Kazakh famine of 1930–1933

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backwards. Although unmentioned in the magnum opus of the history of Kazakhstan (Istorija Kazakhstana s drevnejshyhvremen do nashihdnej, 2010: 284 et sqq.), the genocide argument currently found in certain textbooks were to some extent an empty exercise because it was not based on the international legal definition of genocide and did not go particularly far in terms of evidence. Instead, these arguments were consistent with the official Soviet contention that considered that the forced resignation of Goloshchyokin and his replacement by Mirzojan reveal that the entire episode was the work of a single man. Although it has been demonstrated and acknowledged that as political leader, Goloshchyokin played a key role in covering up the full extent of increases in mortality between 1930 and 1933, it remains there is scant evidence of a desire on the part of the government or particular individuals to exterminate the Kazakhs as a group, or even to identify compelling motives for such a deliberate strategy. Indeed, the Kazakh population never represented a political danger for the Soviet government, nor did the protest movement or secessionist leanings among the population at any time imperil Soviet territorial integrity.

1441:“In every wagon carrying merchandise there were Kazakh families wearing rags. They killed time picking lice from each other. The train stops in the middle of a parched region. Packed alongside the railway are camels, cotton that is unloaded and weighed, piles of wheat in the open air. From the Kazakh wagons comes a muted hammering sound repeated the length of the train. Intrigued, I discover women pounding grain in mortars and making flour. The children ask to be lowered to the ground; they are wearing a quarter of a shirt on their shoulders and have scabs on their heads. A woman replaces her white turban, her only piece of clothing not in tatters, and I see her greasy hair and silver earrings. Her infant, clutching her dress and with skinny legs from which his boney knees protrude; his small behind is devoid of muscle, a small mass of rubbery, much-wrinkled skin. Where do they come from? Where are they going?” 2324:"Kozybayev was named “a titan of national history” by his compatriots because he filled in many blank spots in the country’s history. He has conducted research on such sensitive issues, as mass famine in Kazakhstan in the 1930s due to forced collectivization .... Thanks to his research, published in the “Questions of History” Moscow magazine in 1989, the global community learned the truth about the Kazakh people’s tragedy in the 1930s, which the scientist described as a “great disaster.” Due to forced collectivization, which was implemented in the course of the Soviet first five-year plan, the Kazakh people began to starve and die – approximately 1.75 million people died." 1276:

to make room for 200,000 "special settlers" and Gulag prisoners, and some of the inadequate food supply in Kazakhstan went to such prisoners and settlers as well. Food aid to the Kazakhs was selectively distributed to eliminate class enemies. Many Kazakhs were denied food aid as local officials considered them unproductive, and food aid was provided to European workers in the country instead. Despite this, the Kazakhs received some measure of emergency food assistance from the state, though much of it did not arrive or was heavily delayed. Soviet officials sent medical personnel into Kazakhstan to inoculate 200,000 Kazakhs from smallpox.

982:, which marked a significant turning point. Russian authorities introduced changes that included the auctioning fertile land as an effort to lure Russian peasants in the region with a focus on agriculture, aiming to transform the traditional nomadic lifestyle. This alteration in land use and economic activities disrupted the delicate equilibrium that had been maintained by Kazakh pastoralists for millennia, resulting in decreased nomadic mobility and increased consumption of grain. These changes set the stage for further disruptions in the early 20th century, as the region grappled with the aftermath of the 1350:"My first memory is of the moon. It was autumn, cold and we were on the tramp somewhere. Wrapped up, the cart swayed beneath me. A sudden stop, and I saw in the black sky this enormous moon. It was full, round and shone brightly. I lay on my back and couldn’t tear myself from the sight for a long time. Turning over, I could clearly see on the ground some kind of thickets with stretched-out, crooked branches; there were a lot of them on both sides of the road: they were people. Stiff and silent they lay on the ground. … It was ’31 and we were then moving from a ramshackle aul to Turgai." 1506: 1426:

unknown. Starting from 1930 onward thousands of Kazakhs were shot dead as they attempted to flee to China, such as in one infamous killing of 18 to 19 Kazakhs by state border guards called the Karatal Affair which not only had killings but also the rape of several women and children occurring in the incident as noted by a doctor who analyzed the event. The flight of refugees was framed by authorities as a progressive occurrence of nomads moving away from their 'primitive' lifestyle. Famine refugees were suspected by

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pocket and had a wedding celebration instead of transferring them for a whole month while hundreds of Kazakhs starved. Shortly after his arrival, Mirzoyan announced that those who fled or stole grain were 'enemies' of the Soviet Union, and that the republic would take 'severe measures' against them. However, as Cameron notes, this definition could be extended to every starving refugee in the country. With this campaign, Mirzoyan pushed for the use of brutal punishment such as shootings.

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phenomenon of acculturation, or even deculturation, after the death of a third of the nomadic population. Because mortality was greater among the elderly during collectivization, the traditional bearers of collective memory were unable to tell their stories. Abruptly introduced into Soviet modernity--with its new forms of authority and its obsession with written records and bureaucracy--surviving elders no longer found conditions in which they could relate their experiences.

1714:. Instead of a broad definition that would have included Soviet crimes, Applebaum writes that genocide "came to mean the physical elimination of an entire ethnic group, in a manner similar to the Holocaust. The Holodomor does not meet that criterion ... This is hardly surprising, given that the Soviet Union itself helped shape the language precisely in order to prevent Soviet crimes, including the Holodomor, from being classified as 'genocide.'" 971:, particularly centered around a meat and dairy based diet. The nomadic lifestyle of Kazakhs involved the seasonal movement of herds across vast expanses of steppe as a response to the unpredictable availability of grazing resources, driven by the region's harsh climate and varied terrain. As a result, the reliance on meat from livestock, especially during the long and harsh winters, became a fundamental aspect of survival in the Kazakh steppe. 1525: 1054: 3792:"This work compares the process and practice of nineteenth-century American and Russian internal colonization—a form of contiguous, continental expansion, imperialism, and colonialism that incorporated indigenous lands and peoples. Both the republican United States and tsarist Russia exercised internal colonization, yet they remain neglected in many studies devoted to nineteenth-century imperialism and colonialism." 1267:

to confiscate from them. While nomadic Kazakhs, involved in pasturing, were forcefully placed in collective farms which resulted in decline of adequate grazing. This engagement was intended to make Kazakhs active participants in the transformation of Kazakh society. More than 10,000 bais may have been deported due to the campaign against them. The campaign corresponded to arrests of former members of the

1562:, as defined by the UN. In November 1991, the Kazakhstan parliament created a committee, chaired by Historian Manash Kozybayev, to investigate the famine and its causes. A year later, the commission reported out that “the magnitude of the tragedy was so monstrous that we can, with full moral authority, designate it as a manifestation of the politics of genocide." 1379:. Ethnic minorities in Kazakhstan were also significantly affected. The Ukrainian population in Kazakhstan decreased from 859,396 to 549,859 (a reduction of almost 36% of their population) while other ethnic minorities in Kazakhstan lost 12% and 30% of their populations. Ukrainians who died in Kazakhstan are sometimes considered victims of the 47: 1415:

train cars without food, heating, or water. 30% of the refugees died due to epidemics and hunger. Refugees that were repatriated were integrated into collective farms where many were too weak to work, and in a factory within Semipalatinsk half the refugees were fired within a few days with the other half being denied food rations.

