243:
a defendant will appear when requested. They note that a single legal proceeding can span several years and consist of multiple court dates; due to backlogs in some courts, defendants may wait all day for their hearings only for a judge to impose a delay. Defendants who must go before a judge regularly can confuse or forget their court dates. Jurisdictions nationwide have reduced FTA rates by reminding people of upcoming court hearings. In New York, an effort to redesign court summons forms and notify people of their court dates using text messages reduced FTAs by 13% and 21%, respectively. These interventions resulted in an estimated 30,000 fewer warrants issued over three years.
81:
indictable offense of bail jumping, defendants were able to buy their freedom by forfeiting their bonds and taking the risk that they could go unapprehended. Even if apprehended, many defendants could hide for periods long enough for the government's case, especially for major offenses, to grow weaker because of the unavailability of witnesses, memory lapses, and the like, and thereby defeat the government's prosecutive efforts. They would then be subject only to the criminal contempt charge, the sentence for which was usually of considerably less gravity than for the original offense. These were the reasons that led to the original
Federal bail jumping statute of 1954.
265:
court can lead to a warrant for their arrest. For serious felonies, FTAs are relatively rare. The most recent data available from the Bureau of
Justice Statistics demonstrate that 83% of felony defendants will never miss a court date. The majority of those who miss an appearance will return to court within one year. FTA rates are also challenging to measure and compare. Some jurisdictions treat a single-missed court appearance as an FTA, such that a new FTA arises whenever an individual misses a court date in a single legal proceeding. Other jurisdictions treat all missed court appearances within one legal proceeding as a single FTA.
247:
open during business hours. Researchers have confirmed a positive correlation between indigence and FTAs across racial and gender demographics. They speculate that the logistical challenges and financial burdens associated with court attendance drove the disparities observed in their results. Advocates have called for transportation assistance and childcare support instead of criminal sanctions to address FTAs. Advocates note that some people, including houseless individuals and people dealing with substance abuse, require additional support and that the threat of criminal sanctions is ineffective.
256:
department in
Ferguson, Missouri, found that a municipal court had generated thousands of FTA warrants and used them to impose fines and fees on residents. Individuals with warrants out of their arrest may be less likely to seek educational and employment opportunities for fear of getting apprehended. They may have their driver's license revoked and cannot access public benefits. Several jurisdictions have taken steps to clear FTA warrants to reduce these backlogs.
178:". Not all mental pressures satisfy the uncontrollable circumstance requirement; courts have held that only something as serious as threats of significant bodily harm or death can excuse an FTA. The prospect of prosecutorial reprisal, fear of harassment, and loss of faith in the criminal justice system generally do not amount to uncontrollable duress. Courts have dismissed claims based on fears of
90:
court. In early versions of the bill, lawmakers expressed their resolve to "deter those who would obstruct law enforcement by failing to appear for trial or other judicial appearances and to punish those who indeed fail to appear". Lawmakers saw heightening the penalties for FTAs "as a means of enhancing the effectiveness of the bail jumping offense as a deterrent to flight."
234:
risk score. One scholar has proposed breaking FTAs into three categories: "true flight" (intentionally fleeing the area); local absconding (remaining in the jurisdiction but refusing to come to court even if reminded); and low-cost non-appearance (failing to appear for reasons besides avoiding justice). Critics say these types of FTAs may warrant different interventions.
283:
206:
automatically suspended for failing to appear in court when required. At least seven states authorize driver's license suspensions for reasons unrelated to traffic court. Other license-related punishments include "authorized vehicle immobilization, liens and mandatory delinquency reinstatement fees".
