Nuclear fallout - Knowledge (XXG)

2795:. Passed by Congress in 1957, the Price-Anderson Act ensured government assistance above the $ 60 million covered by private insurance companies in the case of a nuclear reactor accident. The main goal of the Price-Anderson Act was to protect the multi-billion-dollar companies overseeing the production of nuclear reactors. Without this protection, the nuclear reactor industry could potentially come to a halt, and the protective measures against nuclear fallout would be reduced. However, because of the limited experience in nuclear reactor technology, engineers had a difficult time calculating the potential risk of released radiation. Engineers were forced to imagine every unlikely accident, and the potential fallout associated with each accident. The AEC's regulations against potential nuclear reactor fallout were centered on the ability of the power plant to the Maximum Credible Accident (MCA). The MCA involved a "large release of radioactive isotopes after a substantial meltdown of the reactor fuel when the reactor coolant system failed through a Loss-of-Coolant Accident". The prevention of the MCA enabled a number of new nuclear fallout preventive measures. Static safety systems, or systems without power sources or user input, were enabled to prevent potential human error. Containment buildings, for example, were reliably effective at containing a release of radiation and did not need to be powered or turned on to operate. Active protective systems, although far less dependable, can do many things that static systems cannot. For example, a system to replace the escaping steam of a cooling system with cooling water could prevent reactor fuel from melting. However, this system would need a sensor to detect the presence of releasing steam. Sensors can fail, and the results of a lack of preventive measures would result in a local nuclear fallout. The AEC had to choose, then, between active and static systems to protect the public from nuclear fallout. With a lack of set standards and probabilistic calculations, the AEC and the industry became divided on the best safety precautions to use. This division gave rise to the 2673:

These communities’ shelters would also help facilitate efforts to recuperate the community in the future. Single family shelters should be built below ground if possible. Many different types of fallout shelters could be made for a relatively small amount of money. A common format for fallout shelters was to build the shelter underground, with solid concrete blocks to act as the roof. If a shelter could only be partially underground, it was recommended to mound over that shelter with as much soil as possible. If a house had a basement, it is best for a fallout shelter to be constructed in a corner of the basement. The center of a basement is where the most radiation will be because the easiest way for radiation to enter a basement is from the floor above. The two of the walls of the shelter in a basement corner will be the basement walls that are surrounded by soil outside. Cinder blocks filled with sand or soil were highly recommended for the other two walls. Concrete blocks, or some other dense material, should be used as a roof for a basement fallout shelter because the floor of a house is not an adequate roof for a

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individually, the accident was upgraded to an INES Level 7. The radiation exposure from the incident caused a recommended evacuation for inhabitants up to 30 km away from the plant. However, it was also hard to track such exposure because 23 out of the 24 radioactive monitoring stations were also disabled by the tsunami. Removing contaminated water, both in the plant itself and run-off water that spread into the sea and nearby areas, became a huge challenge for the Japanese government and plant workers. During the containment period following the accident, thousands of cubic meters of slightly contaminated water were released in the sea to free up storage for more contaminated water in the reactor and turbine buildings. However, the fallout from the Fukushima accident had a minimal impact on the surrounding population. According to the

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density, and they were often the most suitable building in a community to act as a fallout shelter. Schools also already had organization with leaders in place. The Office of Civil Defense recommended altering current schools and the construction of future schools to include thicker walls and roofs, better-protected electrical systems, a purifying ventilation system, and a protected water pump. The Office of Civil Defense determined that around 10 square feet of net area per person were necessary in schools that were to function as a fallout shelter. A normal classroom could provide 180 people with area to sleep. If an attack were to happen, all the unnecessary furniture was to be moved out of the classrooms to make more room for people. It was recommended to keep one or two tables in the room if possible to use as a food-serving station.

2232: 2555:: the thickness of a layer of a material sufficient to reduce gamma radiation exposure by 50%. Halving thicknesses of common materials include: 1 cm (0.4 inch) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed earth or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. A practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of a given material, such as 90 cm (36 inches) of packed earth, which reduces gamma ray exposure by approximately 1024 times (2). A shelter built with these materials for the purposes of fallout protection is known as a 1489:

intermediate time scale or long term. The intermediate time scale results from fallout that has been put into the troposphere and ejected by precipitation during the first month. Long-term fallout can sometimes occur from deposition of tiny particles carried in the stratosphere. By the time that stratospheric fallout has begun to reach the earth, the radioactivity is very much decreased. Also, after a year it is estimated that a sizable quantity of fission products move from the northern to the southern stratosphere. The intermediate time scale is between 1 and 30 days, with long term fallout occurring after that.

2642: 2799:(NRC). The NRC was committed to 'regulations through research', which gave the regulatory committee a knowledge bank of research on which to draw their regulations. Much of the research done by the NRC sought to move safety systems from a deterministic viewpoint into a new probabilistic approach. The deterministic approach sought to foresee all problems before they arose. The probabilistic approach uses a more mathematical approach to weigh the risks of potential radiation leaks. Much of the probabilistic safety approach can be drawn from the 2151:, prompt radiation is the dominant producer of casualties on the battlefield. Humans receiving an acute incapacitating dose (30 Gy) have their performance degraded almost immediately and become ineffective within several hours. However, they do not die until five to six days after exposure, assuming they do not receive any other injuries. Individuals receiving less than a total of 1.5 Gy are not incapacitated. People receiving doses greater than 1.5 Gy become disabled, and some eventually die. 2062: 2892: 75: 6830: 2856:

power that led to radiation-related deaths. The steam explosion and fires released approximately 5200 PBq, or at least 5 percent of the reactor core, into the atmosphere. The explosion itself resulted in the deaths of two plant workers, while 28 people died over the weeks that followed of severe radiation poisoning. Furthermore, young children and adolescents in the areas most contaminated by the radiation exposure showed an increase in the risk for

1290: 40: 1844:". The base surge is a cloud that rolls outward from the bottom of the subsiding column, which is caused by an excessive density of dust or water droplets in the air. For underwater bursts, the visible surge is, in effect, a cloud of liquid (usually water) droplets with the property of flowing almost as if it were a homogeneous fluid. After the water evaporates, an invisible base surge of small radioactive particles may persist. 2596:, however, easily penetrates the skin and many thin shielding mechanisms to cause cellular degeneration in the stem cells found in bone marrow. While full body shielding in a secure fallout shelter as described above is the most optimal form of radiation protection, it requires being locked in a very thick bunker for a significant amount of time. In the event of a nuclear catastrophe of any kind, it is imperative to have 1713:

takes the same time to descend, so although it covers a larger path, it is more spread out or diluted. Thus, the width of the fallout pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any given time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern, so overall casualty figures from fallout are generally independent of winds. But

6792: 2495: 2205: 2936:, "A radiation cloud doesn't know international boundaries." The NRC showed the Soviets the safety guidelines used in the US: capable regulation, safety-minded operations, and effective plant designs. The Soviets, however, had their own priority: keeping the plant running at all costs. In the end, the same shift between deterministic safety designs to probabilistic safety designs prevailed. In 1989, the 1676: 2190: 2009: 1508:, and surrounding this was graphite, both of which were vaporized by the hydrogen explosion that destroyed the reactor and breached its containment. An estimated 31 people died within a few weeks after this happened, including two plant workers killed at the scene. Although residents were evacuated within 36 hours, people started to complain of vomiting, migraines and other major signs of 6840: 1860: 1302: 1525: 351: 2633:

for every seven-fold increase in the number of hours since the explosion. He presents data showing that "it takes about seven times as long for the dose rate to decay from 1000 roentgens per hour (1000 R/hr) to 10 R/hr (48 hours) as to decay from 1000 R/hr to 100 R/hr (7 hours)." This is a rule of thumb based on observed data, not a precise relation.

6821: 6813: 1516:, mainly among children. Fallout spread throughout Western Europe, with Northern Scandinavia receiving a heavy dose, contaminating reindeer herds in Lapland, and salad greens becoming almost unavailable in France. Some sheep farms in North Wales and the North Of England were required to monitor radioactivity levels in their flocks until the control was lifted in 2012. 2791:(AEC) began developing safety regulations against nuclear fallout for civilian nuclear reactors. Because the effects of nuclear fallout are more widespread and longer lasting than other forms of energy production accidents, the AEC desired a more proactive response towards potential accidents than ever before. One step to prevent nuclear reactor accidents was the 6805: 1758:, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself. 2912:, over 62 percent of assessed residents within the Fukushima prefecture received external doses of less than 1 mSv in the four months following the accident. In addition, comparing screening campaigns for children inside the Fukushima prefecture and in the rest of the country revealed no significant difference in the risk of thyroid cancer. 1851:. A soil earth medium favors base surge formation in an underground burst. Although the base surge typically contains only about 10% of the total bomb debris in a subsurface burst, it can create larger radiation doses than fallout near the detonation, because it arrives sooner than fallout, before much radioactive decay has occurred. 2479:

degree Celsius. The result would have the potential of creating widespread food insecurity (nuclear famine). Precipitation across the globe would be disrupted as a result. If enough soot was introduced in the upper atmosphere the planet's ozone layer could potentially be depleted, affecting plant growth and human health.