877:, that the Kazakhs became the largest ethnicity group in Kazakhstan again. Before the famine, around 60% of the republic's residents were ethnic Kazakhs, a proportion greatly reduced to around 38% of the population after the famine. The famine is seen by some scholars to belong to the wider history of forced 3719:

Most Kazakh scholars believe that between 1.3 to 1.5 million Kazakhs died during the famine, which they frequently describe as genocide; but many western scholars disagree. Historian Sarah Isabel Cameron's meticulous research led her to conclude, 'there is no evidence to indicate that these plans for

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of Kazakhstan was noted as careful while speaking of the famine. However, an official inscription at the monument for the famine victims quoted him stating “the hunger that put an entire nation on the brink of disappearing, will never be forgotten”, which lends credence to the common speculation that

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It is also important to note that Kazakhstan's government maintains close relations with Russia today, which contributes to its official documentation and statements on the famine as genocide. This connection is based on lasting Soviet ties, intimidation, and the dependence of Kazakhstan's economy on

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In the West, the study of the Ukrainian famine has been supported by a very active Ukrainian diaspora community. They have endowed institutes across North America, and in the 1980s the Ukrainian famine was the subject of a US congressional investigation. There was no similar movement among the Kazakh

1718:“how the nations themselves were responsible for catastrophes” rather than the Soviet Union. However, Sarah Cameron stated that the Soviet decision to have Kazakhs serve as lower-level cadres was "a strategy purposefully designed to shatter old allegiances and sow violent conflict in the Kazakh Awul" 1717:

Historian Robert Kindler disagrees with calling the famine a genocide, commenting that doing so masks the culpability of lower-level cadres who were locally rooted among the Kazakhs themselves. Kindler goes as far as to say that speaking in terms of genocide with the Holodomor and the famine eclipses

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reported finding corpses "stacked like firewood" by the roadside in the Turgai district of Kazakhstan. Another first account testified that “It is not rare to meet a Kazakh family, fleeing from who knows where and dragging behind them a sled, on top of which lies the corpse of a child, who died along

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One third of Kazakh livestock was confiscated between 1930 and 1931. The livestock was transferred over to Moscow and Leningrad which in the opinion of Niccolò Pianciola shows that Kazakhs were consciously sacrificed to the imperial hierarchy of consumption. Some Kazakhs were expelled from their land

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states that it "seems to be an example of 'negligent genocide' which falls outside the scope of the UN Convention". Historian Isabelle Ohayon stated she found "no evidence nor motive for the deliberate starvation" of the Kazakh population, and concludes that the famine did not constitute a genocide

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In 1928, the Soviet authorities started a collectivization campaign to confiscate cattle from richer Kazakhs, who were called bai, known as Little October. The confiscation campaign was carried out by Kazakhs against other Kazakhs, and it was up to those Kazakhs to decide who was a bai and how much

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The demographic landscape also played a crucial role, as the population in the region was marked by a substantial number of nomadic Kazakh herders, contributing to the reliance on livestock for sustenance. The traditional practices of raising animals and consuming their meat were intricately linked

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In the early 1990s, some Kazakh historians (Abylkhozhin, Tatimov) characterized the famine as 'Goloshchyokin's genocide,' attributing sole responsibility for this tragedy to the first secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and accentuating his contempt towards the people, whom perceived as

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As the refugees fled the famine, the Soviet government made violent attempts to stop them. In one case, relief dealers placed food in the back of a truck to attract refugees, and then locked the refugees inside the truck and dumped them in the middle of the mountains; the fate of these refugees is

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Kazakhs who tried to escape were classified as class enemies and shot. The Soviet government also worked to repatriate them back to Soviet territory. This repatriation process could be brutal, as Kazakhs homes were broken into with both refugee and non-refugee Kazakhs being forcibly expelled onto

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However, Kazakh victims of the famine were widely discriminated against and expelled from virtually every sector of Kazakhstan's society. Soviet authorities referred to Kazakhs in private memos as "two-legged wolves". As famine raged Soviet authorities continued to procure grain from the Kazakhs,

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due to the 80% reduction of their herds, the impossibility of resuming pastoral activity in the immediate post-famine environment, and the repatriation and resettlement program undertaken by Soviet authorities. Despite this, Niccolò Pianciola says that the Soviet campaign to destroy nomadism was

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from Armenia, who was repressive particularly toward famine refugees and denied food aid to areas run by cadres who asked for more food for their regions using, in the words of Cameron, "teary telegrams"; in one instance under Mirzoyan's rule, a plenipotentiary shoved food aid documents into his

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First, the bearers of the memory of this story—the witnesses, the actors, the victims of the famine—traversed the Soviet century in obscurity by virtue of the ideological ban on discussing this tragic chapter in the collectivization campaign, but also due to the hiatus generated by the powerful

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Ohayon argues that the death of between a quarter and a third of the Kazakh population was not intentional. She finds neither evidence nor motive for the deliberate starvation of the Kazakh population concluding that the Kazakh famine did not constitute a genocide under international juridical

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Europeans in Kazakhstan had disproportionate power in the party, which has been argued as a cause of why indigenous nomads suffered the worst part of the collectivization process rather than the European sections of the country. Notably, many scholars have compared the internal colonization of

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The link between the genocide argument and the use of Kazakh language was made explicit by the historian Kaidar Aldazhumanov in an interview with Radio Azattyq in 2014. In this interview, Aldazhumanov suggests that foreign scholars and even Russian speakers at home do not regard the famine as

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When the Kazakh famine is mentioned in the scholarly literature, it's often referred to as a miscalculation by Stalin, a tragedy, a misunderstanding of cultures. But such depictions, I would argue, downplay the disaster's very violent nature, and seem to stress or imply that the Kazakh famine

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believes that the high expectations of central planners were sufficient to demonstrate their ignorance of the ultimate consequences of their actions. Wheatcroft views the state's policies during the famine as "criminal acts of negligence", though not as intentional murder or genocide. However

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Due to starvation, between 665,000 and 1.1 million Kazakhs fled the famine with their cattle outside Kazakhstan to China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, and the Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Russia in search of food and employment in the new

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Survival was a moral as well as a physical struggle. A woman doctor wrote to a friend in June 1933 that she had not yet become a cannibal, but was "not sure that I shall not be one by the time my letter reaches you." The good people died first. Those who refused to steal or to

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and repression of religious authorities and practices. Kazakhstan's livestock and grain were largely acquired between 1929 and 1932, with one-third of the republic's cereals being requisitioned and more than 1 million tons confiscated in 1930 to provide food for the cities.

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genocide because “they cannot read witnesses or evidence in the Kazakh language and rely fundamentally on research in Russian…. They do not want to know anything about research in the Kazakh language, nor do Russian researchers or Russian speakers living in Kazakhstan”

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returning confiscated property and destroying grain depots. Rebels also decapitated and cut the ears off of party members upon their takeover of said city. Other Kazakhs in the rebellions fought to reopen previous closed down mosques and free religious leaders.

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Ibragim Khisamutdinov, who lived through the famine as a young boy, saw starving Kazakhs dying in the streets on his way to school. More than 50 years later, he noted, "To this day, I can hear the desperate cries of the dying and their calls for help."

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explicitly advocating for a "repressive track" in the collection process due to procurements having "undergone sharp declines." In this vein within 1932, 32 out of the less than 200 districts in Kazakhstan that did not meet grain production quotas were

3119: 1505: 862:. Other research estimates that as many as 2.3 million died. A committee created by the Kazakhstan parliament chaired by Historian Manash Kozybayev concluded that the famine was "a manifestation of the politics of genocide", with 1.75 million victims. 1574:. Niccolò Pianciola argues that the Soviet authorities undertook a campaign of persecution against the nomads in the Kazakhs, believing that the destruction of the 'class' was a worthy sacrifice for the collectivization of Kazakhstan, and that from 1688:

under international juridical standards, and therefore labelling it was an "empty exercise". Maya Mehra concludes that the famine was caused by intentional act of violence on part of Stalin and the Soviet state, but it was not in the legal sense a

4288:"The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention. By Anton Weiss-Wendt. Critical Human Rights Series. Madison, Wis.: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2017. xil, 400 pp. Appendix. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $ 74.95, hard bound" 1524: 1297:, " a strategy explicitly modeled upon a technique that was used against starving Ukrainians, several regions of Kazakhstan were blacklisted. That essentially entraps starving Kazakhs in zones of death where no food could be found." In 1933, 1655:

that "Moscow’s sweeping program of state-led transformation clearly anticipates the cultural disruption of Kazakh society. And there's evidence to indicate that the Kazakh famine fits an expanded definition of genocide." She also

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In the years leading up to the famine, several interconnected factors played a crucial role in exacerbating the dire situation. The historical context was shaped by a complex interplay of demographic changes and traditional

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adopted by the Bolshevik government, coupled with the already challenging effects of severe intermittent drought, involved requisitioning grain from rural areas to support urban populations and export which led to the

3500: 1660:"I think if we look historically, we can find that we've often been quick to dismiss violence committed against mobile peoples. We rationalize it as part of a process necessary to civilize so-called backward peoples. 6171: 6789: 1326:

officials are reported to have drunk the blood of Kazakhs shot during the repression of the rebellions. Lower level cadres often disaffected and joined the rebellions to help fight against Red Army forces.

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themselves died. Those who gave food to others died. Those who refused to eat corpses died. Those who refused to kill their fellow man died. Parents who resisted cannibalism died before their children did.

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is now breaking apart, it is moving toward settled life, toward the use of hay fields, toward land cultivation; it is moving from worse land to better land, to state farms, to industry, to collective farm

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Moscow's sweeping program of state-led transformation clearly anticipates the cultural disruption of Kazakh society. And there's evidence to indicate that the Kazakh famine fits an expanded definition of

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Central and North Asian peoples, had similar treatment by the Soviet Union, and discrimination that continues to this day. Kazakhs and other Central Asians are still referred to in Russian sometimes as

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diaspora–I’m not aware of a single Kazakh studies chair or Kazakh studies institute in the West. The Kazakh famine did not become incorporated into the US Cold War narrative about the Soviet Union.