233:
Critics argue that policymakers define "failure to appear" too broadly, conflating people who intentionally flee the jurisdiction with those who miss their court dates due to forgetfulness or logistical difficulties. Risk-assessment tools tend to treat all FTAs the same when calculating a defendant's
89:
The Bail Reform Act of 1966, one of the first significant pieces of the federal bail legislation, made "willfully fail to appear before any court or judicial officer as required" punishable by up to five years in prison and a $ 5,000 fine. In 1984, Congress increased the sanctions for FTAs in federal
255:
Some scholars contend that FTAs have led to warrant backlogs nationwide. In 2019, around one in seven adults had warrants out for their arrest in New
Orleans, Louisiana; FTAs were responsible for over half of warrants issued in New Orleans in 2017. A Department of Justice investigation of the police
242:
Scholars, activists, and practitioners have criticized federal and state laws for operating on the mistaken assumption that most FTAs reflect a conscious decision to abscond. Critics believe most FTAs are the product of forgetfulness or logistical difficulties—and that, if given another opportunity,
85:
As of 1954, few FTA statutes existed at the state level. New York and
Minnesota were among the earliest adopters of statutes penalizing FTAs, but these laws were rarely used in practice. By 1966, only seven states had separate sanctions for FTAs. Over thirty states implemented FTA-specific penalties
80:
The
Federal bail jumping statute was first enacted in 1954 to fill the void in the criminal law highlighted by the conduct of fleeing fugitives who were leaders of the Communist Party. The only available penalties, at that time, were forfeiture of money and contempt proceedings. In the absence of an
246:
Critics note that attending court can be particularly onerous for low-income individuals. Studies have documented a lack of access to transportation and childcare as two factors driving FTAs. Defendants may struggle to make their court dates due to conflicts with their work, as many courts are only
202:
example, in
Maryland, a defendant who "forfeits bail or recognizance and willfully fails to surrender" will have a bench warrant automatically issued for their arrest, whereas a judge retains discretion over whether to use a bench warrant when a defendant fails to appear in response to a citation.
201:
At least thirty states and the
District of Columbia authorize courts to issue bench warrants for a defendant's arrest or orders for a defendant to appear after an FTA. Many jurisdictions leave the decision to issue a bench warrant within the judge's discretion—at least under some circumstances. For
196:
A person set at liberty by court order, with or without bail, upon condition that he will subsequently appear at a specified time and place, commits a misdemeanor if, without lawful excuse, he fails to appear at that time and place. The offense constitutes a felony where the required appearance was
72:, which made it a crime to "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise, or teach the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States". After the Supreme Court affirmed the convictions of eleven Communist leaders under the Smith Act in
264:
Whether FTA rates are prevalent enough to warrant criminal sanctions has become a point of contention. FTAs are most common for lower-level, non-violent crimes: primarily in traffic court. Not all individuals who receive a traffic ticket or summons for a minor infraction realize that not attending
191:
All fifty states have implemented statutes penalizing FTAs, which several state statutes call "bail jumping" in their official codes. The
District of Columbia and all states besides Mississippi make FTAs the basis of additional criminal charges. For example, an FTA can qualify as a misdemeanor or
182:
and a defendant's desire "to make a political statement or engage in protest activity". The legislative history for the federal statute indicates that the affirmative defense should only apply in extreme circumstances: "for example, a person is recuperating from a heart attack and to leave his bed
214:
An FTA will often follow a defendant in future proceedings. When deciding whether to release someone pretrial, a judge must usually ask whether a defendant is likely to appear for trial if released and whether the defendant would pose a danger to the community. A defendant's record of prior court
205:
At least forty states impose a driver's license penalty for FTAs, often suspending an individual's license until the person appears in court. These laws generally apply when the FTA occurs in traffic court. In
Missouri, a "resident charged with a moving traffic violation" will have their license
98:
Today, a defendant who "fails to appear before a court as required by the conditions of release" or "fails to surrender for service of sentence pursuant to a court order" remains subject to criminal sanctions. A court will use the following scheme to determine a defendant's punishment:
197:
to answer to a charge of felony, or for disposition of any such charge, and the actor took flight or went into hiding to avoid apprehension, trial or punishment. This section does not apply to obligations to appear incident to release under suspended sentence or on probation or parole.
64:, the first federal framework governing pretrial detention, did not single out FTAs for punishment but decreed that there should be sanctions for "all contempts of authority". Specific penalties for FTAs emerged on the heels of the federal government's campaign to prosecute
39:. In the United States, FTAs are punishable by fines, incarceration, or both when committed by a criminal defendant. The severity of the punishment depends on the seriousness of the criminal charges that were the subject of the missed proceeding. An FTA may trigger a
219:
or let them post bail. Some courts rely on risk-assessment tools, which use algorithms to predict the likelihood that a defendant will not appear; a prior FTA, especially a recent one, significantly slants the algorithm toward deeming the defendant high-risk.
