3669:
2523:
642:
Odd1 and Odd2 wave forms, and the Res1 and Res2 wave forms. The sine wave selection works the same as the DX7 wave forms. The All1 and All2 wave forms are a saw-tooth wave form. The Odd1 and Odd2 wave forms are pulse or square waves. These two types of wave forms can be used to model the basic harmonic peaks in the bottom of the harmonic spectrum of most instruments. The Res1 and Res2 wave forms move the spectral peak to a specific harmonic and can be used to model either triangular or rounded groups of harmonics further up in the spectrum of an instrument. Combining an All1 or Odd1 wave form with multiple Res1 (or Res2) wave forms (and adjusting their amplitudes) can model the harmonic spectrum of an instrument or sound.
3664:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\sin \left(\theta _{c}+\beta \,\sin(\theta _{m})\right)\\&\ =\ \sin(\theta _{c})\cos(\beta \sin(\theta _{m}))+\cos(\theta _{c})\sin(\beta \sin(\theta _{m}))\\&\ =\ \sin(\theta _{c})\left+\cos(\theta _{c})\left\\&\ =\ J_{0}(\beta )\sin(\theta _{c})+J_{1}(\beta )2\cos(\theta _{c})\sin(\theta _{m})+J_{2}(\beta )2\sin(\theta _{c})\cos(2\theta _{m})+J_{3}(\beta )2\cos(\theta _{c})\sin(3\theta _{m})+...\\&\ =\ J_{0}(\beta )\sin(\theta _{c})+\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }J_{n}(\beta )\left\\&\ =\ \sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }J_{n}(\beta )\,\sin(\theta _{c}+n\theta _{m})\qquad (\because \ J_{-n}(x)=(-1)^{n}J_{n}(x))\end{aligned}}}
1176:
1769:
801:
41:
580:
562:
could model the sounds produced in the human voice and in a wind instrument, along with making percussion instrument sounds. The FS1R also contained an additional wave form called the
Formant wave form. Formants can be used to model resonating body instrument sounds like the cello, violin, acoustic guitar, bassoon, English horn, or human voice. Formants can even be found in the harmonic spectrum of several brass instruments.
1293:
1171:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}FM(t)&\ =\ A\,\sin \left(\,\int _{0}^{t}\left(\omega _{c}+B\,\sin(\omega _{m}\,\tau )\right)d\tau \right)\\&\ =\ A\,\sin \left(\omega _{c}\,t-{\frac {B}{\omega _{m}}}\left(\cos(\omega _{m}\,t)-1\right)\right)\\&\ =\ A\,\sin \left(\omega _{c}\,t+{\frac {B}{\omega _{m}}}\left(\sin(\omega _{m}\,t-\pi /2)+1\right)\right)\\\end{aligned}}}
2503:
428:
345:
1764:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}FM(t)&\ \approx \ A\,\sin \left(\omega _{c}\,t+\beta \,\sin(\omega _{m}\,t)\right)\\&\ =\ A\left(J_{0}(\beta )\sin(\omega _{c}\,t)+\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }J_{n}(\beta )\left\right)\\&\ =\ A\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }J_{n}(\beta )\,\sin((\omega _{c}+n\,\omega _{m})\,t)\end{aligned}}}
626:, which combines a 128-voice sample-based engine with a 128-voice FM engine. This iteration of FM is called FM-X, and features 8 operators; each operator has a choice of several basic wave forms, but each wave form has several parameters to adjust its spectrum. The Yamaha Montage was followed by the more affordable Yamaha
3860:
At this point we may consider various additional signal modifications that we may wish to make to the series of tones produced by the above example. For instance, if we would like to add frequency modulation to the tones, it is necessary to patch another audio signal into the jack connected by a line
327:
implemented FM on his instruments in the mid-1960s, prior to
Chowning's patent. His 158, 258 and 259 dual oscillator modules had a specific FM control voltage input, and the model 208 (Music Easel) had a modulation oscillator hard-wired to allow FM as well as AM of the primary oscillator. These early
2243:
478:
With the expiration of the
Stanford University FM patent in 1995, digital FM synthesis can now be implemented freely by other manufacturers. The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $ 20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) "the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's
159:
relationship to the original carrier signal. As the amount of frequency modulation increases, the sound grows progressively complex. Through the use of modulators with frequencies that are non-integer multiples of the carrier signal (i.e. inharmonic), inharmonic bell-like and percussive spectra can
641:
synthesizers in 2016. FM-X uses 8 operators. Each FM-X operator has a set of multi-spectral wave forms to choose from, which means each FM-X operator can be equivalent to a stack of 3 or 4 DX7 FM operators. The list of selectable wave forms includes sine waves, the All1 and All2 wave forms, the
561:
Combining sets of 8 FM operators with multi-spectral wave forms began in 1999 by Yamaha in the FS1R. The FS1R had 16 operators, 8 standard FM operators and 8 additional operators that used a noise source rather than an oscillator as its sound source. By adding in tuneable noise sources the FS1R
420:, though it would take several years before Yamaha released their FM digital synthesizers. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name "Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha", evolving Chowning's work. Yamaha built the first prototype FM
2234:
2498:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\cos(\beta \sin \theta )&=J_{0}(\beta )+2\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }J_{2n}(\beta )\cos(2n\theta )\\\sin(\beta \sin \theta )&=2\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }J_{2n+1}(\beta )\sin((2n+1)\theta )\end{aligned}}}
2528:
2248:
2152:
1298:
806:
1815:
793:
1228:
1895:
172:
may result in pitch instability. However, FM synthesis can also be implemented digitally, which is more stable and became standard practice. Digital FM synthesis (equivalent to the
491:, but it has also been incorporated into the synthesis repertoire of some modern digital synthesizers, usually coexisting as an option alongside other methods of synthesis such as
1273:
1853:
1939:
443:
synthesizer, released in 1983, was ubiquitous throughout the 1980s. Several other models by Yamaha provided variations and evolutions of FM synthesis during that decade.