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from fallout radiation. However, protective clothing can keep fallout particles off a person's body, but the radiation from these particles will still permeate through the clothing. For safety clothing to be able to block the fallout radiation, it would have to be so thick and heavy that a person could not function.

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radioactive material will be carried by low altitude winds and deposited in surrounding areas as radioactive dust. The material intercepted by high altitude winds will continue to travel. When a radiation cloud at high altitude is exposed to rainfall, the radioactive fallout will contaminate the downwind area below.

2220: 2940:(WANO) was formed to cooperate with the IAEA to ensure the same three pillars of reactor safety across international borders. In 1991, WANO concluded (using a probabilistic safety approach) that all former communist-controlled nuclear reactors could not be trusted, and should be closed. Compared to a "Nuclear 2499: 2497: 2688:

The Office of Civil Defense conducted four case studies to find the cost of turning four standing schools into fallout shelters and what their capacity would be. The cost of the schools per occupant in the 1960s were $ 66.00, $ 127.00, $ 50.00, and $ 180.00. The capacity of people these schools could

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Schools were the preferred fallout shelters according to the Office of Civil Defense. Schools, not including universities, contained around one-quarter of the population of the United States when they were in session at that time. The distribution of schools across the nation reflected the population

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These guides indicated that fallout shelters should contain enough resources to keep its occupants alive for up to two weeks. Community shelters were preferred over single-family shelters. The more people in a shelter, the greater quantity and variety of resources that shelter would be equipped with.

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Fallout radionuclides' detriment in the human food chain is apparent in the lichen-caribou-eskimo studies in Alaska. The primary effect on humans observed was thyroid dysfunction. The result of a nuclear fallout is incredibly detrimental to human survival and the biosphere. Fallout alters the quality

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and atmospheric and oceanic sciences professor Brian Toon created a model of a hypothetical small-scale nuclear war that would have approximately 100 weapons used. In this scenario, the fires would create enough soot into the atmosphere to block sunlight, lowering global temperatures by more than one

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In the event of a large-scale nuclear exchange, the effects would be drastic on the environment as well as directly to the human population. Within direct blast zones everything would be vaporized and destroyed. Cities damaged but not completely destroyed would lose their water system due to the loss

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changes may follow the irradiation of animals. These vary from rapid death following high doses of penetrating whole-body radiation, to essentially normal lives for a variable period of time until the development of delayed radiation effects, in a portion of the exposed population, following low dose

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in 1979 was categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale because of the "severe damage to the reactor core" and the radiation leak caused by the incident. Three Mile Island was the most serious accident in the history of American commercial nuclear power plants, yet the effects were different

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If a person did not have a shelter previously built, these guides recommended trying to get underground. If a person had a basement but no shelter, they should put food, water, and a waste container in the corner of the basement. Then items such as furniture should be piled up to create walls around

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Some considered the baby tooth survey a "campaign effectively employed a variety of media advocacy strategies" to alarm the public and "galvanized" support against atmospheric nuclear testing,, and putting an end to such testing was commonly viewed as a positive outcome for a myriad of reasons. The

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survived a dose of more than 10 Gy, but many of the persons exposed there were not uniformly exposed over their entire body. If a person is exposed in a non-homogeneous manner then a given dose (averaged over the entire body) is less likely to be lethal. For instance, if a person gets a hand/low arm

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was categorized as a Level 7 accident, which is the highest possible ranking on the INES scale, due to widespread environmental and health effects and "external release of a significant fraction of reactor core inventory". The nuclear accident still stands as the only accident in commercial nuclear

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The central idea in these guides is that materials like concrete, soil, and sand are necessary to shield a person from fallout particles and radiation. A significant amount of materials of this type are necessary to protect a person from fallout radiation, so safety clothing cannot protect a person

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The danger of radiation from fallout also decreases rapidly with time due in large part to the exponential decay of the individual radionuclides. A book by Cresson H. Kearny presents data showing that for the first few days after the explosion, the radiation dose rate is reduced by a factor of ten

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As the nuclear energy sector continues to grow, the international rhetoric surrounding nuclear warfare intensifies, and the ever-present threat of radioactive materials falling into the hands of dangerous people persists, many scientists are working hard to find the best way to protect human organs

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took place over the US mainland during this time and as a consequence scientists have been able to study the effect of nuclear fallout on the environment. Detonations conducted near the surface of the earth irradiated thousands of tons of soil. Of the material drawn into the atmosphere, portions of

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had risen steadily in children born in the 1950s, with those born later showing the most pronounced increases. The results of a more comprehensive study of the elements found in the teeth collected showed that children born after 1963 had levels of strontium-90 in their baby teeth that was 50 times

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A dose of 5.3 Gy to 8.3 Gy is considered lethal but not immediately incapacitating. Personnel exposed to this amount of radiation have their cognitive performance degraded in two to three hours, depending on how physically demanding the tasks they must perform are, and remain in this disabled state

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extending over 500 km downwind and varying in width to a maximum of 100 km was severely contaminated. There are three very different versions of the fallout pattern from this test, because the fallout was measured only on a small number of widely spaced Pacific Atolls. The two alternative

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stated that "there is no evidence of a major public health impact" apart from that. The nuclear accident also took a heavy toll on the environment, including contamination in urban environments caused by the deposition of radionuclides and the contamination of "different crop types, in particular,

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The dangers of nuclear fallout do not stop at increased risks of cancer and radiation sickness, but also include the presence of radionuclides in human organs from food. A fallout event would leave fission particles in the soil for animals to consume, followed by humans. Radioactively contaminated

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Rural areas' water supplies would be slightly less polluted by fission particles in intermediate and long-term fallout than cities and suburban areas. Without additional contamination, the lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and runoff would be gradually less contaminated as water continued to flow through

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Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, particularly in the case of high yield surface detonations. The ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onward. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but

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The US Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in coordination with other agencies concerned with public protection in the aftermath of a nuclear detonation have developed more recent guidance documents that build on the older Civil Defense frameworks. Planning

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of power and supply lines rupturing. Within the local nuclear fallout pattern suburban areas' water supplies would become extremely contaminated. At this point stored water would be the only safe water to use. All surface water within the fallout would be contaminated by falling fission products.

2605:(HSCT). The idea is to use enough shielding material to sufficiently protect the high concentration of bone marrow in the pelvic region, which contains enough regenerative stem cells to repopulate the body with unaffected bone marrow. More information on bone marrow shielding can be found in the 2075:

The dose that would be lethal to 50% of a population is a common parameter used to compare the effects of various fallout types or circumstances. Usually, the term is defined for a specific time, and limited to studies of acute lethality. The common time periods used are 30 days or less for most

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from atmospheric nuclear testing. Fallout accumulates on vegetation, including fruits and vegetables. Starting from 1951 people may have gotten exposure, depending on whether they were outside, the weather, and whether they consumed contaminated milk, vegetables or fruit. Exposure can be on an

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following the incident reveals that the nearly 2 million people surrounding the Three Mile Island plant "are estimated to have received an average radiation dose of only 1 millirem above the usual background dose". Furthermore, unlike those affected by radiation in the Chernobyl accident, the

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Groundwater supplies such as aquifers would however remain unpolluted initially in the event of a nuclear fallout. Over time the groundwater could become contaminated with fallout particles, and would remain contaminated for over 10 years after a nuclear engagement. It would take hundreds or

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the person in the corner. If the underground cannot be reached, a tall apartment building at least ten miles from the blast was recommended as a good fallout shelter. People in these buildings should get as close to the center of the building as possible and avoid the top and ground floors.