170:
that "uncontrollable circumstances prevented" their appearance. To make this claim successfully, the defendant must not have contributed to the uncontrollable circumstances and must have "appeared or surrendered as soon as such circumstances ceased to exist".
796:
1362:
76:, four of the defendants fled in July 1951. All four leaders either turned themselves in or were later apprehended, but their flight would inspire Congress to enact punishments for FTAs three years later:
215:
attendance is one of the primary factors that a judge looks to when determining whether to grant pretrial release. Having a single FTA can lead courts to refuse to release defendants on their own
1381:
183:
would imperil his life, or, after he had made careful plans for transportation to the court house, his vehicle breaks down or unexpected weather conditions bring traffic to a halt."
86:
over the next two decades. These laws coincided with a growing national concern about dangerous defendants and the perceived need for greater deterrence in the pretrial system.
1449:
1398:
1223:
1076:
1277:"An Exploratory Assessment of Race and Gender-Specific Predictors of Failure to Appear in Court among Defendants Released via a Pretrial Services Agency"
1178:
765:
1423:
1336:
1152:
1047:
1018:
992:
966:
1467:
853:
840:
406:
383:
827:
678:
1382:"NOLA Shakedown: How Criminalizing Municipal Fines & Fees Traps Poor & Working Class Black New Orleanians in Poverty"
691:
814:
880:
743:
1125:
1486:
866:
730:
594:
43:
for the defendant's arrest and impair their eligibility for bail and pretrial release in subsequent proceedings.
717:
520:
783:
1177:
Cook, Brice; Diop, Binta Zahra; Fishbane, Alissa; Hayes, Jonathan; Ouss, Aurelie; Shah, Anuj (January 2018).
1200:
321:
174:
An "uncontrollable circumstance" can either be physical or mental, the latter of which courts refer to as "
704:
652:
640:
175:
613:
61:
1179:"Using Behavioral Science to Improve Criminal Justice Outcomes: Preventing Failures to Appear in Court"
906:
597:
167:
65:
564:
369:
1296:
1254:
1107:
1246:
1133:
1099:
550:
546:
534:
507:
503:
491:
476:
472:
460:
445:
441:
429:
57:
665:
337:
304:
1288:
1238:
1091:
1539:
121:
Offense punishable by death, life imprisonment, or imprisonment up to at least 15 years
947:
353:
40:
16:
Situation of an individual not appearing before a judicial body at a predetermined time
1533:
1300:
1276:
1258:
1111:
114:
1363:"One in 7 Adults in New Orleans Have a Warrant Out for Their Arrest, New Data Shows"
216:
1512:
582:
1468:"Easing the Burden of Fees and Fines During Covid-19: Brennan Center for Justice"
179:
352:
Daniel J. Freed & Patricia M. Wald, Nat’l Conf. on Bail & Crim. Just.,
1292:
1137:
1450:"NJ Supreme Court Dismisses Massive Backlog of Municipal Cases and Warrants"
1242:
1095:
625:
69:
28:
1317:
1250:
1103:
32:
407:"Compelling Appearance in Court: Administration of Bail in Philadelphia"
384:"Compelling Appearance in Court: Administration of Bail in Philadelphia"
36:
1513:"Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties, 2009 - Statistical Tables"
105:
766:"Statutory Responses for Failure to Appear (Statutory Summary)"
535:"Manufacturing Crime: Process, Pretext, and Criminal Justice"
492:"Manufacturing Crime: Process, Pretext, and Criminal Justice"
461:"Manufacturing Crime: Process, Pretext, and Criminal Justice"
430:"Manufacturing Crime: Process, Pretext, and Criminal Justice"
284:"Manufacturing Crime: Process, Pretext, and Criminal Justice"
132:
Offense punishable by imprisonment up to at least 5 years
1222:
Fishbane, Alissa; Ouss, Aurelie; Shah, Anuj K. (2020).
1075:
Fishbane, Alissa; Ouss, Aurelie; Shah, Anuj K. (2020).
1224:"Behavioral Nudges Reduce Failures to Appear in Court"
1077:"Behavioral Nudges Reduce Failure to Appear for Court"
797:"Statutory Responses for Failure to Appear (Database)"
192:
felony in Idaho depending on the underlying offense:
523:, Pub. L. No. 89-465, § 3150, 80 Stat. 216 (1966).
1399:"Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department"
56:Punishments for FTAs originated out of courts'
1380:ÓFaoláin, Sian Miranda Sing (September 2019).