3737:
503:, and other techniques. The degree of complexity of the FM in such hardware synths may vary from simple 2-operator FM, to the highly flexible 6-operator engines of the
622:(2020) and opsix SE (2023) integrating 6 operators FM synthesis with subtractive, analogue modeling, additive, semi-modular and Waveshaping. Yamaha released the
307:
as one of its sound generator chips. Throughout the 2000s, FM synthesis was also used on a wide range of phones to play ringtones and other sounds, typically in the
4376:
2096:
2056:
2147:
1960:
652:
2128:
413:
Yamaha's engineers began adapting
Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method
446:
Yamaha had patented its hardware implementation of FM in the 1970s, allowing it to nearly monopolize the market for FM technology until the mid-1990s.
112:
91:
722:
As the basic of these variations, we analyze the spectrum of 2 operators (linear FM synthesis using two sinusoidal operators) on the following.
328:
applications used analog oscillators, and this capability was also followed by other modular synthesizers and portable synthesizers including
4301:
3984:
3716:
658:
2-operator demonstration: if the frequency of the modulator is lower than that of the carrier, the output note will be that of the modulator.
424:
in 1974. Yamaha eventually commercialized FM synthesis technology with the Yamaha GS-1, the first FM digital synthesizer, released in 1980.
4007:
3938:
3820:
4502:
4369:
4100:
653:
3854:
3706:
4247:
4228:
3777:
630:
in 2018, with 64-voice, 8 operators FM-X architecture in addition to a 128-voice sample-based engine. Elektron in 2018 launched the
192:
beginning in 1978, included a digital FM synthesizer, using an FM synthesis algorithm licensed from Yamaha. Yamaha's groundbreaking
4127:
2140:
4138:
396:
4269:
4574:
4362:
3745:
3802:
523:
New hardware synths specifically marketed for their FM capabilities disappeared from the market after the release of the
4474:
4441:
4258:
68:. The time domain signals are illustrated above, and the corresponding spectra are shown below (spectrum amplitudes in
4543:
4487:
4402:
244:
sound chip (which was also commonly used for arcade machines up to the mid-nineties) with later CX5M units using the
4492:
4482:
4407:
1777:
458:
736:
651:
439:, most notably those from Yamaha, as well as New England Digital Corporation under license from Yamaha. Yamaha's
4048:
1184:
4464:
3850:
Buchla
Electronic Music System: Users Manual written for CBS Musical Instruments (Buchla 100 Owner's Manual)
2059:
1858:
638:
627:
623:
180:) was the basis of several musical instruments beginning as early as 1974. Yamaha built the first prototype
177:
141:
3875:
557:
and the Modor NF-1. Various other synthesizers offer limited FM abilities to supplement their main engines.
386:
in 1973. The implementation commercialized by Yamaha (US Patent 4018121 Apr 1977 or U.S. Patent 4,018,121)
4437:
4200:
532:
512:
496:
4341:
1233:
4417:
1824:
492:
462:
654:
4553:
4427:
1907:
1898:
416:
356:
137:
61:
3877:
Programming and
Metaprogramming in the Electro-Organism - An Operating Directive for the Music Easel
4535:
4525:
4449:
4329:
3976:
3848:
1985:
1284:
436:
421:
364:
189:
181:
3853:. Educational Research Department, CBS Musical Instruments, Columbia Broadcasting System. p.
4512:
4454:
4422:
4053:
4015:
3891:
1975:
631:
500:
480:
395:
but the results end up being equivalent mathematically as both are essentially a special case of
383:
374:
217:
204:
FM synthesis also became the usual setting for games and software up until the mid-nineties. For
3946:
511:, to creation of FM in extensively modular engines such as those in the latest synthesisers by
4548:
4497:
4412:
4297:
4243:
4224:
3980:
3968:
3773:
3763:
3712:
1818:
536:
205:
4093:
4459:
4335:
2229:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin(x\pm y)&=\sin x\cos y\pm \cos x\sin y\end{aligned}}}
2005:
1990:
389:
173:
111:
90:
2069:
184:
in 1974, based on FM synthesis, before commercially releasing the Yamaha GS-1 in 1980. The
4520:
2032:
1963:
707:
360:
196:
synthesizer, released in 1983, brought FM to the forefront of synthesis in the mid-1980s.