1622:. This is a man who does not stop the blood. This trait is especially noticeable in his nature: the executioner, cruel, with some elements of degeneration. In party life he was arrogant, was a 5507: 669: 6599: 1445:

One report from an officer in Siberia reads: “When one thinks of the extreme distress in which Kazakhs live here with us, one can easily imagine that things in Kazakhstan are much worse."

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in 1922, Kazakhstan was drawn into the sphere of Soviet authority. This transition placed the region under the influence of policies enacted by the Soviet government, particularly the

5276: 362: 6710: 5515: 5249: 6678: 1578:'s point of view on genocide all nomads of the Soviet Union were victims of the crime, not just the Kazakhs. However, other nomads within Soviet territory were also Indigenous 267: 1843: 5547: 3913: 1801: 244: 229: 1488:

quickly rejected after the famine, and that nomadism even experienced a resurgence during World War II after the transfer of livestock from Nazi-occupied territories.

6814: 6567: 5618: 6426: 3602:. Central Eurasian Reader: A Biennial Journal of Critical Bibliography and Epistemology of Central Eurasian Studies. Vol. 2. Klaus Schwarz Verlag. p. 295. 6809: 6206: 5642: 4903: 2866: 817: 6726: 5888: 5313: 2171:

History of Kazakhstan: The Most Important Stages and Scientific Problems. Textbook for the 11th Grade of Secondary School in the Social and Humanitarian Direction

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Thousands of Kazakhs violently resisted the collectivization campaign with weapons left over by the white army with 8 rebellions occurring in 1930 alone. In the

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is an oligarchic autocracy that would be in trouble if there was complete freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the rule of law." Only recently with the

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Abylkhozhin, B. Zh. et al. Iz istorii poli︠a︡kov v Kazakhstane : 1936-1956 gg. : sbornik dokumentov. Almaty: “Qazaqstan,” 2000. Print. UC Berkeley, Doe Library

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Qazaqstan tarïxı: Asa mañızdı kezeñderi men ğılımï mäseleleri. Jalpı bilim beretin mekteptiñ qoğamdık- gwmanïtarlıq bağıtındağı 11-sınıbına arnalğan oqwlıq

1437:, who traveled through Soviet Central Asia and China in the early 1930s, witnessed and wrote of viewing the firsthand effects of the repatriation campaign: 843: 788: 679: 78: 6819: 6686: 6633: 6254: 5602: 1246: 751: 253: 2308: 5880: 5256: 5045: 5014: 4958: 4937: 4911: 4871: 4817: 4783: 4344: 3514:

Richter, James (May 2020). "Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan".

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officials of maintaining counterrevolutionary, bai, and kulak 'tendencies', due to some refugees engaging in crime in the republics they arrived in.

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has described the famine as a "criminal Stalinist ethnic policy". A genocide remembrance day is commenced on 31 May for the victims of the famine.

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Sarah Cameron identified the lack of a strong Kazakh diaspora as part of the reason why there's been no international recognition of the genocide:

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Payne, Matthew J. (2011). "Seeing like a soviet state: settlement of nomadic Kazakhs, 1928–1934". In Alexopoulos, Golgo; Hessler, Julie (eds.).

5555: 3972: 3501:"Message of the Turkic Council Secretary General on the occasion of the Remembrance Day of the Victims of Political Repressions and Starvation" 1694: 5345: 2734: 1630:. Goloshchekin did not have time to appear in Kazakhstan, as he stated that there is no Soviet power, and it is "necessary" to orchestrate a " 6289: 5483: 4736: 4703: 4088: 4008: 3848: 3771: 3704: 3615: 3572: 3447: 3204: 3179: 3061: 2931: 2541: 2488: 2251: 2178: 1113: 5847: 4258: 6804: 6718: 6238: 5767: 4139: 1015: 878: 184: 117: 885:

entire districts from trading with other areas and shooting thousands of Kazakhs dead during attempts to flee across the border to China.

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Weiss-Wendt, Anton. The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention. United Kingdom, University of Wisconsin Press, 2017.

4026: 2153:Запомнил и долю казахов в пределах своей республики – 28%. А за тридцать лет до того они составляли у себя дома уверенное большинство. . 810: 736: 649: 5523: 5087: 4593: 6774: 6769: 5943: 5563: 3235: 2641: 2616: 2566: 2513: 2459:

Ertz, Simon (2005). "The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives".

2110: 1427: 783: 761: 746: 741: 307: 6649: 6607: 4982: 4401: 1289:, meaning that they were prohibited from trading with other villages. As Historian Sarah Cameron describes it in an interview with 4511: 1765:

Russian imports, especially basic items such as food and clothing, and 40% of Kazakhstan's market needs are covered by Russia. As

3579:... has found no evidence in the archives of Stalin dreaming up a deliberate policy to exterminate the Kazakhs; he describes the 1848: 1774: 1531: 1515: 1175: 979: 689: 630: 302: 6829: 5695: 5670: 4656:

Kozybaev, M. K. "Nasilʹstvennaia kollektivizatsiia i golod v Kazakhstane 1931-33 gg.: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov." (1998).

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Kazakhstan included some of the regions affected severely by famine, percentage-wise, although more people died in famine in

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Stalinismo di frontiera. Colonizzazione agricola, sterminio dei nomadi and costruzione statale in Asia centrale (1905–1936)

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Pianciola, Niccolò (2004). "Famine in the steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934".

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Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

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Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan,

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and part of the Soviet famine of 1932–1933. Soviet authorities engaged in repressive policies during the famine such as

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Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan

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Famine, Memory, and Politics in the Post-Soviet Space: Contrasting Echoes of Collectivization in Ukraine and Kazakhstan

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Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (August 2020). "The Complexity of the Kazakh Famine: Food Problems and Faulty Perceptions".

1343: 4721:, Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press in Association with the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1986. 1457:. This ranged from consuming corpses to acts of murder in order to eat. Similar acts occurred during the parallel 6466: 6434: 6316: 6199: 1232: 1133: 297: 1671:

Pastoral nomadism is not a backwards way of life, but rather it was a highly sophisticated and adaptive system.

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industrialization sites of Western Siberia. These refugees took an estimated 900,000 head of cattle with them.

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Central Asia on Display: Proceedings of the VIIth Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies

2829:"Sacrificing the Qazaqs: The Stalinist Hierarchy of Consumption and the Great Famine of 1931–33 in Kazakhstan" 858:. An estimated 38 to 42 percent of all Kazakhs died, the highest percentage of any ethnic group killed by the 3425:

Applebaum, Anne. Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine. United Kingdom, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2017.

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from 1927 to 1928, which was a period of extreme cold in which cattle were starved and were unable to graze.

6185: 6178: 5169: 731: 6824: 6694: 6282: 6231: 6121: 5864: 5403: 5289: 3303:"Institute of History and Ethnology named after Ch. Ch. Valikhanov hosted scientific-practical conference" 1703: 1138: 1123: 1098: 906: 873:; it caused the deaths or migration of large numbers of people, and it was not until the 1990s, after the 699: 522: 51:

The cube at the site for the future monument for victims of the famine (dated 1931–1933) in the center of

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La sédentarisation des Kazakhs dans l'URSS de Staline. Collectivization et changement social (1928–1945)

4717: 3758:, Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization, University Press of Colorado, pp. 171–204, 2860: 2270: 1833: 1755:

in Kazakh culture, and wrote of disappearing famine accounts and lack of public narrative and awareness:

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European Society for Central Asian Studies (2004). Katschnig, Julia; Rasuly-Paleczek, Gabriele (eds.).

4542: 4373: 3835:, Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization, University Press of Colorado, pp. 33–68, 2358:

Pianciola, Niccolò (August 2020). "Environment, Empire, and the Great Famine in Stalin's Kazakhstan".

2009: 1818:

director Aisultan Seitov. The movie follows a gravedigger facing a difficult choice during the famine.

6742: 6641: 6224: 6017: 5996: 5363: 5217: 5063: 5022: 4800: 1781: 1611: 1518:

and the high estimate of 2.3 million deaths. Other scholars estimate an amount of 1.5 million deaths.

