False flag - Knowledge (XXG)

36: 1077:, this usage mostly "migrated to the right", however because some historical false flag incidents occurred, historians should not fully cede the usage of the term to conspiracy theorists. Perlman says "The real danger is if we use the nonattributive 'false flags' as shorthand for conspiracy theories, without explaining what they are and who is promoting them." At the same time, Perlman writes that "people yelling that any attack attributed to someone on 'their side' was committed by 'the other side' drown out the voices of reason." 396: 565:, involved scenarios such as fabricating the hijacking or shooting down of passenger and military planes, sinking a U.S. ship in the vicinity of Cuba, burning crops, sinking a boat filled with Cuban refugees, attacks by alleged Cuban infiltrators inside the United States, and harassment of U.S. aircraft and shipping and the destruction of aerial drones by aircraft disguised as Cuban MiGs. These actions would be blamed on Cuba, and would be a pretext for an invasion of Cuba and the overthrow of 761: 3037: 547: 1192: 920:(UN). Even according to Reid-Daly, most of those killed were unarmed guerrillas standing in formation for a parade. The camp hospital was also set ablaze by the rounds fired by the Scouts, killing all patients. According to David Martin and Phyllis Johnson, who visited the camp shortly before the raid, it was only a refugee camp that did not host any guerrillas. It was staged for UN approval. 451: 757:

intelligence tasks; however, military provide the structure needed to back up such pseudo-ops with military response forces. According to US military expert Lawrence Cline (2005), "the teams typically have been controlled by police services, but this largely was due to the weaknesses in the respective military intelligence systems."

881:. They succeeded in turning approximately 800 insurgents who were then paid by Special Branch, ultimately reaching the number of 1,500 members. Engaging mainly in long-range reconnaissance and surveillance missions, they increasingly turned to offensive actions, including the attempted assassination of 694:

against Israel. However, the plot was exposed before launch and Egyptian authorities were able to tail an operative to his target, arrest him and later search his apartment where the entire plan, including the names of other agents and explosive materials, was held. Unknown to Israel Prime Minister

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Pseudo-operations are those in which forces of one power disguise themselves as enemy forces. For example, a state power may disguise teams of operatives as insurgents and, with the aid of defectors, infiltrate insurgent areas. The aim of such pseudo-operations may be to gather short or long-term

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operation is an act committed with the intent of disguising the actual source of responsibility and pinning blame on another party. The term "false flag" originated in the 16th century as an expression meaning an intentional misrepresentation of someone's allegiance. The term was famously used to

653:. The tactic of a "directed campaign of bombings by Iranians posing as members of the Communist party", involved the bombing of "at least one" well known Muslim's house by CIA agents posing as Communists. The CIA determined that the tactic of false flag attacks added to the "positive outcome" of 1199:

Proponents of political or religious ideologies will sometimes use false flag tactics. This can be done to discredit or implicate rival groups, create the appearance of enemies when none exist, or create the illusion of organized and directed persecution. This can be used to gain attention and

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of important enemies. However, they usually involve both, as the risks of exposure rapidly increase with time and intelligence gathering eventually leads to violent confrontation. Pseudo-operations may be directed by military or police forces, or both. Police forces are usually best suited to

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In the summer of 1954, a group of Egyptian Jews recruited by Israeli army intelligence were caught with plans to bomb American, British, and Egyptian civil targets in Egypt. The bombs were timed to detonate several hours after closing time. The bombings were to be blamed on the

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were filmed while being arrested. The footage published by the FSB was however found to implicate the FSB as having staged the arrest. Together with weapons, drugs, Ukrainian passports and Nazi memorabilia the footage also prominently showed three expansion packs for the

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to deceive other ships into allowing them to move closer before attacking them. It later was deemed an acceptable practice during naval warfare according to international maritime laws, provided the attacking vessel displayed its true flag once an attack had begun.

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states in its introduction on the draft: "To a great extent, correspond to the customary rules and general principles underlying treaties on the law of war on land and at sea", and as such these two non-controversial articles were already part of customary law.

605:, with Russian state media promoting false flags on a nearly hourly basis purporting to show Ukrainian forces attacking Russia, in a bid to justify an invasion of Ukraine. Many of the disinformation videos were poor and amateur in quality, with mismatching 84:

for domestic repression or foreign military aggression. Similarly deceptive activities carried out during peacetime by individuals or nongovernmental organizations have been called false flag operations, but the more common legal term is a

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included a finding that Skorzeny was not guilty of a crime by ordering his men into action in American uniforms. He had relayed to his men the warning of German legal experts: if they fought in American uniforms, they would be breaking the

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Political campaigning has a long history of this tactic in various forms, including in person, print media and electronically in recent years. This can involve when supporters of one candidate pose as supporters of another, or act as

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were part of a false flag effort to discredit Republicans and supporters of then-President Donald Trump. Cesar Sayoc, motivated by his belief that Democrats were “evil”, was later convicted of mailing the devices to Trump's critics.

270:; however, they probably were not doing so simply by wearing the American uniforms. During the trial, a number of arguments were advanced to substantiate this position and the German and U.S. military seem to have been in agreement. 368:

to Bismarck regarding certain demands made by the French ambassador. In the version purposefully released to the public, Bismarck instead made it sound like the King had gravely disrespected the ambassador – a ploy to trick Emperor

683:, "unspecified malcontents", or "local nationalists", with the aim of creating a climate of sufficient violence and instability to induce the British government to refrain from evacuating its troops occupying Egypt's 1916: 2763: 503:

The operation failed to convince international public opinion of the German claims, and both Britain and France – Poland's allies – declared war two days after Germany invaded Poland.

3001: 2193: 1015:, the term "false flag" describes the recruiting of agents by operatives posing as representatives of a cause the prospective agents are sympathetic to, or even the agents' own government. For example, during the 377:, with the end goal of unifying the northern and southern German states. This ploy would be successful, as Napoleon III would declare war six days later; and six months later, the Confederation would win and 4129: 4049: 2120: 961:

of guerrilla or criminal organizations. In the latter case, infiltration is normally done by individuals. Pseudo teams, on the other hand, are formed as needed from organized units, usually military or

1051:, "Many a right-wing radical had given information to the Soviets under a 'false flag', thinking they were working with a Western ally, such as Israel, when in fact their contact was a KGB operative." 1163:

is opposed to the one that the troll claims to hold. The concern troll posts in web forums devoted to its declared point of view and attempts to sway the group's actions or opinions while claiming to

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The term today extends to include countries that organize attacks on themselves and make the attacks appear to be by enemy nations or terrorists, thus giving the nation that was supposedly attacked a

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states: "National flags, insignias and uniforms as a ruse – in practice it has been authorized to make use of these as a ruse. The foregoing rule (Article 23 of the Annex of the

2055: 293:), does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their improper use. It is certainly forbidden to make use of them during a combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy, they must be discarded." 5056: 4154: 2088: 2797: 2790: 5269: 3990: 3985: 3980: 923:

According to a 1978 study by the Directorate of Military Intelligence, 68% of all insurgent deaths inside Rhodesia could be attributed to the Selous Scouts, who were disbanded in 1980.