4349:
1944:
415:
to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during
4074:
701:
619:
359:(FM), a means of carrying sound, had been understood for decades and was being used to
304:
276:
2101:
579:
465:. It had a similar (but slightly differently derived) sound quality to the DX series.
4568:
4318:
2063:
546:
508:
368:
349:
260:
245:
241:
225:
221:
213:
152:
4036:
4069:
3917:
730:
The spectrum generated by FM synthesis with one modulator is expressed as follows:
296:
40:
634:, an 8-voice, 4 operators FM synth featuring Elektron's renowned sequence engine.
519:
Realtime
Convolution & Modulation (AFM + Sample) and Formant Shaping Synthesis
4291:
4385:
4346:
4116:
618:
series of compact, affordable desktop modules,. More recently Korg released the
554:
531:, and even those marketed their highly powerful FM abilities as counterparts to
528:
524:
504:
333:
237:
129:
666:
Various operator arrangements (known as "FM Algorithms" in Yamaha terminology)
200:
Amusement use: FM sound chips on PCs, arcades, game consoles, and mobile phones
3825:
3738:"[Chapter 2] FM Tone Generators and the Dawn of Home Music Production"
2000:
1995:
550:
488:
440:
324:
193:
185:
169:
17:
4149:
614:
released the Korg Volca FM, a, 3-voice, 6 operators FM iteration of the Korg
4273:
3918:"Patent US4018121 - Method of synthesizing a musical sound - Google Patents"
3769:
1902:
542:
145:
479:
history". FM today is mostly found in software-based synths such as FM8 by
4201:"The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation"
1980:
329:
156:
155:
sounds. To synthesize harmonic sounds, the modulating signal must have a
133:
4354:
4174:
4008:"Sounds of the '80s Part 2: The Yamaha DX1 & Its Successors (Retro)"
4324:
427:
300:
284:
69:
3861:
to the middle dial on the Model 158 Dual Sine-Sawtooth
Oscillator. ...
484:
229:
344:
649:
615:
454:
426:
343:
272:
256:
252:
209:
3973:
Electronic and experimental music: technology, music, and culture
3821:"The top 10 classic synth presets (and where you can hear them)"
611:
308:
292:
288:
268:
264:
4358:
4330:
Synth
Secrets, Part 12: An Introduction To Frequency Modulation
435:
FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of
275:'s arcade boards (with a variant of the OPNB being used in the
574:
541:
However, well-developed FM synthesis options are a feature of
280:
249:
233:
4070:"Yamaha FS1R - FM Synthesis / Formant-shaping Tone Generator"
1181:
If we were to ignore the constant phase terms on the carrier
4037:
Music synthesis approaches sound quality of real instruments
1275:, finally we would get the following expression, as seen on
39:
662:
There are multiple variations of FM synthesis, including:
571:
Variable Phase
Modulation, FM-X Synthesis, Altered FM, etc
287:
arcade (MVS) and home console (AES) machines. The related
4221:
FM Theory & Applications - By Musicians For Musicians
3943:
Nord Modular & Micro Modular V3.03 tips & tricks
704:
conversion for CV/oct. interface of analog synthesizers)
348:
Digital frequency modulation synthesis was developed by
591:
4240:
Computer Music: Synthesis, Composition and Performance
2526:
2246:
2150:
2104:
2072:
2035:
1947:
1910:
1861:
1827:
1780:
1296:
1236:
1187:
804:
739:
675:
Parallel FM (multiple modulators, multiple-carriers),
4336:
Synth Secrets, Part 13: More On Frequency Modulation
4534:
4511:
4473:
4436:
144:of an oscillator is altered in accordance with the
4347:F.M. Synthesis including complex operator analysis
3663:
2497:
2228:
2122:
2090:
2050:
1954:
1933:
1889:
1847:
1809:
1763:
1267:
1222:
1170:
787:
4087:
4085:
373:who was trying to create sounds different from
271:was used as main basic sound generator board in
4370:
4035:Stanford University News Service (06/07/94),
1810:{\displaystyle \omega _{c}\,,\,\omega _{m}\,}
474:Popularization after the expiration of patent
457:developed a related form of synthesis called
8:
3797:
3795:
3732:
3730:
3728:
788:{\displaystyle m(t)=B\,\sin(\omega _{m}t)\,}
3705:McGuire, Sam; Matějů, Zbyněk (2020-12-28).
363:. FM synthesis was developed since 1967 at
53:modulated by a 440 Hz modulating tone
4377:
4363:
4355:
3744:. Yamaha Corporation. 2014. Archived from
3692:
2139:The above expression is transformed using
151:FM synthesis can create both harmonic and
4238:Dodge, Charles; Jerse, Thomas A. (1997).