1402: 1376: 1310: 1298: 1158: 1073: 1007: 930: 926: 121: 896:; however, some argue otherwise. In Kazakhstan, it is sometimes termed as Goloshchyokin's genocide ( 6559: 6261: 6128: 6077: 5783: 5679: 5650: 5610: 5594: 5395: 5241: 5193: 5159: 5151: 5120: 4895: 4594:"How Russia's Invasion of Ukraine has Affected Kazakh Politics - Foreign Policy Research Institute" 4112: 1805: 1722: 1707: 1559: 1213: 1118: 964: 562: 3914:"Russia's draft is targeting Crimean Tatars and other marginalized groups, according to activists" 3720:

violent modernization ever became transformed into a desire to eliminate the Kazakhs as a group'.

6084: 6070: 5831: 5687: 5539: 5225: 5112: 5102: 4345:"Drachewych on Kindler, 'Stalin's Nomads: Power and Famine in Kazakhstan' | H-Socialisms | H-Net" 4317: 4162: 4128:

1906-1935, Stanford University. Acquired by the Hoover Institution Library & Archives in 1966

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standards (365). ... Overall the study impresses with its comprehensive and original analysis.

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he was trying to appease Moscow in fear of retribution for recognizing the famine as genocide.

17: 6386: 6362: 6049: 5975: 5896: 5491: 5387: 5371: 5329: 5201: 5185: 4990: 4950: 4863: 4805: 4732: 4699: 4486: 4309: 4236: 4094: 4084: 4004: 3998: 3921: 3844: 3767: 3700: 3611: 3568: 3564: 3531: 3453: 3443: 3435: 3388: 3200: 3175: 3058: 2927: 2923: 2637: 2612: 2562: 2537: 2509: 2484: 2423: 2247: 2216: 2174: 2106: 1794: 1462: 1454: 1222: 1153: 1068: 1034: 1018:

of agriculture, a practice which involved in integrating private landholdings and labour into

987: 639: 552: 347: 4188: 3378: 2659:"'The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan' by Sarah Cameron" 1422:

stated that "One-sixth of the indigenous population left their historical homeland forever."

865:

The famine began in the winter of 1930, a full year before the famine in Ukraine, termed the

6522: 6506: 6394: 6192: 6148: 6063: 5792: 5775: 5475: 5467: 5451: 5177: 5079: 5071: 4756:

Crucifying the Orient: Russian orientalism and the colonization of Caucasus and Central Asia

4712: 4299: 4259:"Historian Anne Applebaum Details Stalin's War Against Ukraine: 'I Believe It Was Genocide'" 4226: 4154: 3836: 3810: 3759: 3692: 3603: 3583:

instead as the tragic result of Soviet 'ineptitude and ignorance of the Kazakh way of life'.

3523: 3384: 3129: 2840: 2799: 2695: 2606: 2413: 2367: 2276: 2235: 1607: 1600: 1583: 1555: 1367:, Kazakhstan lost more than half of its population in 10–15 years due to the actions of the 1313:

15,000 rebels resisted between 1929 and 1931. In one rebellion Kazakh took over the city of

1203: 1165: 1108: 512: 331: 1534:, 1897–1970. The number of Kazakhs and Ukrainians decreased in the 1930s due to the famine. 978:

However, the destruction of nomadic pastoralism had its roots in the 19th century with the

869:, which was at its worst in the years 1931–1933. The famine made Kazakhs a minority in the 6702: 6418: 6354: 6330: 6139: 5872: 5839: 5759: 5443: 5411: 4838: 3146: 1906: 1892: 1331: 1083: 1053: 950: 945: 929:, who was the First Secretary of the Communist Party in the Kazakh ASSR, to emphasize its 921: 897: 143: 4215:"A nton W eiss -W endt . The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention " 4214: 2199:

Pianciola, Niccolò (Fall 2001). "The Collectivization Famine in Kazakhstan, 1931–1933".

6482: 6091: 6056: 5743: 5735: 5711: 5296: 5143: 5135: 4519: 1853: 1766: 1699: 1684: 1680: 1579: 1575: 1496: 1360: 1302: 1259:

Signs of the Kazakh famine began emerging in the late 1920s, with the factor being the

1093: 991: 893: 659: 612: 189: 2586:[Population of Kazakhstan from late 19th to early 20th centuries] (in Russian) 2309:"Kazakhstan Celebrates 90 Years Since Birth of Outstanding Historian Manash Kozybayev" 6763: 6514: 6378: 6370: 6338: 5904: 5499: 4321: 3625: 3543: 2813: 2707: 2435: 2401: 2379: 2236: 1434: 1268: 1011: 602: 582: 542: 179: 4166: 6490: 6024: 5934: 2735:"The Kazakh Famine of 1930-33 and the Politics of History in the Post-Soviet Space" 2042:"The Kazakh Famine of 1930–33 and the Politics of History in the Post-Soviet Space" 1752: 1484: 1471: 1418:

Professor K.M. Abzhanov, Director of the Institute of History and Ethnology of the

1368: 1003: 968: 851: 592: 68: 2699: 2371: 4726: 4693: 3803:“The Touch of Civilization”: Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization 3688:"The Touch of Civilization": Comparing American and Russian Internal Colonization 3686: 3558: 3236:"Kazakhstan's 1930s Famine Gets Dramatic but Imperfect Portrayal | Wilson Center" 2917: 2478: 6402: 6114: 6107: 5719: 4846: 2534:

Eurasian Environments: Nature and Ecology in Imperial Russian and Soviet History

870: 572: 234: 2461:

Zhe: Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies

6530: 6410: 5989: 5950: 5531: 5427: 5006: 4158: 3858: 3828: 3781: 3751: 3629: 2844: 2804: 2787: 1710:, as extensively documented by scholars such as Anton Weiss-Wendt in his book 224: 56: 4490: 4313: 4240: 4098: 3925: 3535: 3457: 2427: 5968: 5957: 5435: 5094: 3714: 2506:

On the Trail of Genghis Khan: An Epic Journey Through the Land of the Nomads

2173:] (illustrated ed.). Almaty: Mektep Publishing House. p. 304. 1673:

Nor can the famine itself be attributed to a simple miscalculation by Stalin

1623: 1551: 1545: 1458: 1380: 1208: 866: 199: 4619: 3840: 3814: 3763: 2220: 4078: 3607: 1800:, director Marina Kunarova, and selected as the Kazakhstani entry for the 1405:, First Secretary of the Kazakh Regional Committee of the Communist Party 6031: 6010: 5982: 5927: 4854: 4792: 4666: 4304: 4287: 4231: 3696: 3302: 1770: 1751:

Historian Isabelle Ohayon, among other scholars, noted the importance of

1689: 1619: 1566:

Kazakhs as similar to American policies towards Native Americans such as

1198: 1042: 889: 4695:

The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan

3527: 3133: 3055:

The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan

2280: 2212: 1645:

The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan

5037: 3946: 2071: 1372: 855: 532: 450: 139: 2634:

Hammer, Sickle, and Soil: The Soviet Drive to Collectivize Agriculture

2632:

Daly, Jonathan (2017). Written at Leland Stanford Junior University.

892:

perpetrated by the Soviet state, under the definition outlined by the

6098: 5727: 1281: 839: 477: 52: 4718:

The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine

4189:"An Investigation of Intent and Genocide in the 1930s Kazakh Famine" 2418: 2147:[Alma-Ata. Friendship of Peoples is a Reliable Stronghold]. 1461:, as Ukrainians and Kazakhs were starved under the same tactics. As 999:, with an estimated 400,000 to 2 million people dying in the event. 46: 6735:

Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al

2402:"The Kazakh Famine of 1930–33: Current Research and New Directions" 1483:

Two thirds of the Kazakh survivors of the famine were successfully

5663: 5321: 3973:"In Russia, Indigenous land defenders face intimidation and exile" 3947:"Russia - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs" 1571: 1567: 1318: 1314: 468: 239: 4645:

Kazakhstan in the Making: Legitimacy, symbols, and social changes

4402:"Kazakhstan Walks Diplomatic Tightrope Between Russia and Europe" 4053:"Peter Pomerantsev | 'Russia for Russians' · LRB 5 November 2013" 1495:

A monument for the famine's victims was constructed in 2017. The

888:

Some historians describe the famine as legally recognizable as a

4620:"Kazakh President laid flowers to monument to victims of famine" 4479:"Russia Takes Censorship to New Extremes, Stifling War Coverage" 1679:

Regarding the legal definition of genocide as determined by the

1603:: Чурка), a racial slur that means "darkie" or "block of wood". 1323: 486: 459: 6664: 6545: 6313: 5815: 5578: 5273: 4934: 4814: 4765: 4080:

Nation, language, Islam : Tatarstan's sovereignty movement

2559:

Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus

1453:

Some of the starving became so desperate that they resorted to

1808:. The movie follows an eagle hunter trying to save his family. 1712:

The Soviet Union and the Gutting of the UN Genocide Convention

1394: 1260: 4027:"Central Asian migrants succeed in Russia despite xenophobia" 3147:"Во время голода в Казахстане погибло 40 процентов населения" 1935:"Kazakhstan Unveils Monument To Victims Of Soviet-Era Famine" 1375:

in Kazakhstan dropped from 3,637,612 in 1926 to 2,181,520 in

4761: 1664:

originated from natural causes, which of course it didn't.