4820: 982: 3673: 739:. This was again interpreted as a misunderstood instruction, this time taken too literally. The FSB subsequently published a version of the footage with the Sims games blurred out. 3446: 1590:"Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare. Drafted by a Commission of Jurists at the Hague, December 1922 – February 1923: Introduction" 1132:

If you could employ an associate who pretends to be sympathetic to the unions' cause to physically attack you (or even use a firearm against you), you could discredit the unions

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The press had acquired a court order to access all of Walker's emails and Lam's email was exposed. At first, Lam vehemently denied it, but eventually admitted it and resigned.

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and Pascal Kropp (1999), the OJAL was reminiscent of "the Organization of the French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counter-terrorists created in December 1956 by the

646:. One tactic used to undermine Mosaddegh was to carry out false flag attacks "on mosques and key public figures", to be blamed on Iranian communists loyal to the government. 117:, while merchant vessels were encouraged to use false flags for protection. Such masquerades promoted confusion not just of the enemy but of historical accounts. In 1914 the 3997: 830:

in the 1950s, captured Mau Mau members who switched sides and specially trained British troops initiated the pseudo-gang concept to successfully counter Mau Mau. In 1960,

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However, as "the C.I.A. burned nearly all of its files on its role in the 1953 coup in Iran," the true extent of the tactic has been difficult for historians to discern.

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supporters and extended them, creating the pseudo-"Monarchist Union of Central Russia" (MUCR) in order to help the OGPU identify real monarchists and anti-Bolsheviks.

1986: 2748: 2110: 4178: 4134: 3940: 3615: 44: 2232: 6316: 5302: 5199: 4863: 4161: 997:(Territorial Surveillance Directorate, or DST) whose mission was to carry out terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political compromise". 877:. The Selous Scouts were originally composed of 120 members, with all officers being white and the highest rank initially available for black soldiers being 2912: 1884:

Inside the Assassination Records Review Board: The U.S. Government's Final Attempt to Reconcile the Conflicting Medical Evidence in the Assassination of JFK

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In January and February 2022, Western government agencies predicted that Russia would use a false flag operation in Ukraine. In the days leading up to the

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sympathy from outsiders, in particular the media, or to convince others within the group that their beliefs are under attack and in need of protection.

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If the action is a police action, then these tactics would fall within the laws of the state initiating the pseudo, but if such actions are taken in a

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is an example of one candidate's creating a false document and attributing it as coming from another candidate in order to discredit that candidate.

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by blowing up a section of railway. Though the explosion was too weak to disrupt operations on the rail line, the Japanese nevertheless used the

201:, which the British planned to sacrifice in the operation, was provided with cosmetic modifications that involved cutting the ship's funnels and 912:. Using Rhodesian trucks and armored cars disguised as Mozambique military vehicles, 84 scouts killed 1,284 people in the camp, registered as a 5091: 5061: 4806: 4701: 4657: 3920: 3573: 873:. As with all Special Forces in Rhodesia, by 1977 they were controlled by COMOPS (Commander, Combined Operations) Commander Lieutenant General 577:. The surprise discovery of the documents relating to Operation Northwoods was a result of the comprehensive search for records related to the 2970: 711:

Due to its deceptive nature a false flag operation can fail in such a manner as to implicate the perpetrator rather than the intended victim.

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officer, as pseudo-operations, or "the use of organized teams which are disguised as guerrilla groups for long- or short-term penetration of

209:. By this ruse the British were able to get within two miles (3 km) of the harbour before the defences responded, where the explosive-rigged 1797: 4893: 4652: 1040:", indicating that they also used their sex appeal to manipulate their targets, making this operation a combination of the false flag and " 986: 328:, the Swedish national assembly, who until then had refused to agree to an offensive war against Russia. The Puumala incident allowed King 175:

was fatally damaged in the engagement and its crew captured, the outcome represented a considerable psychological victory for the Germans.

2897: 1615: 4407: 4124: 3527: 3334: 1041: 699:, the exposé caused a scandal in Israel, with Israeli officials blaming one another for the operation and the Israeli defense minister, 4837: 4030: 3595: 2158: 1892: 1772: 582: 3014: 1576: 4553: 3812: 3425: 2643: 2503: 2013: 1788:

Turtola, Martti (1999). "Kansainvälinen kehitys Euroopassa ja Suomessa 1930-luvulla". In Leskinen, Jari; Juutilainen, Antti (eds.).

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Weland, James (1994). "Misguided Intelligence: Japanese Military Intelligence Officers in the Manchurian Incident, September 1931".

1685: 1522: 985:(DRS) security forces disguised themselves as Islamist terrorists and committed false flag terror attacks. Such groups included the 351: 290: 155: 109:

such a deception is considered permissible, provided the false flag is lowered and the true flag raised before engaging in battle.

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whereby a vessel flew the flag of a neutral or enemy country in order to hide its true identity. The tactic was originally used by

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of Sweden, who lacked the constitutional authority to initiate unprovoked hostilities without the Estates' consent, to launch the

6513: 6309: 6253: 5295: 5194: 5186: 4588: 4513: 4365: 3710: 719: 497: 274: 333: 6246: 6034: 5204: 4183: 3512: 3480: 1703: 1136:... Employing a false flag operation would assist in undercutting any support the media may be creating in favor of the unions. 931: 6483: 6468: 5135: 4960: 4875: 4455: 4193: 4166: 4103: 3622: 2343: 633: 731:

interpreted this to mean that the arrest was in fact staged, with its organizers misunderstanding an instruction "to get 3

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was ordered to undermine the government of Iran over a four-month period, as a precursor to overthrowing Prime Minister

2401: 1849: 1655: 735:". Further lending credence to the arrest being staged was footage of a note with a Russian phrase, which in fact read 35: 6523: 6508: 6302: 6057: 5288: 5252: 4310: 4305: 3755: 3537: 3242: 3147: 2837: 2449: 2371: 772: 598: 27: 1943: 316:

received an order to sew a number of Russian military uniforms. These were then used by Swedes to stage an attack on

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drafted a set of rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare. They included:

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in 1941 while disguised as a Dutch merchant ship, causing the greatest loss of life on an Australian warship. While

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researchers, and other independent journalists, showed that the claimed attacks, explosions, and evacuations in

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mid- to junior-grade officers, without the knowledge of the Tokyo government, fabricated a pretext for invading

5553: 5548: 5167: 4898: 4325: 4139: 4007: 3136: 1234:, some false flag conspiracy theories (such as claims that mass shootings are hoaxes) are themselves spread by 715: 703:, resigning under pressure. Later, two investigative committees found that Lavon was unaware of the operation. 400: 1217:'s home and then used that stationery to forge bomb threats and have them mailed to a Scientology office. The 811:

in 1919. The patrol successfully passed several enemy checkpoints in order to assassinate the guerilla leader

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Art. 3. A military aircraft must carry an exterior mark indicating its nationality and its military character.