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was initially categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale after a tsunami disabled the power supply and cooling of three reactors, which then suffered significant melting in the days that followed. However, after combining the events at the three reactors rather than assessing them

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for medical and security personnel to perform necessary containment, evacuation, and any number of other important public safety objectives. The mass of the shielding material required to properly protect the entire body from high energy radiation would make functional movement essentially

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is the time it takes the radiation emitted by a specific substance to decay to half the initial value. A large amount of short-lived isotopes such as Zr are present in bomb fallout. This isotope and other short-lived isotopes are constantly generated in a power reactor, but because the

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People and the Environment: This section of the scale consists of more serious nuclear accidents. Events in this category could potentially cause radiation to spread to people close to the location of the accident. This also includes an unplanned, widespread release of the radioactive

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born to survivors of the nuclear detonations at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki who could conceive and were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities than the Japanese average.

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and post-war steel which is manufactured without atmospheric air, became a valuable commodity for scientists wishing to make extremely precise instruments that detect radioactive emissions, since these two types of steel are the only steels that do not contain trace amounts of

1935:, especially if they come from considerable heights, accelerate local fallout. Under special meteorological conditions, such as a local rain shower that originates above the radioactive cloud, limited areas of heavy contamination just downwind of a nuclear blast may be formed. 2470:

The damage to other living organism as a result to nuclear fallout depends on the species. Mammals particularly are extremely sensitive to nuclear radiation, followed by birds, plants, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, insects, moss, lichen, algae, bacteria, mollusks, and viruses.

1461:, may take months or years to settle, and may do so anywhere in the world. Its radioactive characteristics increase the statistical cancer risk, with up to 2.4 million people having died by 2020 from the measurable elevated atmospheric radioactivity after the widespread 2123:

Because of the large amount of short-lived fission products, the activity and radiation levels of nuclear fallout decrease very quickly after being released; it is reduced by 50% in the first hour after a detonation, then by 80% during the first day. As a result, early

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to several millimeters in diameter—in addition to very fine particles that contribute to worldwide fallout. The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, so fallout begins to arrive near

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Agricultural fields and plants will absorb the contaminated material and animals will consume the radioactive material. As a result, the nuclear fallout may cause livestock to become ill or die, and if consumed the radioactive material will be passed on to humans.

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within an hour. More than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout. Chemical properties of the elements in the fallout control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Less volatile elements deposit first.

4392: 2758:) determines the percentage of that element that a power reactor accident releases. The ability of an element to form a solid determines the rate it is deposited on the ground after having been injected into the atmosphere by a nuclear detonation or accident. 2396:", as despite their papers being peer-reviewed, independent attempts to corroborate their results return findings that are not in agreement with what the organization suggests. The organization had earlier suggested the same thing occurred after the 4004:"Babies Surveyed for Strontium 90; Ratio to Calcium in Bones Is Discovered to Be Low A survey has shown that pregnant mothers and their unborn children absorb radioactive strontium, as a substitute for calcium, only about 10 per cent of the time" 2550:

radiation, and as ordinary clothing affords protection from alpha and beta radiation, most fallout protection measures deal with reducing exposure to gamma radiation. For the purposes of radiation shielding, many materials have a characteristic

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Comparison of fallout gamma dose and dose rate contours for a 1 Mt fission land surface burst, based on DELFIC calculations. Because of radioactive decay, the dose rate contours contract after fallout has arrived, but dose contours continue to

2531:, the governments of the U.S., the USSR, Great Britain, and China attempted to educate their citizens about surviving a nuclear attack by providing procedures on minimizing short-term exposure to fallout. This effort commonly became known as 2924:(IAEA) was created to set forth international standards for nuclear reactor safety. However, without a proper policing force, the guidelines set forth by the IAEA were often treated lightly or ignored completely. In 1986, the disaster at 2665:, whether for a family, a hospital, or a school shelter were provided. There were also instructions for how to create an improvised fallout shelter, and what to do to best increase a person's chances for survival if they were unprepared. 2400:

accident, though the Atomic Energy Commission argued this was unfounded. The tooth survey, and the organization's new target of pushing for test bans with US nuclear electric power stations, is detailed and critically labelled as the

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at least two days. However, at that point they experience a recovery period and can perform non-demanding tasks for about six days, after which they relapse for about four weeks. At this time they begin exhibiting symptoms of

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dose of 100 Gy, which gives them an overall dose of 4 Gy, they are more likely to survive than a person who gets a 4 Gy dose over their entire body. A hand dose of 10 Gy or more would likely result in loss of the hand. A

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The Nature of Radioactive Fallout and Its Effects on Man: Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, Eighty-fifth Congress, First

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states that many scientists consider the group's work controversial, with little credibility with the scientific establishment, while some scientists consider it "good, careful work". In an April 2014 article in

1975:(Gy). For 1 MeV energy gamma rays, an exposure of 1 röntgen in air produces a dose of about 0.01 gray (1 centigray, cGy) in water or surface tissue. Because of shielding by the tissue surrounding the bones, the 2661:, provided guides to fallout protection in the 1960s, frequently in the form of booklets. These booklets provided information on how to best survive nuclear fallout. They also included instructions for various 6541: 1070: 2365:

survey could not show at the time, nor in the decades that have elapsed, that the levels of global strontium-90 or fallout in general, were life-threatening, primarily because "50 times the strontium-90 from

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The INES scale is composed of seven steps that categorize the nuclear events, ranging from anomalies that must be recorded to improve upon safety measures to serious accidents that require immediate action.

2819:(INES) is the primary form of categorizing the potential health and environmental effects of a nuclear or radiological event and communicating it to the public. The scale, which was developed in 1990 by the 2128:, such as removing contaminated articles of outer clothing, is more effective than delayed but more thorough cleaning. Most areas become fairly safe for travel and decontamination after three to five weeks. 6766: 1249: 6761: 1244: 1732:

area, such contamination leads to an immediate external radiation exposure as well as a possible later internal hazard from inhalation and ingestion of radiocontaminants, such as the rather short-lived

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Waterman, Gideon; Kase, Kenneth; Orion, Itzhak; Broisman, Andrey; Milstein, Oren (29 March 2017). "Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation".

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Defence-in-Depth: This is the lowest form of nuclear accidents and refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment but must be taken note of to improve future safety measures.

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only receives about 0.67 cGy when the air exposure is 1 röntgen and the surface skin dose is 1 cGy. Some lower values reported for the amount of radiation that would kill 50% of personnel (the

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radioactive isotope created by the more than 400 atomic tests conducted above ground that is absorbed from water and dairy products into the bones and teeth given its chemical similarity to

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Radiation from the fallout would linger in soil, plants, and food chains for years. Marine food chains are more vulnerable to the nuclear fallout and the effects of soot in the atmosphere.

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at 100 m depth), and the land equivalent dose rate can be calculated by multiplying the ocean dose rate at two days after burst by a factor of about 530. In other 1954 tests, including

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Radiological Barriers and Control: This category refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment and only refer to the damage caused within major facilities.

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thousands of years for an aquifer to become completely pure. Groundwater would still be safer than surface water supplies and would need to be consumed in smaller doses. Long term,

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In case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly

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products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball. These materials are limited to the original mass of the device, but include

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area, hoping to gather 50,000 teeth each year. Ultimately, the project collected over 300,000 teeth from children of various ages before the project was ended in 1970.

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Goyal, Neerav; Camacho, Fabian; Mangano, Joseph; Goldenberg, David (22 March 2012). "Thyroid cancer characteristics in the population surrounding Three Mile Island".

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Bouville, André; Simon, Steven L.; Miller, Charles W.; Beck, Harold L.; Anspaugh, Lynn R.; Bennett, Burton G. (2002). "Estimates of Doses from Global Fallout".

213: 4872: 1971:) measure exposure. However, effects depend on the energy per unit mass, not the exposure measured in air. A deposit of 1 joule per kilogram has the unit of 1 3818: 1871:

conditions greatly influence fallout, particularly local fallout. Atmospheric winds are able to bring fallout over large areas. For example, as a result of a

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Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation was published in 2022 and provided in-depth analysis and response planning for local government jurisdictions.

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NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 7 BEHAVIORAL AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES WITH EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

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Marston, Robert Q.; Solomon, Fred; War, Institute of Medicine (US) Steering Committee for the Symposium on the Medical Implications of Nuclear (1986).

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There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an

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products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball condense into a suspension of particles 10

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nuclear testing" is a minuscule number, and multiplication of minuscule numbers results in only a slightly larger minuscule number. Moreover, the

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developing human fetuses present during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. Of all the pregnant women who were close enough to be exposed to the

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Within the first few months of the nuclear exchange the nuclear fallout will continue to develop and detriment the environment. Dust, smoke, and

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of sufficient severity to render them totally ineffective. Death follows at approximately six weeks after exposure, although outcomes may vary.