975:

to cultural norms and historical traditions of Kazakhstan.

2584:"Население Казахстана в конце XIX-первой четверти XX века" 842:

during which approximately 1.5 million people died in the

6600:

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

4568:"The Risks of Kazakhstan's Slow Drift From Russia | RANE" 4000:

Nation, Language, Islam: Tatarstan's Sovereignty Movement

3218: 3216: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3070: 2945: 2943: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2099:

Sotsial'naya obuslovlennost' demograficheskikh protsessov

6790:

1930s in the Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic

4477:

Troianovski, Anton; Safronova, Valeriya (4 March 2022).

3328: 3326: 3324: 2919:

Law and the Making of the Soviet World: The Red Demiurge

2234:

Getty, J. Arch; Manning, Roberta Thompson, eds. (1993).

1864:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4193:

Minnesota Undergraduate Research & Academic Journal

1371:. The two Soviet censuses indicated that the number of 3652:"The Kazakh Famine: The Beginnings of Sedentarization" 3383:. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. 2001. 2165:

Kasymbayev, Zh; Koigeldiev, M.; Toleubaev, A. (2007).

1983:"The Kazakh Famine: The Beginnings of Sedentarization" 1777:

has there been notable disconnect between the allies.

142:

reduced from 60% to 38% of the republic's population;

6711:

International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine

5250:

Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction

3258: 3256: 2480:

Devastation Volume I: The European Rimlands 1912–1938

6679:

International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur

2483:(E-book ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2014:

Insights: Scholarly Work at the John W. Kluge Center

1706:

is overly narrow due to the Soviet influence on the

911: 6306: 6216: 6138: 6041: 5919: 4799: 3805:, University Press of Colorado, 2017, pp. 171–204. 3560:

Dark Shadows: Inside the Secret World of Kazakhstan

1844:

Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union

1014:. At the heart of these policies was the drive for 150: 135: 127: 112: 104: 96: 88: 74: 64: 31: 3440:Bloodlands : Europe between Hitler and Stalin 2681: 2679: 2636:. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press. 3593: 3591: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 1558:as to whether or not the famine fits in with the 1346:, many testimonies from survivors are documented: 990:. The situation was exacerbated by the policy of 6568:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 4428:"How Stalin Hid Ukraine's Famine From the World" 2561:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 203–204. 2194: 2192: 2190: 941:The famine is commonly known as the Asharshylyk. 5508:German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs 4728:Stalin's Nomads: Power and Famine in Kazakhstan 4083:. Budapest: Central European University Press. 2395: 2393: 2391: 2389: 1391: 1363:, which began a year later. In addition to the 2788:"Ukraine and Kazakhstan: Comparing the Famine" 1976: 1941:. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 31 May 2017 5801:Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War 4777: 4543:"Kazakhstan Is Breaking Out of Russia's Grip" 3005:Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies 2557:Dawisha, Karen; Barrott, Bruce, eds. (1997). 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1669:there's nothing inevitable about this famine. 1628:He did not count the Kazakhs as people at all 1240: 811: 387: 8: 3691:. University Press of Colorado. p. 47. 3167:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 2142:"Alma-Ata. Druzhby narodov nadezhnyy oplot" 1900: 848:Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic 36: 6687:International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh 6427:Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials 4731:. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press. 4374:"The Kazakh Famine of the 1930s | Insights" 2865:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 ( 2781: 2779: 844:Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic 131:38-42% of the entire Kazakh population died 6661: 6634:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 6542: 6310: 5812: 5575: 5270: 4931: 4811: 4784: 4770: 4762: 4750:(in French). Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose. 2532:Breyfogle, Nicholas B. (6 November 2018). 2125:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2103:Social Conditions of Demographic Processes 1675:as such depictions would seem to suggest." 1247: 1233: 1052: 1029: 818: 804: 405: 394: 380: 161: 45: 28: 5257:Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars 4303: 4230: 4140:"Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33" 3442:. New York: Basic Books. pp. 21–58. 3356:TsGARK f. 44, op. 12, d. 492, ll. 54, 58. 2803: 2417: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2035: 2033: 2031: 1606:A historian of the revolution and author 3801:Sabol, Steven. “Internal Colonization.” 2827:Pianciola, Niccolò (28 September 2022). 2307:Bulatkulova, Saniya (16 November 2021). 59:. The monument itself was built in 2017. 6815:Human rights abuses in the Soviet Union 5129:Indigenous peoples in the United States 4257:Golitsina, Natalya (19 November 2018). 3912:Kramer, Andrew E. (26 September 2022). 3469: 3467: 3410: 3389:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.17474 3365: 3344: 3332: 3286: 3274: 3222: 3097: 3080: 3038: 2970: 2949: 2903: 2891: 2879: 2770: 2758: 2720: 2406:East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 2338: 2144:Алма-Ата. Дружбы народов надежный оплот 1929: 1927: 1923: 1885: 1721:While serving as a Kluge Fellow at the 1501: 1185: 1060: 1041: 419: 408: 339: 252: 214: 171: 164: 6810:Genocide of indigenous peoples in Asia 4367: 4365: 4051:Pomerantsev, Peter (5 November 2013). 3670: 3658:. Paris Institute of Political Studies 3650:Ohayon, Isabelle (28 September 2013). 3421: 3419: 3297: 3295: 3262: 3049: 3047: 2858: 2605:Everett-Heath, Tom (8 December 2003). 2582:Krasnobaeva, Nelli Leonidovna (2004). 2527: 2525: 2302: 2300: 2290: 2288: 2265: 2263: 2242:. Cambridge University Press. p. 2118: 1989:. Paris Institute of Political Studies 1981:Ohayon, Isabelle (28 September 2013). 6290:Mass killings under communist regimes 4396: 4394: 4281: 4279: 4252: 4250: 4208: 4206: 4003:. Central European University Press. 3745: 3743: 3645: 3643: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2472: 2470: 2454: 2452: 1905: 1114:Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders 949: 920: 7: 6800:20th-century disasters in Kazakhstan 6239:Terminology of the Armenian genocide 4758:. Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1997. 4372:Steinhauer, Jason (24 August 2016). 4113:"Burtsev (Vladimir L'vovich) papers" 2400:Cameron, Sarah (10 September 2016). 2275:, Nationalities Papers, 2019, P. 1 2008:Steinhauer, Jason (24 August 2016). 1540:Assessment, legality, and censorship 1465:wrote of the Soviet-imposed famines: 1010:implemented under the leadership of 922:[ɡɐləˌʂʲokʲinɡʲinɐˈt͡sɪdɪ̞̃] 879:collectivization in the Soviet Union 6475:War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia 4541:Umarov, Temur (16 September 2022). 4426:Applebaum, Anne (13 October 2017). 3997:Faller, Helen M. (1 January 2011). 3199:. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 236. 2786:Pianciola, Niccolò (23 July 2018). 2608:Central Asia: Aspects of Transition 2070:Pannier, Bruce (28 December 2007). 1695:Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine 1643:Historian Sarah Cameron, author of 1614:, characterized him in his writing: 650:Governor-Generalship of the Steppes 6785:1933 disasters in the Soviet Union 6780:1932 disasters in the Soviet Union 3145:Рыскожа, Болат (25 January 2012). 2536:. University of Pittsburgh Press. 2238:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 2072:"Kazakhstan: The Forgotten Famine" 854:, of whom 1.3 million were ethnic 25: 6820:Human rights abuses in Kazakhstan 4453:"Holodomor - Denial and Silences" 3563:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 2078:. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 784:Outline of Kazak military history 4213:Randall, Amy E. (1 April 2019). 2833:Journal of Central Asian History 2733:Cameron, Sarah (26 March 2012). 2140:Leon, Koval (31 December 2010). 2040:Volkava, Elena (26 March 2012). 2010:"The Kazakh Famine of the 1930s" 1849:Russian conquest of Central Asia 1523: 1504: 980:Russian conquest of Central Asia 954:, meaning 'famine' or 'hunger'. 430: 5088:Indigenous peoples in Australia 4263:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 3598:Dudoignon, Stéphane A. (2021). 3475:"Remembering the Kazakh Famine" 3001:"Remembering the Kazakh Famine" 1910:; meaning 'famine' or 'hunger'. 1829:Ethnic demography of Kazakhstan 1802:Best International Feature Film 875:dissolution of the Soviet Union 18:Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33 6004:Genocide of indigenous peoples 5603:Indigenous peoples in Paraguay 4904:Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate 4219:The American Historical Review 3503:. Turkic Council. 31 May 2021. 3401:Kindler, Robert, 2018, pg. 199 2999:Cameron, Sarah (20 May 2020). 2982:Kindler, Robert, 2018, pg. 197 2657:Bird, Joshua (13 April 2019). 2105:]. Alma-Ata. p. 124. 1874:Genocide of indigenous peoples 1725:for her research on the famine 1647:, stated in an interview with 1420:Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences 1002:With the establishment of the 368:Ukrainian language suppression 1: 6719:Ukraine v. Russian Federation 5023:Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate 4138:Ellman, Michael (June 2007). 3029:Kindler, Robert, 2018, p. 193 2792:Contemporary European History 2700:10.1080/14623528.2020.1807143 2372:10.1080/14623528.2020.1807140 1769:explains current denialism, " 1514:displaying migrations out of 789:Bibliography of Kazak history 230:Purges of the Communist Party 6650:Croatia–Serbia genocide case 6451:Nuremberg Military Tribunals 6297:Anti-communist mass killings 5031:Indigenous peoples in Canada 4967:Indigenous peoples in Brazil 4698:. Cornell University Press. 3153:– via rus.azattyq.org. 3057:. Cornell University Press. 2688:Journal of Genocide Research 2360:Journal of Genocide Research 1560:legal definition of genocide 146:of the nomadic Kazakh people 6805:Famines in the Soviet Union 6584:Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal 5752:National Population Program 4187:Mehra, Maya (15 May 2022). 3897:Pianciola, Niccolò (2009). 3829:"The Sioux and the Kazakhs" 1901: 1775:invasion of Ukraine in 2022 1530:The major ethnic groups in 1338:In scholar James Richter's 912: 6846: 6499:Frankfurt Auschwitz trials 6443:Hamburg Ravensbrück trials 6269:Effects on young survivors 5704:Sabra and Shatila massacre 2508:. Bloomsbury. p. 33. 1859:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 1839:Kazakh famine of 1919-1922 1543: 1512:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 1365:Kazakh famine of 1919–1922 1344:Cambridge University Press 997:Kazakh famine of 1919–1922 860:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 832:Kazakh famine of 1930–1933 195:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 155:Kazakh famine of 1919–1922 6673: 6554: 6467:Ulm Einsatzkommando trial 6435:Supreme National Tribunal 6325: 5826: 5589: 5284: 5046:Residential school system 4945: 4825: 4746:Ohayon, Isabelle (2006). 4618:INFORM.KZ (31 May 2012). 4159:10.1080/09668130701291899 4077:Faller, Helen M. (2011). 3833:The Touch of Civilization 3756:The Touch of Civilization 2845:10.1163/27728668-12340008 2805:10.1017/S0960777318000309 2445:– via ResearchGate. 2201:Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1896: 1742:James Richter highlights: 901: 44: 37: 6775:1933 in the Soviet Union 6770:1932 in the Soviet Union 5338:Christians in Diyarbekir 4725:Kindler, Robert (2018). 4647:. Lexington Books, 2016. 3817:. Accessed 7 March 2023. 3164:Snyder, Timothy (2012). 2611:. Routledge. p. 7. 2143: 1698:, Pulitzer Prize winner 1330:Prominent Kazakh writer 1194:Compulsory sterilization 6276:Politics of recognition 4831:Destruction of Carthage 4692:Cameron, Sarah (2018). 4643:Bigozhin, Ulan, et al. 4378:The Library of Congress 3752:"Internal Colonization" 3600:Central Eurasian Reader 3557:Lillis, Joanna (2018). 3170:. Hachette UK. p. 3053:Cameron, Sarah (2018). 2961:Cameron (2018), p. 175. 2097:Tatimov, M. B. (1989). 6830:Persecution of Kazakhs 6727:South Africa v. Israel 6695:Rohingya genocide case 6232:Names of the Holocaust 5696:Chittagong Hill Tracts 5404:Kinder der Landstrasse 5290:Late Ottoman genocides 3880:Cahiers du monde russe 3841:10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6.5 3827:Sabol, Steven (2017), 3815:10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6.9 3764:10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6.9 3750:Sabol, Steven (2017), 3734:Writing the Stalin Era 3685:Sabol, Steven (2017). 