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of Haiti was assassinated in 1919 after checkpoints were passed by military disguised as guerrilla fighters.

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to make it seem that they had been shot by Polish soldiers. This, along with other false flag operations in

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Some offensive operations attracted international condemnation, in particular the Selous Scouts' raid on a

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In land warfare, such operations are generally deemed acceptable under certain circumstances, such as to

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On 19 February 2011, Indiana Deputy Prosecutor Carlos Lam sent a private email to Wisconsin Governor

947: 893:. This mission was finally aborted by the Selous Scouts, and attempted again, unsuccessfully, by the 791: 554: 541: 206: 48: 40: 6493: 6433: 6368: 6354: 6125: 6115: 6072: 5843: 5670: 5632: 5528: 5257: 5131: 4948: 4775: 4679: 4340: 4075: 3905: 3693: 3610: 3547: 3297: 2980: 2946: 2768: 2379: 2018: 1308: 989:(OJAL) or the Secret Organisation for the Safeguard of the Algerian Republic (OSSRA). According to 866: 862: 516: 408: 345: 313: 122: 2435: 6503: 6325: 6236: 5999: 5898: 5888: 5838: 5757: 5538: 5533: 5425: 5311: 5229: 5214: 5106: 5081: 5019: 4970: 4955: 4664: 4631: 4605: 4583: 4578: 4548: 4533: 4393: 3781: 3771: 3585: 3439: 3312: 3287: 3126: 2844: 2742: 1764: 1712: 1282: 1222: 1006: 974: 797: 691: 688: 676: 643: 282: 165: 118: 98: 2942:"Cesar Sayoc, who mailed explosive devices to Trump's critics, sentenced to 20 years in prison" 2565: 2262: 6428: 6145: 6082: 5858: 5828: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5685: 5665: 5523: 5508: 5460: 5405: 5071: 4780: 4449: 4218: 3900: 3542: 3381: 3361: 3329: 3210: 3188: 3143: 3111: 2730: 2720: 2672: 2639: 2569: 2527: 2499: 2322: 2290: 2224: 2185: 2154: 1922: 1888: 1828: 1818: 1768: 1739: 1681: 1637: 1518: 1471: 1444: 1417: 1411: 1252: 1060: 967: 493: 465: 461: 445: 424: 357: 258: 129: 110: 2913:"After 'false flag' narrative takes hold, some conservatives scramble to drown out far right" 1465: 1438: 1332: 105:

and that all such deceptions are discarded before opening fire upon the enemy. Similarly, in

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Another example of combined police and military oversight of pseudo-operations include the

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In land warfare, the use of a false flag is similar to that of naval warfare: the trial of

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was a key organiser of the operation under orders from Heydrich. It led to the deaths of

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The encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli conflict: a political, social, and military history

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intelligence service pretending to be members of West German peace advocacy groups (the

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Young, P (Ed) (1973) Atlas of the Second World War (London: The Military Book Society)

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and commandos successfully disabled or destroyed the key dock structures of the port.

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Deep undercover : my secret life and tangled allegiances as a KGB spy in America

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pipe bombs that were sent to prominent Democrats prior to the 2018 mid-term elections

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The Sea As Our Country's Security: Phases of Finnish Sea Defense During Swedish Rule

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comments claiming to be from supporters of a political candidate were traced to the

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In 2006, individuals practicing false flag behavior were discovered and "outed" in

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Bass staffer in D.C. poses as blogger: Bogus posts aimed at his political opponent

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in naval warfare, the true battle flag being run up immediately before engaging" (

1191: 946:). Some false flag operations have been described by Lawrence E. Cline, a retired 523:

for the attack and used the incident as a pretext to invade Finland, starting the

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The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

2493: 2463:"Excerpt – Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons from Other Countries" 2284: 585:

in the mid-1990s. Information about Operation Northwoods was later publicized by

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civil servants were tricked into stealing classified documents by agents of the

978: 874: 804: 496:, would be used to mobilize support from the German population for the start of 267: 81: 20: 1973:"Russia's 'Idiotic' Disinformation Campaign Could Still Lead to War in Ukraine" 6241: 6140: 6097: 5981: 5921: 5815: 5752: 5571: 5455: 5445: 5370: 5355: 5350: 5325: 4755: 4735: 4728: 4615: 4350: 3836: 3800: 3776: 3507: 3366: 3356: 3319: 3252: 3002:

United States of America v. Jane Kember, Morris Budlong, Sentencing Memorandum

2890:"Indiana prosecutor resigns for encouraging fake attack on Wisconsin governor" 2691: 2603: 2409: 2319:

Ben-Gurion's spy: the story of the political scandal that shaped modern Israel

2083: 2046:"Russia says it prevented border breach from Ukraine, Kyiv calls it fake news" 1982: 1832: 1650:

Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals. United Nations War Crimes Commission.

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Meri maamme turvana: Suomen meripuolustuksen vaiheita Ruotsin vallan aikana

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Covert Action in the Cold War: US Policy, Intelligence and CIA Operations

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In the transcript of the trial, it is mentioned that Paragraph 43 of the

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Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons from other countries

2079:"Documenting and Debunking Dubious Footage from Ukraine's Frontlines" 1918:

Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency

1575:, December 1922 to February 1923, this convention was never adopted ( 966:. The use of pseudo teams has been a hallmark of a number of foreign 890: 724: 718:

operation where would-be Ukrainian assassins of Russian propagandist

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also had a plan for further operations to discredit Cooper known as

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Japanese experts inspect the scene of the "railway sabotage" on the

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Between December 1922 and February 1923, a commission of jurists at

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Modern Aspects of the Laws of Naval Warfare and Maritime Neutrality

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This draft was never adopted as a legally binding treaty, but the

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Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests

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Israel's secret wars: a history of Israel's intelligence services

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suggesting that he run a "'false flag' operation" to counter the

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victims who were dressed as German soldiers and then shot by the