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with long lives. When the nuclear fireball does not reach the ground, this is the only fallout produced. Its amount can be estimated from the

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that chemically bond to many surfaces. Water and detergent washing effectively removes less than 50% of this chemically bonded activity from

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explodes. The amount and spread of fallout is a product of the size of the weapon and the altitude at which it is detonated. Fallout may get

1239: 244: 233: 223: 2787:. Because of this, steps must be taken to ensure the risk of nuclear fallout at nuclear reactors is controlled. In the 1950s and 60's, the 2244:

Late or delayed effects of radiation occur following a wide range of doses and dose rates. Delayed effects may appear months to years after

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Fallout protection is almost exclusively concerned with protection from radiation. Radiation from a fallout is encountered in the forms of

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Nuclear fallout can occur due to a number of different sources. One of the most common potential sources of nuclear fallout is that of

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underwater test, it was found that wet fallout must be immediately removed from ships by continuous water washdown (such as from the

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Carlisle, Rodney (October 1997). "Probabilistic Risk Assessment in Nuclear Reactors: Engineering Success, Public Relation Failure".

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would be the dominant fission product within the first few weeks, and in the months following the dominant fission product would be

2048: 1090: 995: 5547:– a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps. It simulates the effects of nuclear weapons upon geographic areas. 3506:(page 436.) 9.107 A radiation dose of 700 rads over a period of 96 hours would probably prove fatal in the great majority of cases. 2227:

test at Bikini in 1956. The predictions were made under simulated tactical nuclear war conditions aboard ship by Edward A. Schuert.

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delayed consequences of radiation injury, with the rates above the background prevalence, depending on the absorbed dose, include

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to a downwind hot spot caused by the large amount of radioactivity carried on fallout particles of about 50–100 micrometres size.

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for gamma rays was set at 3.5 Gy, while under more dire conditions of war (a bad diet, little medical care, poor nursing) the LD

6489: 6226: 5616: 5123: 3579:"COMPILATION OF LOCAL FALLOUT DATA FROM TEST DETONATIONS 1945–1962 – EXTRACTED FROM DASA 1251 – Volume II – Oceanic U.S. Tests" 2932:, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission sought to improve the safety of Soviet nuclear reactors. As noted by IAEA Director General 2346: 1325: 1035: 798: 380: 4603: 3444: 1408:. The second, depending on the height of detonation, is a large quantity of radioactive dust and sand with a short half-life. 2341:

higher than that found in children born before large-scale atomic testing began. The findings helped convince U.S. President

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The table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and

1512:. The officials of Ukraine had to close off an 18-mile (30 km) area. Long term effects included at least 6,000 cases of 4940: 4120: 4089: 3413: 2944:", efforts were taken throughout the 1990s and 2000s to ensure international standards of safety for all nuclear reactors. 6908: 6799: 6104: 5473: 3843: 3624: 2974: 2879: 2796: 2406: 1270: 720: 308: 126: 5215: 4301:"In the Shadow of the Mushroom Cloud: Nuclear Testing, Radioactive Fallout, and Damage to U.S. Agriculture, 1945 to 1970" 3578: 6275: 6024: 6004: 5756: 3124: 808: 660: 635: 430: 6380: 6034: 3220: 3051: 3015: 919: 670: 289: 2601:

impossible. This has led scientists to begin researching the idea of partial body protection: a strategy inspired by

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Wellock, Thomas (October 2012). "Engineering Uncertainty and Bureaucratic Crisis at the Atomic Energy Commission".

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who was estimated to have received a hand dose of 100 Gy over the course of his lifetime lost his hand because of

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occurs over a long length of time, the majority of these short lived isotopes decay before they can be released.

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hot spots were mapped out by ships with submersible probes, and similar hot spots occurred in 1956 tests such as

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dose from all sources, and has slowly decreased since, with natural background radiation levels being around 1

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Grover, Herbert D.; Harwell, Mark A. (1985). "Biological Effects of Nuclear War II: Impact on the Biosphere".

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development of thyroid cancer in the people around Three Mile Island was "less aggressive and less advanced".

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was evidence that international nuclear reactor safety was not to be taken lightly. Even in the midst of the

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Preliminary results of the Baby Tooth Survey were published in the November 24, 1961, edition of the journal

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sweep-up spectrum, and this results in more straightforward fallout patterns lacking the downwind hot spot.

1770: 1462: 1075: 1030: 650: 143: 109: 56: 4911: 4866: 4832: 4787: 6677: 6067: 2979: 2731: 1213: 700: 5043:"Blue Sky and Hot Piles: The Evolution of Radiative Transfer Theory from Atmospheres to Nuclear Reactors" 6888: 6647: 6479: 6355: 6263: 5953: 5846: 5646: 5216:"Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and Their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience" 4150: 3735:"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management" 3710:"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management" 3642: 3625:"OPERATION REDWING – Project 2.63, Characterization of Fallout – Pacific Proving Grounds, May–July 1956" 3596: 3061: 2618: 2125: 2117: 1699:

A surface burst generates large amounts of particulate matter, composed of particles from less than 100

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For subsurface land bursts, the surge is made up of small solid particles, but it still behaves like a

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will fall hundreds of kilometers downwind of the explosion point and pollute surface water supplies.

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that currently retains the teeth has had their stance and publications criticized: a 2003 article in

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was below 50. No statistically demonstrable increase of congenital malformations was found among the

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Public safety film created by the United States Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization from 1959.

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burst of intense neutron and gamma doses in the two cities, the total number of children born with

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of bomb fallout is very different from the fallout from a serious power reactor accident (such as

2611:

Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation

2091:

was 2.5 Gy (250 rad). There have been few documented cases of survival beyond 6 Gy. One person at

1897:, it was discovered that fallout landing on the ocean disperses in the top water layer (above the 6834: 6795: 6728: 6703: 6698: 6516: 6393: 6187: 6059: 5823: 5694: 5621: 5558: 5447: 5309: 5023: 5015: 4977: 4715: 4529: 4440: 4331: 4061: 4041: 4015: 3989: 3274: 2967: 2852: 2800: 2792: 2720: 2716: 2573: 2514: 2375: 2197: 2092: 1980: 1968: 1944: 1565: 1493: 1404:

Fallout comes in two varieties. The first is a small amount of carcinogenic material with a long

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green leafy vegetables ... depending on the deposition levels, and time of the growing season".

2677:. These shelters should contain water, food, tools, and a method for dealing with human waste. 2455:

milk, meat, fish, vegetables, grains and other food would all be dangerous because of fallout.

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doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric

6723: 6583: 6403: 6312: 6280: 6197: 6150: 6077: 6049: 5818: 5813: 5611: 5301: 4740: 4707: 4658: 4593: 4554: 4521: 4483: 4475: 4432: 4382: 4354:"Use of nuclear weapons and protection of the environment during international armed conflict" 4323: 4273: 4242: 4232: 4057:"In Baby Teeth, a Test of Fallout; A Long-Shot Search for Nuclear Peril in Molars and Cuspids" 3915: 3849: 3495: 3388: 3380: 3266: 3210: 3103: 3098: 3045: 3035: 2755: 2593: 2428: 2332: 2304: 2132: 1349: 943: 866: 859: 813: 680: 470: 465: 375: 178: 163: 158: 153: 89: 5483: 4625: 3563: 3333: 2606: 6829: 6667: 6568: 6526: 6494: 6388: 6342: 6302: 6209: 6177: 6145: 6130: 6114: 6089: 5874: 5828: 5439: 5430:

Wellock, Thomas (2013). "The Children of Chernobyl: Engineers and the Campaign for Safety".

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Comparison of predicted fallout "hotline" with test results in the 3.53 Mt 15% fission

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Radioactive fallout has occurred around the world; for example, people have been exposed to

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Heath, Clark W. (5 August 1992). "The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors: A Genetic Study".

1380:(rain darkened by soot and other particulates), which occurred within 30–40 minutes of the 6531: 6441: 6292: 6246: 6172: 6099: 5922: 5864: 5719: 5513: 4162: 4036: 4029: 4010: 3984: 3964: 3945: 3922: 3655: 3609: 3071: 3005: 3000: 2712: 2674: 2662: 2622: 2589: 2581: 2556: 2518: 2508: 2342: 2261: 2248:

and include a wide variety of effects involving almost all tissues or organs. Some of the

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Hanson, Wayne C. (October 1968). "Fallout Radionuclides in Northern Alaskan Ecosystems".

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figure assumes that the individuals did not receive other injuries or medical treatment.