2916:Newton, Scott (2014). 2847:(inactive 27 May 2024) 1762: 1749: 1736: 1704:definition of genocide 1677: 1636: 1476: 1443: 1407: 1352: 700:Republic of Kazakhstan 254:Ideological repression 128:Effect on demographics 108:665,000 to 1.1 million 6592:Bosnian genocide case 6246:Holocaust terminology 5889:Christians under ISIS 5627:1966 anti-Igbo pogrom 5056:1740 Batavia massacre 4880:Harrying of the North 3608:10.1515/9783112400395 3123:Nationalities Papers, 2922:. Routledge. p. 2663:Asian Review of Books 2477:Levene, Mark (2018). 2016:. Library of Congress 1834:History of Kazakhstan 1757: 1744: 1731: 1658: 1640:Stephen G. Wheatcroft 1616: 1570:, who were similarly 1467: 1439: 1348: 918:Kazakh pronunciation: 6795:20th-century famines 6743:Nicaragua v. Germany 6642:Khmer Rouge Tribunal 6018:Utilitarian genocide 5997:Transgender genocide 5364:Osage Indian murders 5064:Great Gypsy Round-up 4305:10.1017/slr.2018.360 4286:Hurst, Mark (2018). 3697:10.2307/j.ctt1mtz7g6 3516:Nationalities Papers 3240:www.wilsoncenter.org 3118:Richter, J. (2020). 3007:. Harvard University 2739:www.wilsoncenter.org 1907:[ɑʃɑrʃəˈɫəq] 1782:Nursultan Nazarbayev 1612:Filipp Goloshchyokin 1479:Aftermath and legacy 1403:Filipp Goloshchyokin 1311:Mangyshlak Peninsula 1299:Filipp Goloshchyokin 1129:Recognition politics 1074:Genocides in history 1008:first five-year plan 951:[ɑʃɑrʃɯˈɫɯq] 927:Filipp Goloshchyokin 834:, also known as the 363:Repressions of Poles 358:Population transfers 216:Political repression 122:Filipp Goloshchyokin 6129:Settler colonialism 6078:Forced assimilation 5784:Srebrenica massacre 5556:Chechens and Ingush 5314:Thracian Bulgarians 5160:Sand Creek massacre 5121:Siege of Tripolitsa 4872:Ancestral Puebloans 4147:Europe-Asia Studies 4025:Mirovalev, Mansur. 3971:Mirovalev, Mansur. 3528:10.1017/nps.2019.17 3134:10.1017/nps.2019.17 2906:, pp. 176–177. 2281:10.1017/nps.2019.17 1806:93rd Academy Awards 1789:Portrayals in media 1723:Library of Congress 1708:Genocide Convention 1667:I show in my book, 1214:Forced assimilation 986:and the subsequent 965:nomadic pastoralism 913:Goloşekin genotsidı 846:, then part of the 631:Post-nomadic period 353:National operations 245:Punitive psychiatry 172:Economic repression 167:in the Soviet Union 6608:Slobodan Milošević 6459:Erich von Manstein 6071:Extermination camp 5832:Effacer le tableau 5595:Hyderabadi Muslims 5540:Nanshitou Massacre 5524:Muslims and Croats 5226:Hamidian massacres 5113:Al-Jawazi massacre 5103:Stolen Generations 4806:list by death toll 4483:The New York Times 4349:networks.h-net.org 4232:10.1093/ahr/rhz092 3918:The New York Times 2504:Cope, Tim (2013). 1869:Indigenous Peoples 1649:Harvard University 1618:This is a typical 1301:was replaced with 1291:Harvard University 1020:collective farming 984:Russian Revolution 902:Голощёкин геноциді 6757: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6660: 6659: 6541: 6540: 6387:Euthanasia trials 6307:Legal proceedings 6050:Cultural genocide 5976:Cultural genocide 5915: 5914: 5848:Masalit massacres 5811: 5810: 5712:Sri Lankan Tamils 5619:Arabs in Zanzibar 5574: 5573: 5492:Three Alls policy 5269: 5268: 5202:Putumayo genocide 4930: 4929: 4738:978-0-8229-8614-0 4705:978-1-5017-3044-3 4090:978-1-4416-9462-1 4031:www.aljazeera.com 4010:978-963-9776-84-5 3977:www.aljazeera.com 3850:978-1-60732-549-9 3773:978-1-60732-549-9 3736:. pp. 59–86. 3706:978-1-60732-550-5 3617:978-3-11-240039-5 3574:978-1-78673-451-8 3449:978-0-465-00239-9 3206:978-3-8258-8309-6 3181:978-0-4650-3297-6 3062:978-1-5017-3044-3 2933:978-1-317-92977-2 2543:978-0-8229-6563-3 2490:978-0-1925-0941-3 2253:978-0-5214-4670-9 2180:978-9965-36-106-7 1796:The Crying Steppe 1780:Former President 1702:says that the UN 1459:famine in Ukraine 1257: 1256: 1069:List of genocides 988:Russian Civil War 910: 828: 827: 752:Eastern Orthodoxy 711: 710: 640:Russian Turkestan 621: 620: 523:Turkic (Göktürks) 494: 493: 404: 403: 348:De-Cossackization 340:Ethnic repression 160: 159: 16:(Redirected from 6837: 6746: 6738: 6730: 6722: 6714: 6706: 6698: 6690: 6682: 6668: 6662: 6653: 6645: 6637: 6627: 6619: 6616:Radovan Karadžić 6611: 6603: 6595: 6587: 6579: 6576:Belgrade Process 6571: 6563: 6549: 6543: 6534: 6526: 6518: 6510: 6507:Treblinka trials 6502: 6494: 6486: 6478: 6470: 6462: 6454: 6446: 6438: 6430: 6422: 6414: 6406: 6398: 6390: 6382: 6374: 6366: 6358: 6350: 6347:Épuration légale 6342: 6334: 6320: 6317:Holocaust trials 6311: 6299: 6292: 6285: 6278: 6271: 6264: 6257: 6248: 6241: 6234: 6227: 6209: 6202: 6195: 6188: 6181: 6174: 6167: 6158: 6151: 6131: 6124: 6117: 6110: 6101: 6094: 6087: 6080: 6073: 6066: 6064:Ethnic cleansing 6059: 6052: 6034: 6027: 6020: 6013: 6006: 5999: 5992: 5985: 5978: 5971: 5960: 5953: 5946: 5937: 5930: 5908: 5900: 5892: 5884: 5881:Shias under ISIS 5876: 5868: 5860: 5850: 5843: 5835: 5821: 5813: 5804: 5796: 5786: 5779: 5771: 5763: 5755: 5747: 5739: 5731: 5723: 5715: 5707: 5699: 5691: 5683: 5673: 5666: 5659: 5654: 5646: 5638: 5630: 5622: 5614: 5606: 5598: 5584: 5576: 5567: 5559: 5551: 5543: 5535: 5527: 5519: 5516:Serbs in Croatia 5511: 5503: 5495: 5487: 5479: 5476:Nanjing Massacre 5471: 5468:Parsley massacre 5463: 5460:Polish Operation 5455: 5452:Romani Holocaust 5447: 5439: 5431: 5423: 5415: 5407: 5399: 5396:Napalpí massacre 5391: 5383: 5375: 5367: 5359: 5349: 5341: 5333: 5325: 5317: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5279: 5271: 5260: 5252: 5245: 5237: 5229: 5221: 5213: 5205: 5197: 5189: 5181: 5173: 5163: 5155: 5147: 5139: 5131: 5124: 5116: 5106: 5098: 5090: 5083: 5075: 5067: 5059: 5049: 5041: 5033: 5026: 5018: 5010: 5002: 4994: 4986: 4978: 4970: 4962: 4954: 4940: 4932: 4923: 4915: 4907: 4899: 4891: 4888:Mongol conquests 4883: 4875: 4867: 4857: 4850: 4842: 4834: 4820: 4812: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4763: 4754:Sahni, Kalpana. 4751: 4742: 4713:Conquest, Robert 4709: 4679: 4678: 4677: 4675: 4663: 4657: 4654: 4648: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4527: 4518:. 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Rome: Viella. 3896: 3895: 3891: 3886:(1–2): 137–192. 3877: 3876: 3872: 3863: 3861: 3851: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3800: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3774: 3749: 3748: 3741: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3707: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3661: 3659: 3649: 3648: 3641: 3618: 3597: 3596: 3589: 3575: 3556: 3555: 3551: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3473: 3472: 3465: 3450: 3436:Snyder, Timothy 3434: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3400: 3396: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3331: 3322: 3312: 3310: 3309:. 17 April 2014 3301: 3300: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3254: 3244: 3242: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3214: 3207: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3117: 3104: 3096: 3087: 3079: 3068: 3052: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3010: 3008: 2998: 2997: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2948: 2941: 2934: 2915: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2878: 2874: 2857: 2850: 2848: 2826: 2825: 2821: 2785: 2784: 2777: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2685: 2684: 2677: 2667: 2665: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2644: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2619: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2589: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2576: 2569: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2544: 2531: 2530: 2523: 2516: 2503: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2476: 2475: 2468: 2458: 2457: 2450: 2440: 2438: 2419:10.21226/T2T59X 2399: 2398: 2387: 2357: 2356: 2345: 2337: 2328: 2317: 2315: 2306: 2305: 2298: 2293: 2286: 2268: 2261: 2254: 2233: 2232: 2228: 2198: 2197: 2188: 2181: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2117: 2113: 2096: 2095: 2091: 2081: 2079: 2069: 2068: 2057: 2047: 2045: 2044:. Wilson Center 2039: 2038: 2029: 2019: 2017: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1992: 1990: 1980: 1979: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1933: 1932: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1914: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1825: 1791: 1548: 1542: 1535: 1528: 1519: 1509: 1481: 1451: 1433:Swiss reporter 1408: 1400: 1399: 1389: 1357: 1342:, published by 1332:Gabit Musirepov 1253: 1149:Anti-Indigenous 1103:In relation to 1045: 1043: 1028: 992:Prodrazvyorstka 960: 939: 917: 824: 795: 794: 793: 778: 770: 769: 768: 721: 713: 712: 705: 633: 623: 622: 506: 496: 495: 444: 422: 415: 400: 166: 165:Mass repression 144:sedentarization 100:1.5–2.3 million 60: 35: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6843: 6841: 6833: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6762: 6761: 6755: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6739: 6731: 6723: 6715: 6707: 6699: 6691: 6683: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6665: 6658: 6657: 6655: 6654: 6646: 6638: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6620: 6612: 6596: 6588: 6580: 6572: 6564: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6535: 6527: 6519: 6511: 6503: 6495: 6487: 6483:Eichmann trial 6479: 6471: 6463: 6455: 6447: 6439: 6431: 6423: 6415: 6407: 6399: 6391: 6383: 6375: 6367: 6363:Chełmno trials 6359: 6351: 6343: 6335: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6314: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6293: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6265: 6258: 6251: 6250: 6249: 6242: 6235: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6189: 6182: 6175: 6168: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6156:Trivialization 6144: 6142: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6132: 6125: 6118: 6111: 6104: 6103: 6102: 6095: 6092:Killing Fields 6081: 6074: 6067: 6060: 6053: 6045: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6035: 6028: 6021: 6014: 6007: 6000: 5993: 5986: 5979: 5972: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5962: 5961: 5940: 5939: 5938: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5916: 5913: 5912: 5910: 5909: 5901: 5893: 5885: 5877: 5869: 5861: 5853: 5852: 5851: 5836: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5816: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5805: 5797: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5772: 5764: 5756: 5748: 5740: 5732: 5728:Kuwaiti Bedoon 5724: 5716: 5708: 5700: 5692: 5684: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5667: 5655: 5647: 5639: 5631: 5623: 5615: 5607: 5599: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5579: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5568: 5564:Crimean Tatars 5560: 5552: 5544: 5536: 5528: 5520: 5512: 5504: 5496: 5488: 5480: 5472: 5464: 5456: 5448: 5440: 5432: 5424: 5416: 5408: 5400: 5392: 5388:Kantō Massacre 5384: 5376: 5368: 5360: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5342: 5334: 5326: 5318: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5261: 5246: 5238: 5230: 5222: 5214: 5206: 5198: 5190: 5182: 5174: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5156: 5148: 5144:Trail of Tears 5140: 5136:Indian removal 5125: 5117: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5099: 5084: 5076: 5068: 5060: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5042: 5027: 5019: 5011: 5003: 4995: 4987: 4979: 4975:Kashmiri Shias 4971: 4963: 4955: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4935: 4928: 4927: 4925: 4924: 4916: 4908: 4900: 4892: 4884: 4876: 4868: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4843: 4835: 4826: 4823: 4822: 4815: 4809: 4797: 4796: 4791: 4789: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4737: 4722: 4710: 4704: 4687: 4684: 4681: 4680: 4658: 4649: 4636: 4610: 4584: 4559: 4547:Foreign Policy 4533: 4503: 4469: 4457:HREC Education 4444: 4418: 4390: 4361: 4336: 4327: 4275: 4246: 4225:(2): 632–634. 