5657: 3262: 3015:"Why do some people think mass shootings are staged every time?" 1817:. Johnny Shumate. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 9. 1593: 1106: 562: 192: 6298: 5284: 4802: 4389: 4277: 3643: 3464: 3398: 3095: 3053: 2820:"Bass aide resigns after posing as opponent's supporter online" 2598:

Cline (2005), pp. 8–13. For 1978 study, quotes J. K. Cilliers,

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until 1980. The Selous Scouts were formed at the beginning of

639: 19:"False colors" redirects here. For the imaging technique, see 1814:

The Finnish-Soviet Winter War 1939-40 Stalin's Hollow Victory

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to mobilize German public opinion for war and to justify the

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against Walker's proposed restrictions on public employees'

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is usually applied for pseudo-teams. (See the above section

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Cline (2005), who quotes David Martin and Phyllis Johnson,

1385:"False flags: What are they and when have they been used?" 973:

Similar false flag tactics were also employed during the

2848:, 21 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006). 2827:, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006). 2808:, 26 September 2006 (URL last accessed 24 October 2006). 2606:, 1985, pp. 60–77. Cline also quotes Ian F. W. Beckett, 934:

then those who participate in such actions would not be

869:, in November 1973, by Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) 5270:

Counterintelligence and counter-terrorism organizations

823:

and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant for his deed.

1850:"Pentagon Proposes Pretexts for Cuba Invasion in 1962" 1331:

O'Conner, Patricia; Kellerman, Stewart (11 May 2018).

842:, an account of his experiences with the technique in 232:

Art. 19. The use of false exterior marks is forbidden.

113:

operated in such a fashion in both World Wars, as did

3447:

After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News

1440:

Privateering: Patriots and Profits in the War of 1812

4316:

Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act

2589:, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981, pp. 241–242. 1652:

Vol IX, 1949: Trial of Otto Skorzeny and others

1464:

Donald R. Hickey; Connie D. Clark (8 October 2015).

