
1740:(PDF)
1697:(PDF)
1690:(PDF)
1506:Notes
1448:laser
1430:laser
1386:JT-60
1224:shots
1158:= 5.
903:= 2.
644:have
561:" of
481:total
201:power
180:, an
160:JT-60
139:in a
104:self-
3890:Asia
3871:Nova
3866:Nike
3851:LIFE
3732:PFRC
3697:MFTF
3609:ZETA
3511:WEGA
3434:NCSX
3373:STEP
3339:T-15
3276:WEST
3212:TT-1
3118:HT-7
3113:EAST
3047:SSPX
3030:TFTR
3020:NSTX
2948:DEMO
2943:ITER
2740:Zeta
2634:Nova
2594:type
2431:ISBN
2289:AAAS
2247:FIRE
2152:ISBN
2128:PMID
2074:2016
1815:2018
1722:ITER
1614:2024
1477:heat
1412:heat
1379:temp
1332:temp
1302:temp
1289:heat
1228:heat
1220:ITER
1200:DEMO
1196:elec
1192:heat
1173:elec
1166:heat
1136:ITER
1077:heat
1040:heat
919:heat
912:heat
828:elec
802:heat
781:heat
569:and
424:and
385:heat
378:heat
367:heat
341:heat
314:heat
289:heat
282:loss
275:loss
229:heat
215:heat
3951:LMJ
3861:NIF
3727:LDX
3702:TMX
3675:GDT
3646:MST
3634:RFX
3619:RFP
3488:LHD
3424:HSX
3414:CTH
3409:CNT
3351:TCV
3310:FTU
3305:DTT
3271:TFR
3235:JET
3059:ETE
3025:PLT
3015:LTX
2993:ARC
2401:doi
2364:doi
2200:doi
2120:doi
1775:doi
1666:doi
1662:239
1523:fus
1462:fus
1441:fus
1423:fus
1278:fus
1241:fus
771:fus
577:. M
552:fus
531:fus
493:fus
476:or
474:eng
444:ext
403:sci
353:eng
307:fus
268:fus
222:fus
208:fus
174:ext
167:ext
156:ext
147:at
145:JET
124:or
57:in
4055::
3555:uk
3257:cs
3174:ja
3081:es
2399:.
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