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van der Heijde, P. K. M. (1989), "Models in Regulation: A Report on Panel Discussions",

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and strontium-90 would be the major radionuclides affecting the fresh water supplies.

2384:, Sarah Fecht argues that the group's work, specifically the widely discussed case of 6857: 6598: 6499: 6285: 6214: 5986: 5734: 5598: 5451: 5027: 4981: 4335: 4125: 3938: 3902: 3376: 2941: 2772: 2747: 2532: 2276: 2069: 1813: 1766: 1373: 1125: 615: 610: 605: 363: 5112: 4837:. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961. 4792:. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961. 3177: 1725:

is low enough to be below ("washout"), or mixed with ("rainout"), the thunderstorm.

6619: 6593: 6573: 6397: 6360: 6324: 5960: 5907: 5783: 5739: 5724: 5653: 5494: 5480:

NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)

5313: 4719: 4587: 4471: 3916:"Sex ratio among offspring of childhood cancer survivors treated with radiotherapy" 3436: 3278: 3030: 3010: 2827:, classifies these nuclear accidents based on the potential impact of the fallout: 2436: 2393: 2354: 2337: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2292: 2280: 2180: 2101: 1878: 1873: 1827:

and radiation exposure to the inhabitants of the nearby atolls and the crew of the

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is residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a

5443: 5156:"Chernobyl | Chernobyl Accident | Chernobyl Disaster - World Nuclear Association" 4368: 4269: 3670:"Death of a classified worker probably caused by overexposure to gamma radiation" 3489: 2279:

effect observed in humans following nuclear attacks on highly populated areas is

43:

Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of radioactive

6556: 6551: 6236: 6231: 6202: 6167: 6140: 5670: 4703: 3958:"Nuclear Crises: Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science 3669: 3407: 3128:, an official U.S. government booklet regarding the effects of a nuclear attack. 3118: 2896: 2577: 2475: 2448: 2402: 2245: 2184: 2113: 2008: 1976: 1972: 1898: 1868: 1817: 1705: 1369: 1357: 1080: 778: 758: 395: 3631: 3554:"Continental US Fallout Pattern for Prevailing Winds (FEMA-196/September 1990)" 3494:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. pp. 436–437. 3466: 2283:

which is the only proven malformation, or congenital abnormality, found in the

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small laboratory animals and to 60 days for large animals and humans. The LD

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Examples of both intermediate and long term fallout occurred after the 1986

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After the detonation of a weapon at or above the fallout-free altitude (an

4628:. The Compass DeRose Guide to Emergency Preparedness – Hardened Shelters. 4487: 3734: 3709: 3270: 3187: 1352:, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion and the 6307: 6251: 5912: 5761: 5729: 5482:, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1996, ( 3789:

NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 1

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For subsurface bursts, there is an additional phenomenon present called "

1786: 1774: 1762: 1576: 570: 5506: 4444: 4359:, in Nystuen, Gro; Casey-Maslen, Stuart; Bersagel, Annie Golden (eds.), 6268: 5771: 5749: 5636: 5631: 5297: 5019: 4941:"Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation, Third Edition" 4734: 4652: 4548: 4533: 3939:"Birth defects among the children of atomic-bomb survivors (1948–1954)" 2804: 2458:

From 1945 to 1967 the U.S. conducted hundreds of nuclear weapon tests.

2320: 2193: 2148: 2033: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1882: 1738: 1680: 1505: 1501: 1497: 74: 17: 4916:. H-12. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 28 July 1967. 4377: 3148:"Radioactive Fallout | Effects of Nuclear Weapons | atomicarchive.com" 2862:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

1691:

from 1951 to 1962 and from emissions from plutonium production at the

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Helfand, Ira (2013). "The Humanitarian Consequences of Nuclear War".

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of our atmosphere, soil, and water and causes species to go extinct.

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per unit volume of air. All ionisation based instruments (including

4219:

Solomon, Fred; Marston, Robert Q.; Thomas, Lewis (1 January 1986).

6682: 6624: 5965: 5897: 5795: 5687: 4177:"Backgrounder on Radiation Protection and the "Tooth Fairy" Issue" 3085:

series produced for the British government in the 1970s and 1980s.

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One of many possible fallout patterns mapped by the United States

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that created the greatest amounts of atmospheric nuclear fallout.

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founded by the husband and wife team of physicians Eric Reiss and

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One hour after a surface burst, the radiation from fallout in the

2109: 2060: 1858: 1848: 1820: 1790: 1674: 1553: 1523: 1218: 1163: 555: 38: 5519:

T. Imanaka, S. Fukutani, M. Yamamoto, A. Sakaguchi and M. Hoshi,

4228: 3334:"Radioactive Fallout from Global Weapons Testing: Home | CDC RSB" 2985:—Irish drama exploring scenarios following a nuclear accident at 6657: 5778: 5766: 5682: 4739:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20. 4657:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20. 2824: 2623:

Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management.

2614: 1995: 1986:) refer to bone marrow dose, which is only 67% of the air dose. 1932: 1928: 1718: 1193: 440: 435: 400: 5554: 2219: 5113:"INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale" 2002: 1793:. Complete decontamination requires aggressive treatment like 1782: 1781:

surfaces because the fission products are present as metallic

1552:), below the fallout-free altitude, or in shallow water, heat 1478: 1470: 5186:"WHO | Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview" 4592:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 131. 4030:"Dr. Louise Reiss, Who Helped Ban Atomic Testing, Dies at 90" 2615:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

2311:, was a research effort focused on detecting the presence of 2108:. Most people become ill after an exposure to 1 Gy or more. 5550: 4789:

Fallout Protection: What to Know and Do About Nuclear Attack

4553:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 44. 3811:

Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (2006),

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house as shelters were 735, 511, 484, and 460 respectively.

2649:

that could occur during a nuclear war. (Based on 1988 data.)

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large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the

5078:"International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES)" 4939:

Federal Emergency Management Agency, (FEMA) (7 July 2022).

4262:

Groundwater Contamination: Use of Models in Decision-Making

3257:(5020). U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory: 236–8. 2572:(ARS) is the most immediate risk to humans when exposed to 3630:. US Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory. Archived from 3623:

Project Officer T. Triffet, P. D. LaRiviere (March 1961).

3309:"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors" 2878:

from those of the Chernobyl accident. A study done by the

1560:. This material becomes radioactive when it combines with 5398:"Health impact in 2016 of the Fukushima Daiichi accident" 1886:

versions both ascribe the high radiation levels at north

1721:

allows fallout to drop more rapidly, particularly if the

5335:"Fukushima Daiichi Accident - World Nuclear Association" 4993: 4991: 4868:

A Guide to Fallout Protection for New York State Schools

4179:. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 17 February 2010. 2703:

Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases

4121:"Scientists challenge baby deaths at Three Mile Island" 1587:) of the relative abilities of isotopes to form solids 27:

Residual radioactive material following a nuclear blast

4955: 4953: 3759:

Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, US Congress (1957).

3467:"Chernobyl sheep controls lifted in Wales and Cumbria" 2825:

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

2637:

United States government guides for fallout protection

1808:

Parts of the sea bottom may become fallout. After the

5255:"NRC: Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident" 4418: 4416: 4414: 4412: 3206:

Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons

2903:

Like the Three Mile Island incident, the incident at

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on March 1, 1954, a roughly cigar-shaped area of the

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burst is difficult to remove once it has soaked into

4499: 4497: 3817:, vol. 94, American Scientist, pp. 48–57, 3026:

Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents

1528:

The 450 km (280 mi) fallout plume from 15

6742: 6691: 6640: 6607: 6440: 6379: 6341: 6323: 6123: 6058: 5995: 5921: 5890: 5855: 5839: 5804: 5597: 5534:(Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969), p. 98 3814:

Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks

2568:from the harmful effects of high energy radiation. 2323:. The team sent collection forms to schools in the 2235:Following the detonation of the first atomic bomb, 3837: 3835: 2910:Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire 2817:International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale 4834:School Shelter; An Approach to Fallout Protection 4294: 4292: 4290: 4288: 3766:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 1351. 1877:surface burst of a 15 Mt thermonuclear device at 5425: 5423: 4363:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–268, 4347: 4345: 3244:"Radionuclide Fractionation in Air-Burst Debris" 2139:in peacetime range from 30 to 100 μGy per year. 1833:fishing boat. The scientists called the fallout 1773:and areas of high local fallout. Fallout from a 1538:"Estimated total (accumulated) dose contours in 5505:, Office of Technology Assessment (May 1979), ( 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4198: 3521:KDFOC3: A Nuclear Fallout Assessment Capability 2112:are often more vulnerable to radiation and may 1546:During detonations of devices at ground level ( 1384:. This radioactive dust, usually consisting of 5470:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition) 4906: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4890: 55:, before levels slowly declined following the 30:"Fallout" redirects here. For other uses, see 5566: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4768: 3437:"Chernobyl: Facts About the Nuclear Disaster" 3198: 3196: 2135:region is 30 grays per hour (Gy/h). Civilian 1326: 309: 8: 4692:The Radiation Safety Journal: Health Physics 4119:Information, Reed Business (24 April 1980). 3845:Teratology in the Twentieth Century Plus Ten 3527:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories. 3488:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. (1977). 2715:does not explode like a nuclear weapon. The 2390:2011 Fukushima accident caused infant deaths 1542:at 96 hours after the BRAVO test explosion." 4913:Fallout Protection for Homes with Basements 2181:Bikini Atoll § Current habitable state 1564:or other radio-contaminants, or when it is 1473:per year worldwide, or about 7% of average 5573: 5559: 5551: 5472:, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. ( 4860: 4858: 4856: 4827: 4825: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4264:, Springer Netherlands, pp. 653–656, 3584:. General Electric Company. Archived from 1816:particles originating from pulverized and 1581: 1333: 1319: 1223: 349: 327: 316: 302: 73: 62: 5058: 4626:"Halving-thickness for various materials" 4376: 3848:. Springer Science & Business Media. 2049:Learn how and when to remove this message 1382:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 5468:Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J., 4928:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library. 4883:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library. 4849:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library. 4804:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library. 3491:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.) 2890: 2653:The United States government, often the 2580:. Radiation in the low energy spectrum ( 2576:in dosages greater than around 0.1 2196:-137 in Western European soil, from the 6714:Pollutant release and transfer register 5365:"Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log" 4361:Nuclear Weapons under International Law 4221:The Medical Implications of Nuclear War 3948:. Radiation Effects Research Foundation 3139: 3041:Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem 2899:concentration in the air, 25 March 2011 2607:Health Physics Radiation Safety Journal 2603:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation 2419:Nuclear fallout effects on an Ecosystem 1262: 1226: 339: 196: 81: 65: 5223:The International Atomic Energy Agency 5120:The International Atomic Energy Agency 4158: 4148: 3651: 3640: 3605: 3594: 3534:from the original on 27 September 2020 3435:Lallanilla, Marc (25 September 2013). 2938:World Association of Nuclear Operators 2916:International nuclear safety standards 2851:The 1986 nuclear reactor explosion at 2789:United States Atomic Energy Commission 2388:data to suggest that fallout from the 2215:and its deposition through the weather 2200:and its deposition through the weather 1356:has passed. It commonly refers to the 6884:Environmental impact of nuclear power 5493:, Princeton University Press, 1945. ( 5392: 5390: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5265:from the original on 15 November 2021 5249: 5247: 5150: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5072: 5070: 4398:from the original on 14 December 2019 3862:from the original on 21 December 2021 3577:Howard A. Hawthorne, ed. (May 1979). 3416:from the original on 12 November 2020 2823:and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the 2811:Determining extent of nuclear fallout 1388:mixed with bystanding atoms that are 7: 6804: 6045:Electromagnetic radiation and health 5232:from the original on 3 February 2019 4920:from the original on 25 January 2022 4875:from the original on 25 January 2022 4753:from the original on 21 January 2013 4671:from the original on 21 January 2013 4632:from the original on 22 January 2018 4606:from the original on 20 January 2013 4567:from the original on 21 January 2013 4137:from the original on 25 January 2022 4069:from the original on 25 January 2022 3821:from the original on 1 February 2017 3770:from the original on 25 January 2022 3690:from the original on 25 January 2022 3242:Freiling, E.C. (20 September 1965). 3158:from the original on 18 January 2018 3036:Mutation breeding#Radiation breeding 2961:Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy 2031:adding citations to reliable sources 6820: 6812: 5903:Radium and radon in the environment 5491:Atomic Energy for Military Purposes 4841:from the original on 8 October 2020 4796:from the original on 8 October 2020 4090:"What Can We Do About Junk Science" 2647:Federal Emergency Management Agency 2371:Radiation and Public Health Project 1504:. The main fuel of the reactor was 1465:of the 1950s, peaking in 1963 (the 561:Radium and radon in the environment 5408:from the original on 19 April 2019 5375:from the original on 19 April 2019 5345:from the original on 17 April 2019 5196:from the original on 20 April 2019 5088:from the original on 19 April 2019 3447:from the original on 19 April 2019 3344:from the original on 19 April 2019 3203:National Research Council (2005). 2922:International Atomic Energy Agency 2821:International Atomic Energy Agency 1765:with some water; these can have a 1579:throughout animal and human life. 1469:). Levels reached about 0.15 25: 5166:from the original on 16 July 2016 5129:from the original on 28 June 2019 4183:from the original on 20 July 2017 3412:. National Academies Press (US). 1823:—fell for several hours, causing 1797:, or acidic treatment. After the 1728:Whenever individuals remain in a 6838: 6828: 6819: 6811: 6803: 6791: 6790: 4460:Archives of Environmental Health 4100:from the original on 20 May 2014 4055:Andy Newman (11 November 2003). 3967:. April 11, 2011. www.eenews.net 3903:10.1001/jama.1992.03490050109039 3377:10.1097/00004032-200205000-00015 3223:from the original on 15 May 2021 2007: 1300: 1288: 5617:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 4308:The Journal of Economic History 4299:Meyers, Keith (14 March 2019). 3842:Kalter, Harold (28 July 2010). 2519:Nuclear warfare § Survival 2357:, which ended the above-ground 2347:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 2018:needs additional citations for 1583:Table (according to T. Imanaka 1411:All nuclear explosions produce 381:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 4472:10.1080/00039896.1968.10665295 1812:test, white dust—contaminated 1737:, which is accumulated in the 1250:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 1: 6105:Electrical resistance heating 3081:, a series of booklets and a 2975:Effects of nuclear explosions 2880:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 2797:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 2563:Personal protective equipment 2407:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 2177:Enewetak Atoll § History 1390:neutron-activated by exposure 1372:cloud and when combined with 721:Electrical resistance heating 5757:Persistent organic pollutant 5444:10.1080/07341512.2013.785719 4369:10.1017/cbo9781107337435.018 4270:10.1007/978-94-009-2301-0_60 4088:Sarah Fecht (8 April 2014). 3307:Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020). 3209:. National Academies Press. 3125:Survival Under Atomic Attack 2336:, and showed that levels of 2211:-239 and -240 in soil, from 1917:. However, the major U.S. " 1360:dust and ash created when a 431:Persistent organic pollutant 355:Air pollution from a factory 6767:Least polluted cities by PM 4736:Nuclear War Survival Skills 4704:10.1097/HP.0000000000000688 4654:Nuclear War Survival Skills 4589:Nuclear War Survival Skills 4550:Nuclear War Survival Skills 3978:"Teeth to Measure Fall-Out" 3052:Nuclear War Survival Skills 3016:Human radiation experiments 2730:The key differences are in 2619:Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) 2598:mobile protection equipment 1730:radiologically contaminated 1717:can bring down activity as 6925: 6709:Pollution haven hypothesis 6632:Brain health and pollution 5870:Ecological light pollution 5700:Internal combustion engine 5502:The Effects of Nuclear War 4733:Kearny, Cresson H (1986). 4651:Kearny, Cresson H (1986). 4586:Kearny, Cresson H (1986). 4547:Kearny, Cresson H (1986). 3179:Energy & Radioactivity 2707:Fallout can also refer to 2700: 2512: 2506: 2416: 2413:Effects on the environment 2166: 2116:, especially in the first 1993: 1453:in diameter. This size of 29: 6894:Radioactive contamination 6788: 6512:Nonpoint source pollution 6432:War and environmental law 5791:Volatile organic compound 5588: 4320:10.1017/S002205071800075X 3927:British Journal of Cancer 3870:– via Google Books. 3089:Radioactive contamination 3021:List of nuclear accidents 1745:Factors affecting fallout 1394:radioactive contamination 976:War and environmental law 596:Health effects from noise 446:Volatile organic compound 6879:Radiation health effects 5971:Marine mammals and sonar 5882:Radio spectrum pollution 3559:University of Notre Dame 2971:—U.S. government booklet 2873:The nuclear meltdown at 2697:Nuclear reactor accident 2570:Acute radiation syndrome 2297:later conceived children 601:Marine mammals and sonar 32:Fallout (disambiguation) 6817:WikiProject Environment 6775:Most polluted countries 6719:Polluter pays principle 6450:Agricultural wastewater 4352:Koppe, Erik V. (2014), 3677:British Medical Journal 3083:public information film 2655:Office of Civil Defense 2359:nuclear weapons testing 1463:nuclear weapons testing 1368:with the products of a 1076:Freshwater salinization 996:Agricultural wastewater 57:Partial Test Ban Treaty 6835:Environment portal 6068:Agricultural pollution 5432:History and Technology 5060:10.1006/hmat.2002.2360 5041:Shore, Steven (2002). 