1167:, but with professed "concerns". The goal is to sow 6442: 6417: 6391: 6332: 6229: 6174: 6106: 6048: 5980: 5897: 5814: 5766: 5656: 5567: 5494: 5384: 5318: 5243: 5185: 5145: 5090: 5047: 4912: 4874: 4845: 4836: 4645: 4614: 4524: 4501: 4423: 4244: 4232: 4117: 4063: 4037: 4025: 3939: 3886: 3874: 3843: 3831: 3819: 3807: 3795: 3764: 3738: 3726: 3666: 3654: 3556: 2911:Collins, Ben; Abbruzzese, Jason (26 October 2018). 2627:, (Franco-Algeria, Crimes and Lies of the States). 779:set up such an operation from 1921 to 1926. During 51:undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group 3419:Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy 2839:"Blog Thinks Aide to Kean Posted Jabs At Menendez" 2175: 2077:Bellingcat Investigation Team (23 February 2022). 569:'s communist government. It was authorised by the 427:in the form of the nominally independent state of 3971:Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine 3523:Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine 1360:"How the term 'false flag' migrated to the right" 752:or to engage in active operations, in particular 557:, a 1962 plot proposed but never executed by the 121:was fought between the British auxiliary cruiser 3866:Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos 2623:Lounis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire (2004). 2608:The Rhodesian Army: Counter-Insurgency 1972–1979 1113:of paid staffers for that candidate's opponent. 838:and is now a retired British general, published 2866:. Wisconsin Center for Investigative Journalism 2568:, 1999, p. 10 (republished by Covos Day, 2001, 2140: 2138: 1326: 1324: 550:Operation Northwoods memorandum (13 March 1962) 2860:"Indiana prosecutor resigns over Walker email" 2646:. Extract in English with mention of the OJAL 1966: 1964: 1944:"False-Flag Invasions Are a Russian Specialty" 1517:, Centre for Business and Public, p. 80, 1195:A bomb threat forged by Scientology operatives 1143:Some conservative commentators suggested that 983:Département du Renseignement et de la Sécurité 6359: 6310: 5296: 4814: 4401: 4179:Election denial movement in the United States 3065: 2587:The Struggle for Zimbabwe: the Chimurenga War 790:An example of a successful assassination was 8: 6378: 2562:Pamwe Chete: The Legend of the Selous Scouts 1539:HMAS Sydney found off Australia's west coast 623:As a tactic to undermine political opponents 609:showing incorrect dates, and evidence from 6317: 6303: 6295: 5303: 5289: 5281: 4851: 4842: 4821: 4807: 4799: 4408: 4394: 4386: 4274: 3883: 3851:COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines 3651: 3640: 3553: 3461: 3395: 3092: 3072: 3058: 3050: 2747:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2217:"C.I.A. Destroyed Files on 1953 Iran Coup" 1732:The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis 995:Direction de la surveillance du territoire 599:Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 579:assassination of President John F. Kennedy 2883: 2881: 2659:Luonis Aggoun and Jean-Baptiste Rivoire, 2625:Françalgérie, crimes et mensonges d'Etats 2321:. Columbia University Press. p. 81. 1467:The Routledge Handbook of the War of 1812 902:Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army 601:, the Russian government intensified its 4204:Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection 2430: 2428: 2426: 1614:Gómez, Javier Guisández (20 June 1998). 238:International Committee of the Red Cross 34: 5235:Scientific & Technical intelligence 4003:Russian Institute for Strategic Studies 1416:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 281–. 1320: 1171:within the group often by appealing to 4658:Chinese espionage in the United States 4130:Attempts to overturn the 2020 election 3921:Soviet influence on the peace movement 3518:Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war 2740: 908:in August 1976. ZANLA was then led by 135:, which had been altered to look like 3855:ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign 2762:Usckinski, Joseph (27 October 2018). 2235:from the original on 16 November 2020 2123:from the original on 21 February 2022 2091:from the original on 23 February 2022 2058:from the original on 21 February 2022 2026:from the original on 22 February 2022 2008: 2006: 2004: 1989:from the original on 21 February 2022 1844: 1842: 1621:International Review of the Red Cross 1354: 1352: 1350: 727:video game. Investigative journalist 285:, on 1 October 1940, under the entry 143:had not been altered to resemble the 7: 5057:By alliances, nations and industries 4653:Chinese intelligence activity abroad 2520:"Ex-Marine Corps Gen. Hanneken Dies" 2145:Callanan, James (30 November 2009). 1761:Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg 1554:Guinness World Records (2009), p.155 987:Organisation of Young Free Algerians 883:Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army 16:Covert operation designed to deceive 4719:Interpersonal (HUMINT) intelligence 4125:1995 CIA disinformation controversy 3335:State-sponsored Internet propaganda 2969:Cox, Ana Marie (16 December 2006). 2900:from the original on 12 April 2012. 2687:"Victims of Cold War 'Romeo spies'" 2498:. Basic Books. pp. 33–35, 42. 1971:Gilbert, David (21 February 2022). 1067:of various governments and claimed 714:A notable example is an April 2022 47:livery depicting those used in the 3596:Misinformation related to abortion 2888:Montopoli, Brian (25 March 2011). 2564:, Weltevreden Park, South Africa: 1942:Walton, Calder (4 February 2022). 1794:The Little Giant of the Winter War 1763:(illustrated ed.). Westport: 1515:Teaching Ethics: Government ethics 977:, starting in the middle of 1994. 904:(ZANLA) camp at Nyadzonya Pungwe, 583:Assassination Records Review Board 139:. (Contrary to some accounts, the 14: 4554:Computer and network surveillance 3813:Voluntary Agency Network of Korea 3426:The KGB and Soviet Disinformation 2685:Crawford, Angus (20 March 2009). 2560:Cline (2005), quoting Reid-Daly, 2196:from the original on 22 July 2016 1513:Thomas, Rosamund M., ed. (1993), 1333:"The True History of False Flags" 687:zone, a move that would embolden 649:The CIA operation was code-named 573:, but then rejected by President 352:Causes of the Franco-Prussian War 128:and the German auxiliary cruiser 6489:Psychological warfare techniques 4589:Short-range agent communications 4366:United States Information Agency 3645:Operations and events by country 3035: 1921:. Anchor Books. pp. 82–91. 1209:, some members of the Church of 943: 834:, who was later involved in the 423:to seize Manchuria and create a 364:, an internal message from King 312:In 1788, the head tailor at the 150:Another notable example was the 101:, provided the deception is not 6474:Intelligence operations by type 5947:Party platforms (or manifestos) 5205:Words of estimative probability 5067:Operational platforms by nation 3966:Information war against Ukraine 3513:International Jewish conspiracy 3481:Congo Free State propaganda war 1858:. 30 April 2001. Archived from 1704:The Journal of Military History 1437:Faye Kert (30 September 2015). 1175:. This is a particular case of 1159:created by a user whose actual 1036:agents were also described as " 932:belligerent military occupation 205:the edges to resemble a German 4194:Information Operations Roadmap 4104:Psychological Warfare Division 3674:Chinese information operations 3623:Water fluoridation controversy 2858:Golden, Kate (24 March 2011). 2600:Counter-insurgency in Rhodesia 2174:Risen, James (16 April 2000). 1573:The Hague Rules of Air Warfare 783:, they used loose networks of 303:Pretext § Uses in warfare 1: 4301:Active Measures Working Group 3959:during the Russo-Georgian War 3926:U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B 3040:The dictionary definition of 2342:Teh, Cheryl (26 April 2022). 1490:deHaven-Smith, Lance (2013). 1410:Politakis, George P. (2018). 1213:stole stationery from author 1047:According to ex-KGB defector 895:Rhodesian Special Air Service 334:Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790) 164:the Australian light cruiser 6035:Rally 'round the flag effect 4184:The Freedom Fighter's Manual 3861:Fake news in the Philippines 3233:Fear, uncertainty, and doubt 2971:"Making Mischief on the Web" 2492:Andrew, Christopher (2001). 2289:. Grove Press. p. 111. 1798:Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö 1492:Conspiracy Theory in America 1169:fear, uncertainty, and doubt 1059:The term is popular amongst 253:, who planned and commanded 89:", "stitch up", or "setup". 6360: 5253:Intelligence cycle security 4311:Counter Misinformation Team 4306:Counter disinformation unit 3756:Myth of the clean Wehrmacht 3243:Forgery as covert operation 2450:Strategic Studies Institute 2215:Weiner, Tim (29 May 1997). 1790:Talvisodan pikkujättiläinen 1730:Lightbody, Bradley (2004). 1470:. Routledge. pp. 64–. 1443:. JHU Press. pp. 62–. 