1275:Zettler, Haley R.; Morris, Robert G. (2015).
879:Baradaran, Shima; McIntyre, Frank L. (2012).
8:
1361:Webster, Richard A. (September 20, 2019).
946:Lo, Puck; Corey, Ethan (January 9, 2019).
801:National Conference of State Legislatures
770:National Conference of State Legislatures
628:, 530 F. Supp. 2d 356, 362 (D. Me. 2008).
101:
274:
1312:
1310:
1126:"A Nightmare Court, Worthy of Dickens"
636:
634:
609:
607:
605:
124:prison up to 10 years or fine or both
1506:
1504:
1417:
1415:
1270:
1268:
1070:
1068:
1041:
1039:
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
927:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
577:
575:
573:
411:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
388:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
364:
362:
348:
346:
317:
315:
313:
146:prison up to 2 years or fine or both
135:prison up to 5 years or fine or both
31:or respondent does not come before a
7:
157:prison up to 1 year or fine or both
1448:O'Dea, Colleen (January 22, 2019).
1318:"The Bail Project: After Cash Bail"
655:, 51 F.3d 861, 868 (9th Cir. 1995).
210:Consequences for future proceedings
1511:Reaves, Brian A. (December 2013).
1199:Baradaran Baughman, Shima (2020).
905:Baradaran Baughman, Shima (2020).
643:, 814 F.2d 73, 75 (1st Cir. 1987).
14:
948:"The 'Failure to Appear' Fallacy"
327:346 F.2d 875, 880 (2d Cir. 1965).
1431:University of Chicago Law Review
1344:University of Chicago Law Review
1160:University of Chicago Law Review
1055:University of Chicago Law Review
1026:University of Chicago Law Review
1000:University of Chicago Law Review
974:University of Chicago Law Review
616:, 40 F.3d 9, 10 (1st Cir. 1994).
354:Bail in the United States: 1964
260:Questions about FTA prevalence
1:
1520:Bureau of Justice Statistics
1422:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
1335:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
1151:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
1046:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
1017:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
991:Gouldin, Lauren P. (2018).
965:Gouldin, Lauryn P. (2018).
166:A defendant can present an
1556:
1472:Brennan Center for Justice
641:United States v. Odufowora
307:, 1 Stat. 73, § 17 (1789).
653:United States v. Springer
626:United States v. Kinsella
614:United States v. Veilleux
1293:10.1177/0734016815583350
852:Md. Code, Crim. Proc. §
238:Causes of non-appearance
1281:Criminal Justice Review
1243:10.1126/science.abb6591
1096:10.1126/science.abb6591
839:Md. Code, Crim Proc. §
521:Bail Reform Act of 1966
74:Dennis v. United States
1485:Sekhon, Nirej (2018).
1424:"Defining Flight Risk"
1337:"Defining Flight Risk"
1201:"Dividing Bail Reform"
1153:"Defining Flight Risk"
1048:"Defining Flight Risk"
1019:"Defining Flight Risk"
993:"Defining Flight Risk"
967:"Defining Flight Risk"
907:"Dividing Bail Reform"
294:: 17 – via SSRN.
288:Georgetown Law Journal
199:
83:
1491:Washington Law Review
1406:Department of Justice
881:"Predicting Violence"
539:Georgetown Law Review
533:Murphy, Erin (2009).
496:Georgetown Law Review
490:Murphy, Erin (2009).
465:Georgetown Law Review
459:Murphy, Erin (2009).
434:Georgetown Law Review
428:Murphy, Erin (2009).
405:Foote, Caleb (1954).
382:Foote, Caleb (1954).
322:United States v. Hall
282:Murphy, Erin (2009).
229:Definitional problems
194:
78:
62:Judiciary Act of 1789
23:(FTA), also known as
1487:"Dangerous Warrants"
1261:– via Ideas42.
1114:– via Ideas42.
803:. February 25, 2022.
772:. February 25, 2022.
47:In the United States
336:Smith Act of 1940,
168:affirmative defense
21:"failure to appear"
1130:The New York Times
826:Cal. Penal Code §
742:Wash. Rev. Code §
94:Modern federal law
68:leaders under the
1474:. March 27, 2020.