3912:
3910:
3908:
3639:
3629:
3595:
3572:
3556:
3542:
3527:
3517:
3503:
3479:
3470:
3454:
3435:
3404:
3388:
3374:
3354:
3344:
3333:
3317:
3289:
3250:
3225:
3194:
3178:
3153:
3122:
3106:
3084:
3053:
3037:
3009:
2977:
2922:
2912:
2901:
2880:
2850:
2813:
2803:
2792:
2767:
2749:
2710:
2676:
2648:
2614:
2573:
2559:
2547:
2527:
2525:
2434:
2424:
2413:
2332:
2322:
2311:
2286:
2247:
2245:
2151:
2149:
2103:
2071:
2034:
1951:
1946:
1930:
1915:
1909:
1886:
1880:
1871:
1860:
1844:
1828:
1826:
1806:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1750:
1741:
1736:
1724:
1707:
1692:
1682:
1668:
1636:
1629:
1620:
1615:
1603:
1581:
1552:
1543:
1538:
1526:
1509:
1489:
1479:
1468:
1454:
1448:
1420:
1382:
1376:
1362:
1352:
1346:
1330:
1297:
1295:
1264:
1256:
1241:
1235:
1223:{\displaystyle \phi _{c}=B/\omega _{m}\,}
1219:
1213:
1204:
1192:
1186:
1137:
1127:
1121:
1095:
1086:
1079:
1073:
1057:
1017:
1011:
985:
976:
969:
963:
947:
907:
901:
887:
875:
860:
855:
850:
838:
805:
803:
784:
772:
758:
738:
4208:Journal of the Audio Engineering Society
4160:
1276:
431:FM digital synthesizer Yamaha DX7 (1983)
267:. For arcade systems and game consoles,
4219:Chowning, John; Bristow, David (1986).
4068:Poyser, Debbie; Johnson, Derek (1998).
3757:
3755:
3742:Yamaha Synth 40th Anniversary - History
3685:
2022:
637:FM-X synthesis was introduced with the
1890:{\displaystyle \beta =B/\omega _{m}\,}
3803:"1978 New England Digital Synclavier"
1280:
7:
4128:Yamaha Montage Product Features Page
2512:
228:. Other computers such as the Sharp
4350:mirror site of F.M. Synthesis, 2019
1268:{\displaystyle \phi _{m}=-\pi /2\,}
545:synths manufactured by Clavia, the
4175:"Frequency Modulation Mathematics"
4094:"FM_Synthesis_of_Real_Instruments"
3809:. Penton Media. September 1, 2006.
3518:
3513:
3345:
2913:
2804:
2425:
2323:
1848:{\displaystyle \,\omega =2\pi f\,}
1683:
1678:
1480:
25:
4342:Paul Wiffens Synth School: Part 3
4266:The Pennsylvania State University
4139:Yamaha MODX Product Features Page
382:was licensed to Japanese company
4106:from the original on 2017-09-25.
3708:The Art of Digital Orchestration
700:Exponential FM (preceded by the
578:
340:John Chowning (late-1960s–1970s)
110:
89:
4092:Zollinger, W. Thor (Dec 2017).
3945:. Clavia DMI AB. Archived from
3581:
2238:and a lemma of Bessel function
2141:trigonometric addition formulas
1934:{\displaystyle J_{n}(\beta )\,}
397:quadrature amplitude modulation
190:New England Digital Corporation
4006:Gordon Reid (September 2001).
3892:"U.S. Patent 4018121 Apr 1977"
3654:
3651:
3645:
3626:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3582:
3578:
3549:
3539:
3533:
3476:
3447:
3432:
3422:
3410:
3381:
3366:
3360:
3323:
3310:
3301:
3295:
3256:
3240:
3231:
3218:
3206:
3200:
3184:
3168:
3159:
3146:
3134:
3128:
3112:
3099:
3090:
3077:
3065:
3059:
3043:
3030:
3021:
3015:
2983:
2970:
2955:
2952:
2943:
2937:
2886:
2873:
2856:
2837:
2828:
2822:
2779:
2773:
2755:
2742:
2719:
2716:
2703:
2691:
2682:
2669:
2657:
2654:
2641:
2629:
2620:
2607:
2579:
2566:
2488:
2482:
2467:
2464:
2455:
2449:
2396:
2381:
2368:
2356:
2347:
2341:
2298:
2292:
2272:
2257:
2173:
2161:
2117:
2105:
2085:
2079:
2045:
2039:
1927:
1921:
1754:
1747:
1717:
1714:
1704:
1698:
1633:
1626:
1596:
1593:
1578:
1568:
1556:
1549:
1519:
1516:
1501:
1495:
1458:
1441:
1432:
1426:
1386:
1369:
1313:
1307:
1145:
1114:
1021:
1004:
911:
894:
821:
815:
781:
765:
749:
743:
683:Various waveform of operators
208:systems, sound cards like the
176:using the time integration of
122:Frequency modulation synthesis
32:FM synthesis using 2 operators
1:
1964:Bessel function of first kind
361:broadcast radio transmissions
4242:. New York: Schirmer Books.
2029:Note that modulation signal
1855:) of carrier and modulator,
450:Related development by Casio
4293:The Computer Music Tutorial
3765:The computer music tutorial
2098:, by time integral between
672:Serial FM (multiple stages)
132:whereby the frequency of a
46:A 220 Hz carrier tone
4591:
1899:frequency modulation index
459:phase distortion synthesis
168:FM synthesis using analog
62:frequency modulation index
60:, with various choices of
4393:
4078:. No. December 1998.
3939:"FM synthesis on Modular"
3847:Dr. Hubert Howe (1960s).
795:, the carrier signal is:
355:By the mid-20th century,
238:Yamaha CX5M computer unit
142:(instantaneous) frequency
3880:. Buchla and Associates.