5000:Technology and Culture 4974:10.1353/tech.2012.0144 4962:Technology and Culture 4871:. Cornell University. 3650:Cite journal requires 3604:Cite journal requires 2900: 2650: 2504: 2398:1979 Three Mile Island 2241: 2228: 2216: 2201: 2072: 2068:sign on a building in 1865: 1805:system on the decks). 1696: 1543: 1295:Environment portal 60: 6490:Industrial wastewater 6356:Clutter (advertising) 6264:Municipal solid waste 6110:Soil guideline values 5954:Sustainable transport 5847:Information pollution 5647:Open burning of waste 5521:J. Radiation Research 5339:www.world-nuclear.org 5160:www.world-nuclear.org 4133:(1204). London: 180. 3152:www.atomicarchive.com 3062:Nuclear weapon design 2920:Founded in 1974, the 2894: 2659:Department of Defense 2644: 2502: 2429:radioactive particles 2417:Further information: 2234: 2222: 2213:nuclear weapons tests 2207: 2192: 2126:gross decontamination 2064: 1994:Further information: 1862: 1769:effect causing local 1678: 1527: 1036:Industrial wastewater 804:Municipal solid waste 726:Soil guideline values 42: 6909:Radiological weapons 6762:Most polluted cities 6455:Biological pollution 6366:Overhead power lines 5084:. 22 November 2017. 5047:Historia Mathematica 4019:, November 25, 1961. 3469:. BBC. 22 March 2012 3340:. 11 February 2019. 2275:Presently, the only 2106:radiation dermatitis 2083:In the 1950s, the LD 2027:improve this article 1475:background radiation 1245:Most polluted cities 897:Overhead power lines 198:Nuclear-armed states 6825:WikiProject Ecology 6522:Ocean acidification 6427:Unexploded ordnance 6298:Post-consumer waste 6158:Foam food container 6136:Biodegradable waste 5710:Global distillation 4045:, January 10, 2011. 3895:1992RadR..131..229A 3518:Harvey, T. (1992). 3409:Radioactive Fallout 3109:Radiological weapon 3094:Radiation poisoning 3078:Protect and Survive 2779:Preventive measures 2523:Protect and Survive 2460:Atmospheric testing 2325:St. Louis, Missouri 2260:formation, chronic 2157:radiation poisoning 1969:ionisation chambers 1951:The unit of actual 1695:in Washington state 1588: 1061:Ocean acidification 971:Unexploded ordnance 892:Advertising clutter 824:Post-consumer waste 769:Foam food container 754:Biodegradable waste 411:Global distillation 49:Northern Hemisphere 6845:Ecology portal 6729:Waste minimisation 6704:Industrial ecology 6699:Cleaner production 6517:Nutrient pollution 6394:Herbicidal warfare 6188:Construction waste 5824:Introduced species 5695:Indoor air quality 5622:Chlorofluorocarbon 5527:, Suppl A121–A127. 5512:2016-08-28 at the 5298:10.1002/lary.23314 4425:Arms Control Today 4161:has generic name ( 4062:The New York Times 4042:The New York Times 4035:2019-04-19 at the 4016:The New York Times 4009:2018-07-22 at the 4002:Sullivan, Walter. 3990:The New York Times 3983:2018-07-22 at the 3963:2012-04-05 at the 3944:2018-05-20 at the 3921:2013-09-27 at the 3288:on 2 February 2020 2968:Fallout Protection 2901: 2801:radiative transfer 2793:Price-Anderson Act 2717:isotopic signature 2651: 2628:The seven-ten rule 2574:ionizing radiation 2515:Fallout Protection 2505: 2490:Fallout protection 2376:The New York Times 2242: 2229: 2217: 2202: 2198:Chernobyl disaster 2073: 1866: 1830:Daigo Fukuryū Maru 1697: 1582: 1544: 1510:radiation sickness 1494:Chernobyl accident 1455:particulate matter 1307:Ecology portal 932:Herbicidal warfare 476:Introduced species 416:Indoor air quality 386:Chlorofluorocarbon 61: 6899:Nuclear chemistry 6851: 6850: 6724:Pollution control 6404:Nuclear holocaust 6313:Thermal treatment 6281:Plastic pollution 6198:Mercury poisoning 6151:Battery recycling 6050:Radioactive waste 5819:Genetic pollution 5814:Biological hazard 5612:Air quality index 5532:The Careless Atom 5371:. 12 April 2011. 4746:978-0-942487-01-5 4664:978-0-942487-01-5 4599:978-0-942487-01-5 4560:978-0-942487-01-5 4238:978-0-309-07866-5 3993:, March 18, 1969. 3683:: 713–718. 1994. 3637:on 10 April 2008. 3591:on 10 April 2008. 3566:on 15 March 2011. 3104:Radioactive waste 3099:Radiation biology 3046:Nuclear terrorism 2875:Three Mile Island 2869:Three Mile Island 2709:nuclear accidents 2594:neutron radiation 2553:halving thickness 2500: 2305:Baby Tooth Survey 2270:genetic mutations 2059: 2058: 2051: 1687:conducted at the 1673: 1672: 1566:neutron-activated 1558:radioactive cloud 1343: 1342: 1278: 1277: 944:Nuclear holocaust 867:Urban heat island 681:Radioactive waste 466:Biological hazard 376:Air quality index 326: 325: 90:Nuclear explosion 16:(Redirected from 6916: 6904:Fission products 6869:Aftermath of war 6843: 6842: 6841: 6833: 6832: 6823: 6822: 6815: 6814: 6807: 6806: 6794: 6793: 6668:Legacy pollution 6527:Oil exploitation 6389:Chemical warfare 6303:Waste management 6210:Industrial waste 6178:Biomedical waste 6146:Electronic waste 6131:Advertising mail 6115:Phytoremediation 6090:Land degradation 5875:Overillumination 5829:Invasive species 5575: 5568: 5561: 5552: 5530:Sheldon Novick, 5507:Available Online 5489:Smyth, H. DeW., 5484:Available Online 5474:Available Online 5456: 5455: 5427: 5418: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5394: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5331: 5318: 5317: 5286:The Laryngoscope 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5251: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5237: 5231: 5220: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5152: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5128: 5117: 5109: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5074: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5038: 5032: 5031: 4995: 4986: 4985: 4957: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4925: 4908: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4862: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4829: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4784: 4763: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4730: 4724: 4723: 4687: 4681: 4680: 4678: 4676: 4648: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4622: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4544: 4538: 4537: 4501: 4492: 4491: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4420: 4407: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4397: 4380: 4358: 4349: 4340: 4339: 4305: 4296: 4283: 4282: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4216: 4193: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4160: 4156: 4154: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4085: 4079: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4052: 4046: 4028:Hevesi, Dennis. 4026: 4020: 4000: 3994: 3974: 3968: 3955: 3949: 3936: 3930: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3839: 3830: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3808: 3802: 3797: 3791: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3689: 3674: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3653: 3648: 3646: 3638: 3636: 3629: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3592: 3590: 3583: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3562:. 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5619: 5614: 5609: 5603: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5580: 5578: 5577: 5570: 5563: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5540: 5539:External links 5537: 5536: 5535: 5528: 5517: 5498: 5487: 5477: 5464: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5419: 5386: 5356: 5319: 5292:(6): 1415–21. 5276: 5243: 5207: 5177: 5140: 5099: 5066: 5053:(4): 463–489. 5033: 5006:(4): 920–941. 4987: 4968:(4): 846–884. 4949: 4931: 4886: 4865:Mann, Albert. 4852: 4807: 4764: 4745: 4725: 4698:(3): 195–208. 4682: 4663: 4643: 4617: 4598: 4578: 4559: 4539: 4512:(9): 576–583. 4493: 4466:(4): 639–648. 4450: 4408: 4387: 4341: 4314:(1): 244–274. 4284: 4278: 4252: 4237: 4194: 4168: 4111: 4080: 4047: 4021: 3995: 3969: 3950: 3931: 3908: 3889:(5): 661–662. 3873: 3854: 3831: 3803: 3792: 3781: 3751: 3726: 3701: 3661: 3652:|journal= 3615: 3606:|journal= 3569: 3545: 3510: 3500: 3480: 3458: 3427: 3398: 3371:(5): 690–705. 3365:Health Physics 3355: 3325: 3299: 3234: 3215: 3192: 3169: 3138: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3129: 3121: 3116: 3114:Joseph Rotblat 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3057:Cresson Kearny 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2990: 2977: 2972: 2964: 2957: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2917: 2914: 2858:thyroid cancer 2840: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2812: 2809: 2780: 2777: 2763: 2760: 2743: 2740: 2698: 2695: 2638: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2586:beta radiation 2564: 2561: 2507:Main article: 2491: 2488: 2474:Climatologist 2414: 2411: 2405:issue" by the 2386:cherry-picking 2351:United Kingdom 2317:cancer-causing 2254:carcinogenesis 2164: 2161: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2057: 2056: 2015: 2013: 2006: 1997: 1991: 1988: 1982: 1940: 1937: 1869:Meteorological 1856: 1855:Meteorological 1853: 1803:fire sprinkler 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1723:mushroom cloud 1671: 1670: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1573:drinking water 1532:surface burst 1521: 1518: 1514:thyroid cancer 1432: 1431:Global fallout 1429: 1421:fission-fusion 1401: 1398: 1362:nuclear weapon 1341: 1340: 1338: 1337: 1330: 1323: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1297: 1282: 1281: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1240:Law by country 1237: 1229: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1161: 1151: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1111:Surface runoff 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1011:Eutrophication 1008: 1003: 998: 992: 987: 986: 983: 982: 979: 978: 973: 968: 966:Scorched earth 963: 962: 961: 959:Nuclear winter 956: 954:Nuclear famine 951: 941: 940: 939: 929: 923: 918: 917: 914: 913: 910: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 883: 878: 877: 874: 873: 870: 869: 863: 858: 857: 854: 853: 850: 849: 843: 840: 839: 836: 835: 832: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 745: 742: 741: 738: 737: 734: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 711:Bioremediation 708: 703: 697: 692: 691: 688: 687: 684: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 641:Bioremediation 