1454:NJ Spotlight News
865:Mo. Rev. Stat. §
729:N.Y. Penal Law §
716:La. Rev. Stat. §
703:Ky. Rev. Stat. §
553:– via SSRN.
510:– via SSRN.
479:– via SSRN.
448:– via SSRN.
164:
163:
143:Any other felony
111:Punitive measure
108:of preconviction
70:Smith Act of 1940
35:as directed in a
1547:
1524:
1523:
1517:
1508:
1499:
1498:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1408:. March 4, 2015.
1403:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1322:The Bail Project
1314:
1305:
1304:
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1262:
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1213:
1212:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1183:
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1167:
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1148:
1142:
1141:
1132:. May 11, 2016.
1122:
1116:
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1072:
1063:
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982:
981:
971:
962:
956:
955:
943:
922:
921:
911:
902:
896:
895:
888:Texas Law Review
885:
876:
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844:
837:
831:
824:
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251:Warrant backlogs
102:
27:, occurs when a
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1367:Washington Post
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1205:Iowa Law Review
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914:Iowa Law Review
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728:
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711:
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685:
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668:, at 32 (1983).
663:
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620:
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593:
589:
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571:
567:, at 61 (1983).
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25:"bail jumping"
15:
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2:
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829:
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782:Idaho Code §
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305:Judiciary Act
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115:Offense level
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41:bench warrant
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1185:
1172:
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1120:
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891:
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861:
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835:
822:
815:11-45-9.1(h)
813:Ala. Code §
809:
800:
791:
778:
769:
738:
725:
712:
699:
686:
677:Ala. Code §
673:
664:S. Rep. No.
660:
648:
621:
590:
581:18 U.S.C. §
563:S. Rep. No.
559:
542:
538:
528:
516:
499:
495:
485:
468:
464:
454:
437:
433:
423:
414:
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391:
387:
377:
368:S. Rep. No.
338:54 Stat. 670
332:
324:
300:
291:
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277:
263:
254:
245:
241:
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217:recognizance
213:
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154:Misdemeanor
97:
88:
84:
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73:
60:powers. The
55:
52:Historically
24:
20:
18:
1237:(6517): 6.
1090:(6517): 1.
690:Ga. Code §
180:deportation
1287:(4): 426.
952:The Appeal
828:1043(e)(3)
417:: 1068–69.
356:52 (1964).
269:References
187:State laws
1301:145692540
1259:222235406
1138:0362-4331
1112:222235406
744:9A.76.170
679:13A-10-39
502:: 18–19.
224:Criticism
66:Communist
29:defendant
1534:Category
1251:33033154
1104:33033154
854:5-212(b)
841:5-211(a)
718:14:110.1
692:16-10-51
58:contempt
33:tribunal
1324:. 2020.
1231:Science
1186:ideas42
1084:Science
869:(2021).
867:302.341
856:(2020).
843:(2020).
830:(2021).
817:(2021).
786:(2021).
784:18-7401
746:(2021).
733:(2021).
720:(2021).
707:(2021).
705:520.070
694:(2020).
681:(2021).
551:1279681
508:1279681
477:1279681
446:1279681
394:: 1068.
340:(1940).
106:Offense
37:summons
1540:Crimes
1497:: 984.
1437:: 694.
1350:: 690.
1299:
1257:
1249:
1211:: 987.
1166:: 730.
1136:
1110:
1102:
1061:: 683.
1032:: 684.
1006:: 687.
980:: 720.
920:: 988.
894:: 499.
731:215.55
666:98-227
598:§2J1.6
565:98-108
549:
545:: 18.
506:
475:
471:: 19.
444:
440:: 19.
370:98-108
176:duress
1516:(PDF)
1427:(PDF)
1402:(PDF)
1385:(PDF)
1340:(PDF)
1297:S2CID
1255:S2CID
1227:(PDF)
1182:(PDF)
1156:(PDF)
1108:S2CID
1080:(PDF)
1051:(PDF)
1022:(PDF)
996:(PDF)
970:(PDF)
910:(PDF)
884:(PDF)
1247:PMID
1134:ISSN
1100:PMID
595:USSG
583:3146
547:SSRN
504:SSRN
473:SSRN
442:SSRN
438:2009
1289:doi
1239:doi
1235:370
1209:105
1092:doi
1088:370
918:105
415:120
392:102
138:11
127:14
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