1203:In retaliation for writing 819:. Hanneken was awarded the 773:State Political Directorate 593:Russian invasion of Ukraine 498:World War II in Europe 28:False Flag (disambiguation) 6545: 4321:The Disinformation Project 3751:Propaganda in Nazi Germany 3107:Algorithmic radicalization 2434:Cline, Lawrence E. (2005) 2261:. ABC-CLIO. 2008. p. 1881:P. Horne, Douglas (2009). 1364:Columbia Journalism Review 1290:, a similar online concept 1206:The Scandal of Scientology 1074:Columbia Journalism Review 1063:promoters in referring to 1004: 667: 631: 559:U.S. Department of Defense 539: 468:fabricating evidence of a 443: 388: 375:North German Confederation 373:into declaring war on the 349: 343: 300: 25: 18: 5376:Manipulation (psychology) 4854: 4284: 4273: 4238:Bolivarian Army of Trolls 4214:Tobacco industry playbook 4145:CIA Kennedy assassination 3650: 3639: 3471: 3460: 3405: 3394: 3278:Manipulation (psychology) 3102: 3091: 1855:National Security Archive 1634:10.1017/S0020860400091075 1496:University of Texas Press 512:On 26 November 1939, the 5554:Criticism of advertising 4326:East StratCom Task Force 4140:9/11 conspiracy theories 3137:List of cognitive biases 2444:16 November 2016 at the 1672:Mattila, Tapabi (1983). 1616:"The Law of Air Warfare" 800:leading a patrol of his 634:1953 Iranian coup d'état 401:South Manchurian Railway 385:Second Sino-Japanese War 195:book. The old destroyer 6514:16th-century neologisms 6216:Promotional merchandise 5927:Character assassination 5864:Narcotizing dysfunction 5738:Photograph manipulation 5451:Guerrilla communication 5220:Intelligence assessment 5210:All-source intelligence 4830:Intelligence management 4539:Covert listening device 4509:Intelligence assessment 4252:Public opinion brigades 4209:Niger uranium forgeries 4199:Litter boxes in schools 3569:COVID-19 misinformation 3491:Free energy suppression 3400:Books and documentaries 3174:Euphemistic misspeaking 1915:Bamford, James (2002). 1759:Zaloga, Steve (2004) . 936:privileged belligerents 840:Gangs and Counter-gangs 836:Northern Irish conflict 619:were staged by Russia. 603:disinformation campaign 486:Nazi concentration camp 379:unify the German states 154:German commerce raider 6379: 6199:Product demonstrations 5628:Historical negationism 4904:Operational techniques 4859:Special reconnaissance 3998:2016 Brexit referendum 3347:Scientific fabrication 3258:Historical negationism 2629:Editions La Découverte 2467:ssi.armywarcollege.edu 1811:Murphy, David (2021). 1734:. Abingdon-on-Thames: 1658:2 October 2008 at the 1196: 1138: 853:in the former country 817:Grande-Rivière-du-Nord 768: 551: 457: 404: 326:Riksdag of the Estates 191:and captured a German 56: 6484:Propaganda techniques 6469:False flag operations 6374:Psychological warfare 6131:Reputation management 6050:Psychological warfare 5899:Political campaigning 5708:Firehose of falsehood 4788:Targeted surveillance 4294:Fact-checking website 4099:Operation Mass Appeal 4081:Clockwork Orange plot 3591:Mental illness denial 3486:Climate change denial 3303:Psychological warfare 3273:Internet manipulation 3238:Firehose of falsehood 3164:Disinformation attack 2800:12 March 2007 at the 2713:Barsky, Jack (2017). 1194: 1130: 1126:collective bargaining 1081:Political campaigning 1007:False flag penetrator 940:plausible deniability 763: 638:On 4 April 1953, the 571:Joint Chiefs of Staff 549: 453: 398: 301:Further information: 287:Rules of Land Warfare 41:Douglas A-26C Invader 38: 6479:Diversionary tactics 6340:Denial and deception 6166:Corporate propaganda 5225:Medical intelligence 5195:Competing hypotheses 5005:Industrial espionage 4990:Denial and deception 4714:Industrial espionage 4514:competing hypotheses 3433:Who's Who in the CIA 2719:. Carol Stream, IL. 2551:Cline (2005), p. 11. 2370:Klimentov, Mikhail. 2119:. 21 February 2022. 2054:. 21 February 2022. 2022:. 21 February 2022. 1268:Denial and deception 954:-controlled areas". 948:US Army intelligence 792:United States Marine 555:Operation Northwoods 542:Operation Northwoods 536:Operation Northwoods 207:Type 23 torpedo boat 49:Bay of Pigs Invasion 26:For other uses, see 6369:Military camouflage 6355:Information warfare 6254:Media concentration 6126:Non-apology apology 6116:Cult of personality 5844:Emotive conjugation 5598:Burying of scholars 5258:Counterintelligence 5173:Technical (TECHINT) 5168:Open-source (OSINT) 5158:Geospatial (GEOINT) 5132:Casualty estimation 4135:Conspiracy theories 4076:Double-Cross System 4045:Conspiracy theories 3906:Operation INFEKTION 3694:Internet Water Army 3548:Strategy of tension 3413:by Ion Mihai Pacepa 3298:Post-truth politics 2947:The Washington Post 2769:The Washington Post 2669:DST, Police Secrète 2380:The Washington Post 2019:The Daily Telegraph 1335:. Grammarphobia.com 1309:Strategy of tension 1151:On the internet, a 938:. The principle of 867:Operation Hurricane 863:white minority rule 813:Charlemagne Péralte 807:disguised as enemy 765:Charlemagne Péralte 527:, four days later. 407:In September 1931, 346:Franco-Prussian War 340:Franco-Prussian War 314:Royal Swedish Opera 297:As pretexts for war 291:IV Hague Convention 178:The British used a 64:describe a ruse in 6524:Flag controversies 6509:Military deception 6326:Military deception 6237:Influence-for-hire 6030:National mythology 6000:Crowd manipulation 5889:Tabloid journalism 5758:Video manipulation 5703:Fictitious entries 5426:Civil disobedience 5312:Media manipulation 5230:Military geography 5215:Basic intelligence 5153:Financial (FININT) 5094:signature (MASINT) 5020:One-way voice link 4956:Concealment device 4665:Cold War espionage 4632:Front organization 4606:Surveillance tools 4584:Phone surveillance 4579:One-way voice link 4534:Concealment device 4031:HIV/AIDS denialism 4008:Trolls from Olgino 3782:Paid news in India 3772:Fake news in India 3586:HIV/AIDS denialism 3440:Merchants of Doubt 3313:Military deception 3288:Media manipulation 3127:Circular reporting 2983:on 13 January 2007 2845:The New York Times 2836:Miller, Jonathan, 2526:. 27 August 1986. 2376:washingtonpost.com 2317:S. Teveth (1996). 2221:The New York Times 2182:The New York Times 1887:. self-published. 1765:Praeger Publishers 1391:. 18 February 2022 1283:Front organization 1223:Operation Freakout 1197: 975:Algerian civil war 798:Herman H. Hanneken 769: 689:Egyptian President 677:Muslim Brotherhood 664:Operation Susannah 644:Mohammad Mosaddegh 552: 458: 405: 356:On July 13, 1870, 324:and impressed the 283:United States Army 162:surprised and sank 119:Battle of Trindade 111:Auxiliary cruisers 57: 6456: 6455: 6292: 6291: 6058:Airborne leaflets 5937:Election promises 5791:Product placement 5666:Alternative facts 5406:Alternative media 5278: 5277: 5181: 5180: 5072:Direction finding 5062:In modern history 5043: 5042: 4796: 4795: 4450:Agent provocateur 4383: 4382: 4379: 4378: 4269: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4219:Operation Shocker 4021: 4020: 3901:K-1000 battleship 3732:Operation Neptune 3635: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3456: 3455: 3390: 3389: 3382:Yellow journalism 3330:counterpropaganda 3211:List of fallacies 3144:Conspiracy theory 3112:Alternative facts 2789:Steele, Allison, 2726:978-1-4964-1686-5 2667:and Pascal KROP, 2574:978-1-919874-33-3 2524:Los Angeles Times 2328:978-0-231-10464-7 2296:978-0-8021-3286-4 1928:978-0-385-49907-1 1824:978-1-4728-4394-4 1800:. pp. 44–45. 1745:978-0-415-22405-5 1640:on 25 April 2013. 1477:978-1-317-70198-9 1450:978-1-4214-1747-9 1423:978-1-136-88577-8 1253:Agent provocateur 1219:Guardian's Office 1165:share their goals 1065:covert operations 1061:conspiracy theory 1019:, several female 968:counterinsurgency 743:Pseudo-operations 737:signature unclear 720:Vladimir Solovyov 707:Failed operations 494:Operation Himmler 466:Reinhard Heydrich 464:in 1939 involved 462:Gleiwitz incident 446:Gleiwitz incident 440:Gleiwitz incident 425:puppet government 358:Otto von Bismarck 308:Russo-Swedish War 277:published by the 259:military tribunal 43:painted in false 6536: 6519:History of flags 6384: 6365: 6319: 6312: 6305: 6296: 6284:Media proprietor 6108:Public relations 6088:Public diplomacy 6073:Information (IT) 5952:Name recognition 5577:Media regulation 5559:Annoyance factor 5416:Call-out culture 5331:Crowd psychology 5305: 5298: 5291: 5282: 5077:Traffic analysis 5049:Signals (SIGINT) 4884:Asset recruiting 4852: 4843: 4823: 4816: 4809: 4800: 4410: 4403: 4396: 4387: 4275: 4094:MMR autism fraud 3977:On US elections 3911:Operation Toucan 3884: 3652: 3641: 3606:anti-vaccination 3554: 3501:Holocaust denial 3476:Bermuda Triangle 3462: 3396: 3325:black propaganda 3293:Potemkin village 3218:False accusation 3194:list of websites 3093: 3074: 3067: 3060: 3051: 3039: 3023: 3022: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2979:. Archived from 2966: 2960: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2885: 2876: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2855: 2849: 2834: 2828: 2825:The Boston Globe 2817:Saunders, Anne, 2815: 2809: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2746: 2738: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2682: 2676: 2657: 2651: 2637: 2621: 2615: 2596: 2590: 2583: 2577: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2469:. Archived from 2459: 2453: 2432: 2421: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2397: 2391: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2349:Business Insider 2339: 2333: 2332: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2260: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2179: 2171: 2165: 2164: 2142: 2133: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2107: 2101: 2100: 2098: 2096: 2074: 2068: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2010: 1999: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1968: 1959: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1939: 1933: 1932: 1912: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1846: 1837: 1836: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1727: 1721: 1720: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1669: 1663: 1648: 1642: 1641: 1636:. Archived from 1611: 1605: 1604: 1602: 1600: 1586: 1580: 1570: 1564: 1561: 1555: 1552: 1546: 1545:, 17 March 2008. 