638: 632: 627: 626: 623: 622: 619: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 591:Transportation 587: 582: 581: 578: 577: 574: 573: 568: 563: 558: 552: 549: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 538:Radio spectrum 535: 534: 533: 528: 517: 512: 511: 508: 507: 504: 503: 497: 494: 493: 490: 489: 486: 485: 484: 483: 473: 468: 462: 457: 456: 453: 452: 449: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 406:Global dimming 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 367: 362: 361: 358: 357: 354: 346: 345: 337: 336: 324: 323: 321: 320: 313: 306: 298: 295: 294: 293: 292: 287: 282: 277: 267: 266: 261: 256: 247: 237: 236: 231: 226: 224:United Kingdom 221: 216: 201: 200: 194: 193: 192: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 140: 139: 134: 129: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 84: 83: 79: 78: 70: 69: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6921: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6846: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6818: 6810: 6801: 6797: 6787: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6696: 6694: 6690: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6645: 6643: 6639: 6633: 6630: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6617: 6616: 6613: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6600: 6599:Water quality 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6497: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6443: 6439: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6402: 6399: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6378: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6361:Traffic signs 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6344: 6340: 6334: 6331: 6330: 6328: 6326: 6322: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6287: 6286:Microplastics 6284: 6283: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6276:Nanomaterials 6274: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6265: 6262: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6216: 6215:Lead smelting 6213: 6212: 6211: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6070: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6035:Radioactivity 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5998: 5994: 5988: 5987:Noise control 5985: 5982: 5979: 5976: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5889: 5883: 5880: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5867: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5854: 5848: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5811: 5809: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5735:Metal working 5733: 5731: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5587: 5583: 5576: 5571: 5569: 5564: 5562: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5529: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5485: 5481: 5478: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5277: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5228: 5224: 5217: 5211: 5208: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5149: 5147: 5145: 5141: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5100: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5034: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4935: 4932: 4919: 4915: 4914: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4874: 4870: 4869: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4840: 4836: 4835: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4820: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4808: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4769: 4765: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4726: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4683: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4656: 4655: 4647: 4644: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4591: 4590: 4582: 4579: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4552: 4551: 4543: 4540: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4409: 4394: 4390: 4388:9781107337435 4384: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4279:9789401075336 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4169: 4164: 4159:|first1= 4152: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4127: 4126:New Scientist 4122: 4115: 4112: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4084: 4081: 4068: 4064: 4063: 4058: 4051: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4018: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3979: 3973: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3959: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3940: 3935: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3917: 3912: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3874: 3861: 3857: 3855:9789048188208 3851: 3847: 3846: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3820: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3804: 3801: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3785: 3782: 3769: 3765: 3764: 3755: 3752: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3727: 3715: 3711: 3705: 3702: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3657: 3644: 3633: 3626: 3619: 3616: 3611: 3598: 3587: 3580: 3573: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3560: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3530: 3523: 3522: 3514: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3501:9780318203690 3497: 3493: 3492: 3484: 3481: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3428: 3415: 3411: 3410: 3402: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3356: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3300: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3238: 3235: 3222: 3218: 3216:9780309096737 3212: 3208: 3207: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3180: 3173: 3170: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3140: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2963: 2962: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2942:Marshall Plan 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2769: 2761: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2748:boiling point 2741: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2711:, although a 2710: 2704: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2676: 2670: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2634: 2627: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2534: 2533:Civil Defense 2530: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2510: 2489: 2487: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2450: 2444: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2377: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2335: 2334: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2277:teratological 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2238: 2237:pre-war steel 2233: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2152: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2081: 2071: 2070:New York City 2067: 2063: 2053: 2050: 2042: 2039:December 2008 2032: 2028: 2022: 2021: 2016:This section 2014: 2010: 2005: 2004: 2000: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1959:, defined in 1958: 1954: 1949: 1946: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1875: 1870: 1861: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1831: 1826: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1814:calcium oxide 1811: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767:cloud seeding 1764: 1759: 1757: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1715:thunderstorms 1710: 1707: 1702: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1685:nuclear tests 1682: 1677: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1550: 1549:surface burst 1541: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1520:Local fallout 1519: 1517: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1490: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417:radioisotopes 1414: 1409: 1407: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1374:precipitation 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1350:nuclear blast 1347: 1336: 1331: 1329: 1324: 1322: 1317: 1316: 1314: 1313: 1308: 1298: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1283: 1272: 1269: 1268: 1267: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1175: 1174: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1140: 1139: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1126:Water quality 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 993: 990: 985: 984: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 946: 945: 942: 938: 935: 934: 933: 930: 928: 925: 924: 921: 916: 915: 908: 905: 903: 902:Traffic signs 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 884: 881: 876: 875: 868: 865: 864: 861: 856: 855: 848: 845: 844: 838: 837: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 809:Nanomaterials 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 746: 740: 739: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 698: 695: 690: 689: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 671:Radioactivity 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 633: 630: 625: 624: 617: 616:Soundproofing 614: 612: 611:Noise control 609: 607: 606:Noise barrier 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 588: 585: 580: 579: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 547: 546: 539: 536: 532: 529: 527: 524: 523: 522: 519: 518: 515: 510: 509: 502: 499: 498: 492: 491: 482: 479: 478: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 463: 460: 455: 454: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 368: 365: 360: 359: 352: 348: 347: 344: 338: 334: 330: 329: 319: 314: 312: 307: 305: 300: 299: 297: 296: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 272: 269: 268: 265: 262: 260: 257: 251: 248: 246: 242: 239: 238: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 214:United States 211: 209: 205: 204: 203: 202: 199: 195: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 169:Proliferation 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 141: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 124: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 87: 86: 85: 80: 76: 72: 71: 68: 64: 58: 54: 50: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6889:Radiobiology 6678:Point source 6620:Heavy metals 6594:Urban runoff 6574:Sulfur water 6552:Septic tanks 6407: 6398:Agent Orange 6252:Mining waste 6078:Manure waste 6019: 5908:Volcanic ash 5784:Black carbon 5740:Oil refining 5725:Particulates 5654:Construction 5531: 5524: 5520: 5500: 5495:Smyth Report 5490: 5479: 5469: 5435: 5431: 5410:. 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