463:CZ range of synthesizers
148:of a modulating signal.
138:modulating its frequency
2060:instantaneous frequency
178:instantaneous frequency
27:Form of sound synthesis
4321:, by Bill Schottstaedt
4290:Roads, Curtis (1996).
3969:"Early Computer Music"
3874:Atten Strange (1974).
3693:Dodge & Jerse 1997
3665:
3522:
3349:
2917:
2808:
2499:
2429:
2327:
2230:
2124:
2092:
2052:
1956:
1935:
1891:
1849:
1811:
1765:
1687:
1484:
1269:
1224:
1172:
789:
733:For modulation signal
694:Additional modulation
659:
533:sample-based synthesis
513:Kurzweil Music Systems
497:sample-based synthesis
432:
352:
320:Don Buchla (mid-1960s)
279:) and notably used in
140:with a modulator. The
44:
4575:Sound synthesis types
4503:Karplus–Strong string
4319:An Introduction To FM
4257:Kreh, Martin (2012),
4199:Chowning, J. (1973).
4150:Digitone product page
4117:Volca FM product page
3967:Holmes, Thom (2008).
3762:Curtis Roads (1996).
3666:
3499:
3329:
2897:
2788:
2500:
2409:
2307:
2231:
2125:
2093:
2091:{\displaystyle FM(t)}
2053:
1957:
1936:
1892:
1850:
1812:
1766:
1664:
1464:
1270:
1225:
1173:
790:
657:
430:
388:is actually based on
347:
43:
4554:Software synthesizer
4398:Frequency modulation
4018:on 17 September 2011
3977:Taylor & Francis
2524:
2244:
2148:
2102:
2070:
2062:is converted to the
2051:{\displaystyle m(t)}
2033:
1945:
1908:
1859:
1825:
1778:
1294:
1234:
1185:
802:
737:
437:digital synthesizers
417:frequency modulation
409:Expansions by Yamaha
357:frequency modulation
297:Mega Drive (Genesis)
248:sound chip, and the
4536:Digital synthesizer
1986:Digital synthesizer
1955:{\displaystyle n\,}
1819:angular frequencies
865:
686:Sinusoidal waveform
422:digital synthesizer
365:Stanford University
182:digital synthesizer
80:Waveforms for each
34:
4513:Analog synthesizer
4475:Physical modelling
4272:–6, archived from
4259:"Bessel Functions"
4054:Yamaha Corporation
4049:"Yamaha SY99 spec"
3979:. pp. 257–8.
3661:
3659:
2495:
2493:
2226:
2224:
2120:
2088:
2066:of carrier signal
2048:
1976:Additive synthesis
1952:
1931:
1887:
1845:
1807:
1761:
1759:
1265:
1230:and the modulator
1220:
1168:
1166:
851:
785:
660:
590:. You can help by
501:additive synthesis
481:Native Instruments
433:
353:
259:computers use the
188:, manufactured by
45:
30:
4562:
4561:
4549:Scanned synthesis
4488:Digital waveguide
4403:Linear arithmetic
4303:978-0-262-68082-0
4223:. Tokyo: Yamaha.
3986:978-0-415-95781-6
3894:. patft.uspto.gov
3718:978-1-000-28699-1
3590:
3498:
3492:
3421:
3415:
3284:
3278:
3004:
2998:
2735:
2729:
2600:
2594:
1660:
1654:
1567:
1561:
1407:
1401:
1326:
1320:
1101:
1053:
1047:
991:
943:
937:
834:
828:
655:
646:Spectral analysis
608:
607:
537:formant synthesis
367:, California, by
206:IBM PC compatible
119:
118:
101:Spectra for each
73:
16:(Redirected from
4582:
4483:Banded waveguide
4408:Phase distortion
4379:
4372:
4365:
4356:
4338:, by Gordon Reid
4332:, by Gordon Reid
4307:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4278:
4263:
4253:
4234:
4215:
4205:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4181:
4170:
4164:
4158:
4152:
4147:
4141:
4136:
4130:
4125:
4119:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4098:
4089:
4080:
4079:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4045:
4039:
4033:
4027:
4026:
4024:
4023:
4014:. Archived from
4003:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3975:(3rd ed.).
3964:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3924:
3914:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3888:
3882:
3881:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3799:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3759:
3750:
3749:
3734:
3723:
3722:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3660:
3644:
3643:
3634:
3633:
3603:
3602:
3588:
3577:
3576:
3561:
3560:
3532:
3531:
3521:
3516:
3496:
3490:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3474:
3459:
3458:
3440:
3439:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3393:
3392:
3359:
3358:
3348:
3343:
3322:
3321:
3294:
3293:
3282:
3276:
3274:
3255:
3254:
3230:
3229:
3199:
3198:
3183:
3182:
3158:
3157:
3127:
3126:
3111:
3110:
3089:
3088:
3058:
3057:
3042:
3041:
3014:
3013:
3002:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:
2936:
2935:
2916:
2911:
2885:
2884:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2854:
2821:
2820:
2807:
2802:
2772:
2771:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2725:
2715:
2714:
2681:
2680:
2653:
2652:
2619:
2618:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2552:
2551:
2530:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2496:
2494:
2448:
2447:
2428:
2423:
2340:
2339:
2326:
2321:
2291:
2290:
2235:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2137:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2123:{\displaystyle }
2121:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2027:
2006:Video game music
1991:Electronic music
1966:, respectively.