1537:Squires, Nick. " 1535: 1529: 1527: 1505: 1499: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1434: 1428: 1427: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1381: 1375: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1356: 1345: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1328: 1258:Black propaganda 1155:is a false flag 1135: 1044:" techniques). 910:Josiah Tongogara 871:Ronald Reid-Daly 828:Mau Mau uprising 628:Operation TPAJAX 531:Cuban Revolution 409:Seishirō Itagaki 6544: 6543: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6534: 6533: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6452: 6438: 6413: 6387: 6328: 6323: 6293: 6288: 6279:Media influence 6274:Media franchise 6259:Media democracy 6225: 6170: 6102: 6044: 6025:Loaded language 5976: 5893: 5810: 5762: 5652: 5581: 5563: 5490: 5431:Culture jamming 5380: 5314: 5309: 5279: 5274: 5239: 5177: 5163:Imagery (IMINT) 5141: 5102:Electro-optical 5093: 5092:Measurement and 5086: 5039: 5015:Numbers station 4944:Black operation 4908: 4870: 4832: 4827: 4797: 4792: 4766:Sting operation 4675:Black operation 4641: 4637:Limited hangout 4619: 4610: 4574:Numbers station 4526: 4520: 4497: 4437: 4419: 4414: 4384: 4375: 4280: 4261: 4240: 4228: 4113: 4109:Zinoviev letter 4059: 4033: 4017: 3941:Post-Soviet era 3935: 3896:Active Measures 3879: 3870: 3839: 3827: 3815: 3803: 3791: 3760: 3734: 3722: 3662: 3660:Jihadunspun.com 3646: 3627: 3552: 3528:New World Order 3496:Genocide denial 3467: 3452: 3401: 3386: 3308:Memetic warfare 3098: 3087: 3078: 3032: 3027: 3026: 3013: 3012: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2986: 2984: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2953: 2951: 2950:. 5 August 2019 2940: 2939: 2935: 2925: 2923: 2910: 2909: 2905: 2887: 2886: 2879: 2869: 2867: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2835: 2831: 2816: 2812: 2806:Concord Monitor 2802:Wayback Machine 2788: 2784: 2774: 2772: 2761: 2760: 2756: 2739: 2727: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2697: 2695: 2684: 2683: 2679: 2675:, 1999, p. 174. 2658: 2654: 2631: 2622: 2618: 2597: 2593: 2584: 2580: 2566:Covos-Day Books 2559: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2536: 2534: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2506: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2474: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2446:Wayback Machine 2433: 2424: 2414: 2412: 2400:Childs, Simon. 2399: 2398: 2394: 2384: 2382: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2341: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2283:(1 June 1992). 2275: 2274: 2270: 2253: 2252: 2248: 2238: 2236: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2199: 2197: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2153:. p. 115. 2144: 2143: 2136: 2126: 2124: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2094: 2092: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2044: 2043: 2039: 2029: 2027: 2012: 2011: 2002: 1992: 1990: 1970: 1969: 1962: 1952: 1950: 1941: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1880: 1879: 1875: 1865: 1863: 1848: 1847: 1840: 1825: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1775: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1729: 1728: 1724: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1671: 1670: 1666: 1660:Wayback Machine 1649: 1645: 1628:(323): 347–63. 1613: 1612: 1608: 1598: 1596: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1536: 1532: 1525: 1512: 1506: 1502: 1489: 1485: 1478: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1451: 1436: 1435: 1431: 1424: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1394: 1392: 1383: 1382: 1378: 1368: 1366: 1358: 1357: 1348: 1338: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1317: 1304:State terrorism 1249: 1244: 1215:Paulette Cooper 1189: 1173:outrage culture 1133: 1083: 1071:. According to 1057: 1009: 1003: 879:colour sergeant 861:), governed by 781:Operation Trust 745: 709: 672: 666: 636: 630: 625: 595: 575:John F. Kennedy 561:for a war with 544: 538: 533: 517:shelled Mainila 510: 482:Alfred Naujocks 478:war with Poland 472:attack against 455:Alfred Naujocks 448: 442: 437: 421:Mukden incident 393: 391:Mukden incident 387: 354: 348: 342: 330:Gustav III 310: 305: 299: 255:Operation Greif 247: 219: 189:St Nazaire Raid 99:deceive enemies 95: 45:Cuban Air Force 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6542: 6540: 6532: 6531: 6529:Flag practices 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6461: 6460: 6454: 6453: 6449:The Art of War 6446: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6421: 6419: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6399:Military dummy 6395: 6393: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6381:Ruse de guerre 6376: 6371: 6366: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6345:Disinformation 6342: 6336: 6334: 6330: 6329: 6324: 6322: 6321: 6314: 6307: 6299: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6250: 6249: 6239: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6180: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6156:Understatement 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6112: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6054: 6052: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6020:Indoctrination 6017: 6012: 6007: 6005:Disinformation 6002: 5997: 5992: 5986: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5969: 5967:Smear campaign 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5903: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5884:Sensationalism 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5824:Agenda-setting 5820: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5772: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5698:False document 5695: 5690: 5689: 5688: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5662: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5603:Catch and kill 5600: 5595: 5590: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5500: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5436:Demonstrations 5433: 5428: 5423: 5421:Cancel culture 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5402: 5401: 5390: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5310: 5308: 5307: 5300: 5293: 5285: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5272: 5267: 5266: 5265: 5255: 5249: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5200:Target-centric 5197: 5191: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5149: 5147: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5139: 5129: 5124: 5122:Radiofrequency 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5098: 5096: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5053: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4941: 4936: 4935: 4934: 4929: 4918: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4880: 4878: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4855: 4849: 4847:Human (HUMINT) 4840: 4834: 4833: 4828: 4826: 4825: 4818: 4811: 4803: 4794: 4793: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4639: 4634: 4629: 4623: 4621: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4530: 4528: 4527:communications 4522: 4521: 4519: 4518: 4517: 4516: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4464: 4463: 4453: 4446: 4444:Agent handling 4440: 4438: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4424: 4421: 4420: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4381: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4285: 4282: 4281: 4278: 4271: 4270: 4267: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4254: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4234: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4189:Habbush letter 4186: 4181: 4176: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4132: 4127: 4121: 4119: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4071:Bell Pottinger 4067: 4065: 4064:United Kingdom 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4027: 4023: 4022: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3975: 3974: 3973: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3945: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3892: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3828: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3804: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3727:Czechoslovakia 3724: 3723: 3721: 3720: 3713: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3701: 3699:PLA Unit 61398 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3656: 3648: 3647: 3644: 3637: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3625: 3620: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3574:by governments 3566: 3560: 3558: 3551: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3504: 3503: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3468: 3465: 3458: 3457: 3454: 3453: 3451: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3411:Disinformation 3406: 3403: 3402: 3399: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3317: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3215: 3214: 3213: 3203: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3141: 3140: 3139: 3132:Cognitive bias 3129: 3124: 3122:Cherry picking 3119: 3114: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3099: 3096: 3089: 3088: 3085:misinformation 3081:Disinformation 3079: 3077: 3076: 3069: 3062: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3031: 3030:External links 3028: 3025: 3024: 3006: 2994: 2961: 2933: 2903: 2877: 2850: 2829: 2810: 2782: 2754: 2725: 2705: 2677: 2652: 2648:available here 2616: 2591: 2578: 2553: 2544: 2511: 2504: 2484: 2454: 2422: 2392: 2362: 2334: 2327: 2309: 2295: 2268: 2246: 2207: 2166: 2160:978-0857711663 2159: 2134: 2102: 2069: 2037: 2000: 1960: 1948:Foreign Policy 1934: 1927: 1907: 1894:978-0984314447 1893: 1873: 1838: 1823: 1803: 1780: 1774:978-0275982782 1773: 1767:. p. 39. 1751: 1744: 1738:. p. 39. 1722: 1711:(3): 445–460. 1693: 1686: 1664: 1643: 1606: 1581: 1565: 1556: 1547: 1530: 1523: 1509:ruse de guerre 1500: 1483: 1476: 1456: 1449: 1429: 1422: 1402: 1376: 1346: 1319: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273:Fear mongering 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1188: 1185: 1082: 1079: 1056: 1055:Civilian usage 1053: 1005:Main article: 1002: 999: 918:United Nations 821:Medal of Honor 775:(OGPU) of the 754:assassinations 744: 741: 708: 705: 668:Main article: 665: 662: 632:Main article: 629: 626: 624: 621: 594: 591: 540:Main article: 537: 534: 532: 529: 509: 506: 444:Main article: 441: 438: 436: 433: 389:Main article: 386: 383: 360:published the 344:Main article: 341: 338: 309: 306: 298: 295: 279:War Department 246: 243: 234: 233: 230: 218: 215: 94: 93:Use in warfare 91: 55:in April 1961. 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6541: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6396: 6394: 6390: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6315: 6313: 6308: 6306: 6301: 6300: 6297: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6264:Media ecology 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6248: 6247:United States 6245: 6244: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6222: 6221:Telemarketing 6219: 6217: 6214: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6047: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6010:Fearmongering 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5979: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5896: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5849:False balance 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5807: 5806:Word of mouth 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5765: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5593:Broadcast law 5591: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5501: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5441:Deplatforming 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5346:False balance 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5306: 5301: 5299: 5294: 5292: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5263:organizations 5261: 5260: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5246: 5245:Dissemination 5242: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5144: 5137: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5030:Steganography 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5010:Interrogation 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4995:Eavesdropping 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4915: 4911: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4899:Direct action 4897: 4895: 4894:Covert action 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4865: 4864:organizations 4862: 4861: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4819: 4817: 4812: 4810: 4805: 4804: 4801: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4724:interrogation 4722: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4693: 4692:Eavesdropping 4690: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4595: 4594:Steganography 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4569:Invisible ink 4567: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4555: 4552: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4523: 4515: 4512: 4511: 4510: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4488:Sleeper agent 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4406: 4404: 4399: 4397: 4392: 4391: 4388: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4331:FactCheck.org 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4289:Fact-checking 4287: 4286: 4283: 4276: 4272: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4118:United States 4116: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3972: 3969: 3968: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3950: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3679:50 Cent Party 3677: 3676: 3675: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3638: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3498: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3473: 3470: 3463: 3459: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3437: 3435: 3434: 3430: 3428: 3427: 3423: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3407: 3404: 3397: 3393: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3283:Media culture 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3224: 3223:False dilemma 3221: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3209: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3186: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3134: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3104: 3101: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3068: 3063: 3061: 3056: 3055: 3052: 3046:at Wiktionary 3045: 3044: 3038: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3020: 3016: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2998: 2995: 2982: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2962: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2937: 2934: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2846: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2821: 2814: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2786: 2783: 2771: 2770: 2765: 2758: 2755: 2750: 2744: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2709: 2706: 2694: 2693: 2688: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2665:Roger Faligot 2662: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2644:2-7071-4747-8 2641: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2557: 2554: 2548: 2545: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2505:0-465-00312-5 2501: 2497: 2496: 2488: 2485: 2473:on 2 May 2017 2472: 2468: 2464: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2393: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2366: 2363: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2338: 2335: 2330: 2324: 2320: 2313: 2310: 2298: 2292: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2281:Morris, Benny 2278: 2272: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2258: 2250: 2247: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2211: 2208: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2170: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2106: 2103: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2080: 2073: 2070: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2047: 2041: 2038: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2001: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1974: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1949: 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