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1920:
1919:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1875:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1790:
1789:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1760:
1746:
1745:
1729:
1728:
1697:
1696:
1686:
1681:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1625:
1624:
1608:
1607:
1586:
1585:
1565:
1559:
1548:
1547:
1531:
1530:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1478:
1453:
1452:
1425:
1424:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1380:
1351:
1350:
1324:
1318:
1274:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1260:
1246:
1245:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1208:
1197:
1196:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1141:
1126:
1125:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1087:
1078:
1077:
1051:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1016:
1015:
992:
990:
989:
977:
968:
967:
941:
935:
933:
929:
925:
918:
914:
906:
905:
880:
879:
864:
859:
832:
826:
794:
792:
791:
786:
777:
776:
656:
603:
600:
582:
575:
558:
539:respectively.
419:
399:
392:
390:phase modulation
381:
377:
375:analog synthesis
291:was used in the
174:phase modulation
114:
93:
38:
35:
29:
21:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4565:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4544:Analog modeling
4530:
4521:Graphical sound
4507:
4469:
4432:
4389:
4386:Sound synthesis
4383:
4315:
4310:
4304:
4289:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4261:
4256:
4250:
4237:
4231:
4218:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4188:
4179:
4177:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4159:
4155:
4148:
4144:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4122:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4096:
4091:
4090:
4083:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4047:
4046:
4042:
4034:
4030:
4021:
4019:
4005:
4004:
4000:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3966:
3965:
3961:
3952:
3950:
3936:
3935:
3931:
3922:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3906:
3897:
3895:
3890:
3889:
3885:
3873:
3872:
3868:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3831:
3829:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3772:. p. 226.
3761:
3760:
3753:
3736:
3735:
3726:
3719:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3676:
3658:
3657:
3635:
3625:
3591:
3568:
3552:
3523:
3486:
3485:
3466:
3450:
3431:
3400:
3384:
3373:
3369:
3350:
3313:
3285:
3272:
3271:
3246:
3221:
3190:
3174:
3149:
3118:
3102:
3080:
3049:
3033:
3005:
2992:
2991:
2973:
2918:
2893:
2889:
2876:
2846:
2809:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2745:
2723:
2722:
2706:
2672:
2644:
2610:
2588:
2587:
2569:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2522:
2521:
2492:
2491:
2430:
2399:
2372:
2371:
2328:
2282:
2275:
2242:
2241:
2223:
2222:
2176:
2146:
2145:
2138:
2134:
2100:
2099:
2068:
2067:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2014:
1972:
1943:
1942:
1911:
1906:
1905:
1876:
1857:
1856:
1823:
1822:
1796:
1781:
1776:
1775:
1758:
1757:
1737:
1720:
1688:
1648:
1647:
1616:
1599:
1577:
1539:
1522:
1508:
1504:
1485:
1444:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1395:
1394:
1372:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1316:
1292:
1291:
1237:
1232:
1231:
1209:
1188:
1183:
1182:
1165:
1164:
1117:
1107:
1103:
1091:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1041:
1040:
1007:
997:
993:
981:
959:
958:
954:
931:
930:
897:
871:
870:
866:
849:
845:
824:
800:
799:
768:
735:
734:
728:
708:Oscillator sync
689:Other waveforms
650:
648:
604:
598:
595:
588:needs expansion
573:
568:
540:
521:
476:
471:
452:
414:
411:
406:
394:
387:
379:
372:
342:
322:
317:
220:chips like the
202:
166:
130:sound synthesis
128:) is a form of
58:
51:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4588:
4586:
4578:
4577:
4567:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4540:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4528:
4523:
4517:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4506:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4493:Direct digital
4490:
4485:
4479:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4468:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4446:
4444:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4374:
4367:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4344:
4339:
4333:
4327:
4322:
4314:
4313:External links
4311:
4309:
4308:
4302:
4287:
4254:
4248:
4235:
4229:
4216:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4165:
4163:, pp. 1–2
4153:
4142:
4131:
4120:
4109:
4081:
4075:Sound on Sound
4060:
4057:(in Japanese).
4040:
4028:
4012:Sound on Sound
3998:
3985:
3959:
3929:
3904:
3883:
3866:
3839:
3812:
3791:
3778:
3751:
3748:on 2017-05-11.
3724:
3717:
3697:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3642:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3489:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3418:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3261:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3064:
3061:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2518:as following:
2517:
2516:
2505:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2237:
2236:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2132:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1971:
1968:
1950:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1788:
1784:
1772:
1771:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1611:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1179:
1178:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1003:
1000:
996:
988:
984:
980:
975:
972:
966:
962:
957:
953:
950:
946:
940:
934:
932:
928:
924:
921:
917:
913:
910:
904:
900:
896:
893:
890:
886:
883:
878:
874:
869:
863:
858:
854:
848:
844:
841:
837:
831:
825:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
807:
783:
780:
775:
771:
767:
764:
761:
757:
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751:
748:
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742:
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724:
714:
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712:
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705:
702:anti-logarithm
698:
692:
691:
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681:
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676:
673:
670:
647:
644:
639:Yamaha Montage
606:
605:
585:
583:
572:
569:
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564:
520:
517:
475:
472:
470:
467:
461:, used in its
451:
448:
410:
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341:
338:
321:
318:
316:
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305:FM Towns Marty
277:Taito Z System
201:
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165:
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136:is changed by
117:
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108:
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105:
96:
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84:
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56:
49:
26:
24:
18:FM synthesizer
14:
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3:
2:
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4466:
4465:Concatenative
4463:
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4453:
4451:
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4334:
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4320:
4317:
4316:
4312:
4305:
4299:
4296:. MIT Press.
4295:
4294:
4288:
4279:on 2017-11-18
4275:
4271:
4267:
4260:
4255:
4251:
4249:0-02-864682-7
4245:
4241:
4236:
4232:
4230:4-636-17482-8
4226:
4222:
4217:
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4209:
4202:
4197:
4196:
4191:
4176:
4173:Doering, Ed.
4169:
4166:
4162:
4161:Chowning 1973
4157:
4154:
4151:
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4143:
4140:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4113:
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4044:
4041:
4038:
4032:
4029:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3999:
3988:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3963:
3960:
3949:on 2007-04-07
3948:
3944:
3940:
3937:Rob Hordijk.
3933:
3930:
3919:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
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3822:
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3808:
3804:
3798:
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3792:
3781:
3779:0-262-68082-3
3775:
3771:
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3766:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3725:
3720:
3714:
3711:. CRC Press.
3710:
3709:
3701:
3698:
3695:, p. 115
3694:
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2133:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2082:
2076:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2042:
2036:
2026:
2023:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
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1973:
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1965:
1948:
1924:
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1277:Chowning 1973
1261:
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643:
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633:
629:
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621:
617:
613:
602:
599:February 2023
593:
589:
586:This section
584:
581:
577:
576:
570:
566:2000s–present
565:
563:
559:
556:
552:
548:
547:Alesis Fusion
544:
538:
534:
530:
526:
518:
516:
514:
510:
509:Alesis Fusion
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
473:
468:
466:
464:
460:
456:
449:
447:
444:
442:
438:
429:
425:
423:
418:
408:
403:
401:
398:
391:
385:
376:
370:
369:John Chowning
366:
362:
358:
351:
350:John Chowning
346:
339:
337:
335:
331:
326:
319:
314:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
214:Sound Blaster
211:
207:
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191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
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163:
161:
158:
154:
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83:
79:
78:
77:
76:
71:
67:
63:
59:
52:
42:
37:
36:
33:
19:
4438:Sample-based
4397:
4292:
4281:, retrieved
4274:the original
4265:
4239:
4220:
4211:
4207:
4192:Bibliography
4178:. Retrieved
4168:
4156:
4145:
4134:
4123:
4112:
4073:
4063:
4052:
4043:
4031:
4020:. Retrieved
4016:the original
4011:
4001:
3990:. Retrieved
3972:
3962:
3951:. Retrieved
3947:the original
3942:
3932:
3921:. Retrieved
3896:. Retrieved
3886:
3876:
3869:
3859:
3858:
3849:
3842:
3830:. Retrieved
3824:
3815:
3806:
3783:. Retrieved
3764:
3746:the original
3741:
3707:
3700:
3688:
2508:
2135:
2025:
1773:
1180:
732:
729:
721:
716:
715:
661:
636:
609:
596:
592:adding to it
587:
560:
522:
477:
453:
445:
434:
412:
354:
323:
216:popularized
203:
186:Synclavier I
167:
164:Applications
160:be created.
150:
126:FM synthesis
125:
121:
120:
109:
102:
88:
81:
65:
54:
47:
31:
4418:Subtractive
4325:FM tutorial
4268:, pp.
3832:October 19,
726:2 operators
678:Mix of them
669:2 operators
549:range, the
525:Yamaha SY99
505:Korg Kronos
493:subtractive
404:1970s–1980s
334:ARP Odyssey
309:Yamaha SMAF
170:oscillators
4428:Distortion
4283:2014-08-22
4180:2013-04-11
4022:2011-06-29
3992:2011-06-04
3953:2013-03-23
3923:2017-04-30
3898:2017-04-30
3826:MusicRadar
3785:2011-06-05
2012:References
2001:Sound chip
1996:Sound card
1903:amplitudes
1283:, p.
1281:Roads 1996
551:Korg Oasys
489:Image-Line
325:Don Buchla
240:) use the
194:Yamaha DX7
153:inharmonic
4450:Wavetable
3770:MIT Press
3680:Citations
3620:−
3597:−
3586:∵
3570:θ
3554:θ
3547:
3537:β
3519:∞
3514:∞
3511:−
3501:∑
3468:θ
3461:−
3452:θ
3445:
3426:−
3402:θ
3386:θ
3379:
3364:β
3346:∞
3331:∑
3315:θ
3308:
3299:β
3248:θ
3238:
3223:θ
3216:
3204:β
3176:θ
3166:
3151:θ
3144:
3132:β
3104:θ
3097:
3082:θ
3075:
3063:β
3035:θ
3028:
3019:β
2975:θ
2950:
2941:β
2914:∞
2899:∑
2878:θ
2871:
2848:θ
2835:
2826:β
2805:∞
2790:∑
2777:β
2747:θ
2740:
2708:θ
2701:
2695:β
2689:
2674:θ
2667:
2646:θ
2639:
2633:β
2627:
2612:θ
2605:
2571:θ
2564:
2557:β
2545:θ
2536:
2513:Kreh 2012
2486:θ
2462:
2453:β
2426:∞
2411:∑
2394:θ
2391:
2385:β
2379:
2366:θ
2354:
2345:β
2324:∞
2309:∑
2296:β
2270:θ
2267:
2261:β
2255:
2217:
2208:
2202:±
2196:
2187:
2168:±
2159:
2017:Footnotes
1925:β
1878:ω
1863:β
1839:π
1830:ω
1798:ω
1783:ω
1739:ω
1722:ω
1712:
1702:β
1684:∞
1679:∞
1676:−
1666:∑
1618:ω
1610:−
1601:ω
1591:
1572:−
1541:ω
1524:ω
1514:
1499:β
1481:∞
1466:∑
1446:ω
1439:
1430:β
1374:ω
1367:
1360:β
1344:ω
1335:
1322:≈
1254:π
1251:−
1239:ϕ
1211:ω
1190:ϕ
1135:π
1132:−
1119:ω
1112:
1093:ω
1071:ω
1062:
1025:−
1009:ω
1002:
983:ω
974:−
961:ω
952:
923:τ
909:τ
899:ω
892:
873:ω
853:∫
843:
770:ω
763:
697:Linear FM
610:In 2016,
543:Nord Lead
380:algorithm
146:amplitude
4569:Category
4455:Granular
4423:Additive
4101:Archived
1981:Chiptune
1970:See also
632:Digitone
330:Minimoog
311:format.
157:harmonic
134:waveform
4526:Modular
4498:Formant
4442:Sampler
4413:Scanned
710:with FM
624:Montage
315:History
301:Fujitsu
285:Neo Geo
4460:Vector
4300:
4246:
4227:
3983:
3776:
3715:
3589:
3497:
3491:
3420:
3414:
3283:
3277:
3003:
2997:
2734:
2728:
2599:
2593:
2509:Source
1901:, and
1774:where
1659:
1653:
1566:
1560:
1406:
1400:
1325:
1319:
1052:
1046:
942:
936:
833:
827:
555:Kronos
485:Sytrus
384:Yamaha
378:. His
230:X68000
218:Yamaha
103:β
82:β
4388:types
4277:(PDF)
4262:(PDF)
4204:(PDF)
4104:(PDF)
4097:(PDF)
2064:phase
620:opsix
616:Volca
469:1990s
455:Casio
273:Taito
257:PC-98
253:PC-88
210:AdLib
4298:ISBN
4244:ISBN
4225:ISBN
4214:(7).
3981:ISBN
3834:2018
3774:ISBN
3713:ISBN
1962:-th
1817:are
1279:and
628:MODX
612:Korg
553:and
535:and
529:FS1R
527:and
507:and
332:and
299:and
293:Sega
289:OPN2
269:OPNB
265:OPNA
263:and
255:and
232:and
226:OPL3
224:and
222:OPL2
212:and
124:(or
4440:or
3807:Mix
3544:sin
3442:sin
3376:sin
3305:sin
3235:sin
3213:cos
3163:cos
3141:sin
3094:sin
3072:cos
3025:sin
2947:sin
2868:cos
2832:cos
2737:sin
2698:sin
2686:sin
2664:cos
2636:sin
2624:cos
2602:sin
2561:sin
2533:sin
2459:sin
2388:sin
2376:sin
2351:cos
2264:sin
2252:cos
2214:sin
2205:cos
2193:cos
2184:sin
2156:sin
2058:as
1941:is
1897:is
1709:sin
1588:sin
1511:sin
1436:sin
1364:sin
1332:sin
1285:232
1109:sin
1059:sin
999:cos
949:sin
889:sin
840:sin
760:sin
717:etc
594:.
487:by
483:or
441:DX7
303:'s
295:'s
283:'s
281:SNK
261:OPN
250:NEC
246:OPP
242:OPM
234:MSX
4571::
4264:,
4212:21
4210:.
4206:.
4099:.
4084:^
4072:.
4051:.
4010:.
3971:.
3941:.
3907:^
3857:.
3823:.
3805:.
3794:^
3768:.
3754:^
3740:.
3727:^
2511::
1287::
719:.
515:.
499:,
495:,
400:.
393:,
371:,
336:.
72:).
70:dB
64:,
4378:e
4371:t
4364:v
4306:.
4270:5
4252:.
4233:.
4183:.
4025:.
3995:.
3956:.
3926:.
3901:.
3855:7
3836:.
3788:.
3721:.
3655:)
3652:)
3649:x
3646:(
3641:n
3637:J
3631:n
3627:)
3623:1
3617:(
3614:=
3611:)
3608:x
3605:(
3600:n
3593:J
3583:(
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