4202: 4179: 4153:(4): 663–693. 4130: 4104: 4089: 4069: 4043: 4017: 4009: 3989: 3963: 3938: 3904: 3889: 3870: 3859:j.ctt1mtz7g6.5 3849: 3819: 3794: 3782:j.ctt1mtz7g6.9 3772: 3739: 3724: 3705: 3677: 3639: 3616: 3587: 3573: 3549: 3522:(3): 476–491. 3506: 3492: 3463: 3448: 3427: 3415: 3413:, p. 156. 3411:Cameron (2018) 3403: 3394: 3380:Maillart, Aimé 3370: 3368:, p. 149. 3366:Cameron (2018) 3358: 3349: 3347:, p. 177. 3345:Kindler (2018) 3337: 3333:Kindler (2018) 3320: 3291: 3289:, p. 153. 3287:Cameron (2018) 3279: 3277:, p. 150. 3275:Cameron (2018) 3267: 3252: 3227: 3225:, p. 144. 3223:Cameron (2018) 3212: 3205: 3187: 3180: 3156: 3137: 3128:(3), 476-491. 3102: 3100:, p. 125. 3098:Cameron (2018) 3085: 3083:, p. 124. 3081:Cameron (2018) 3066: 3043: 3041:, p. 162. 3039:Cameron (2018) 3031: 3022: 2984: 2975: 2973:, p. 180. 2971:Kindler (2018) 2963: 2954: 2952:, p. 159. 2950:Cameron (2018) 2939: 2932: 2908: 2904:Kindler (2018) 2896: 2892:Cameron (2018) 2884: 2882:, p. 175. 2880:Cameron (2018) 2872: 2839:(2): 225–272. 2819: 2798:(3): 440–444. 2775: 2771:Cameron (2018) 2763: 2759:Cameron (2018) 2751: 2725: 2721:Cameron (2018) 2713: 2694:(4): 593–597. 2675: 2649: 2642: 2624: 2617: 2597: 2574: 2567: 2549: 2542: 2521: 2514: 2496: 2489: 2466: 2448: 2412:(2): 117–132. 2385: 2366:(4): 588–592. 2343: 2341:, p. 123. 2339:Cameron (2018) 2326: 2296: 2284: 2259: 2252: 2226: 2186: 2179: 2157: 2151:(in Russian). 2132: 2111: 2089: 2055: 2027: 2000: 1952: 1922: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1854:Russian Empire 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1819: 1809: 1790: 1787: 1767:Anne Applebaum 1753:oral histories 1700:Anne Applebaum 1685:Michael Ellman 1541: 1538: 1537: 1536: 1529: 1522: 1520: 1510: 1503: 1497:Turkic Council 1480: 1477: 1463:Timothy Snyder 1450: 1447: 1398:construction." 1390: 1388: 1385: 1361:Soviet Ukraine 1356: 1353: 1303:Levon Mirzoyan 1269:Alash movement 1255: 1254: 1252: 1251: 1244: 1237: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1188: 1187: 1186:Related topics 1183: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1173: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1063: 1062: 1058: 1057: 1049: 1048: 1039: 1038: 1027: 1024: 959: 956: 944:It comes from 938: 935: 894:United Nations 826: 825: 823: 822: 815: 808: 800: 797: 796: 792: 791: 786: 780: 779: 776: 775: 772: 771: 767: 766: 765: 764: 759: 754: 749: 739: 734: 729: 723: 722: 719: 718: 715: 714: 709: 708: 702: 696: 695: 692: 686: 685: 682: 676: 675: 672: 666: 665: 662: 660:Alash Autonomy 656: 655: 652: 646: 645: 642: 634: 629: 628: 625: 624: 619: 618: 615: 613:Kazakh Khanate 609: 608: 605: 599: 598: 595: 589: 588: 585: 579: 578: 575: 569: 568: 565: 559: 558: 555: 549: 548: 545: 539: 538: 535: 529: 528: 525: 519: 518: 515: 507: 502: 501: 498: 497: 492: 491: 489: 483: 482: 480: 478:Kangju Kingdom 474: 473: 471: 465: 464: 462: 456: 455: 453: 445: 440: 439: 436: 435: 427: 426: 417: 416: 409: 402: 401: 399: 398: 391: 384: 376: 373: 372: 371: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 342: 341: 337: 336: 335: 334: 329: 328: 327: 317: 312: 311: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 257: 256: 250: 249: 248: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 219: 218: 212: 211: 210: 209: 208: 207: 202: 192: 190:Dekulakization 187: 182: 174: 173: 169: 168: 158: 157: 152: 148: 147: 137: 133: 132: 129: 125: 124: 114: 110: 109: 106: 102: 101: 98: 94: 93: 90: 86: 85: 76: 72: 71: 66: 62: 61: 50: 42: 41: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6842: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6825:Joseph Stalin 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6675: 6672: 6663: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6604: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6556: 6553: 6544: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6515:Sobibor trial 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6379:Belsen trials 6376: 6372: 6371:Dachau trials 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6339:Kharkov trial 6336: 6332: 6328: 6327: 6324: 6318: 6312: 6309: 6305: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6287: 6284: 6283:Justification 6280: 6277: 6273: 6270: 6266: 6263: 6259: 6256: 6252: 6247: 6243: 6240: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6215: 6208: 6204: 6201: 6197: 6194: 6190: 6187: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6169: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6149:The Holocaust 6146: 6145: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6119: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6108:Death marches 6105: 6100: 6096: 6093: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6051: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6040: 6033: 6029: 6026: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6012: 6008: 6005: 6001: 5998: 5994: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5980: 5977: 5973: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5936: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5918: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5865:Iraqi Turkmen 5862: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5828: 5825: 5820: 5814: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5665: 5661: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5591: 5588: 5583: 5577: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5500:The Holocaust 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5382:(1920s–1930s) 5381: 5380:Ingrian Finns 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5306: 5305:Pontic Greeks 5302: 5301: 5298: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5278: 5272: 5258: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5220:(1890s–1900s) 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5047: 5043: 5040:(1700s–1800s) 5039: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4947: 4944: 4939: 4933: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4890:(1200s–1360s) 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4824: 4819: 4813: 4810: 4807: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4787: 4782: 4780: 4775: 4773: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4740: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4690: 4689: 4685: 4670: 4669: 4662: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4611: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4585: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4548: 4544: 4537: 4534: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4512:"stat.gov.kz" 4507: 4504: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4470: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4433: 4429: 4422: 4419: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4292:Slavic Review 4289: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4134: 4131: 4118: 4117:oac.cdlib.org 4114: 4108: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4073: 4070: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4044: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3993: 3990: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3964: 3952: 3951:www.iwgia.org 3948: 3942: 3939: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3905: 3900: 3893: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3871: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3798: 3795: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3689: 3681: 3678: 3674: 3673:, p. 365 3672: 3671:Ohayon (2006) 3657: 3653: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3582: 3576: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3561: 3553: 3550: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3510: 3507: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3481:. 20 May 2020 3480: 3476: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3381: 3374: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3346: 3341: 3338: 3335:, p. 11. 3334: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3308: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3268: 3264: 3263:Ohayon (2006) 3259: 3257: 3253: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3168: 3160: 3157: 3152: 3151:Радио Азаттык 3148: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2964: 2958: 2955: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2897: 2894:, p. 99. 2893: 2888: 2885: 2881: 2876: 2873: 2868: 2862: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2773:, p. 95. 2772: 2767: 2764: 2761:, p. 72. 2760: 2755: 2752: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2726: 2723:, p. 71. 2722: 2717: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2682: 2680: 2676: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2650: 2645: 2643:9780817920661 2639: 2635: 2628: 2625: 2620: 2618:9781135798239 2614: 2610: 2609: 2601: 2598: 2585: 2578: 2575: 2570: 2568:0-521-59246-1 2564: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2545: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2515:9781408825051 2511: 2507: 2500: 2497: 2492: 2486: 2482: 2481: 2473: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2314: 2310: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2255: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2239: 2230: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2161: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2136: 2133: 2128: 2122: 2114: 2112:5-628-00145-7 2108: 2104: 2100: 2093: 2090: 2077: 2073: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2043: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2015: 2011: 2004: 2001: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1940: 1936: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1908: 1903: 1894: 1889: 1886: 1879: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1826: 1822: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1635: 1633: 1632:Small October 1629: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1556:heated debate 1553: 1547: 1539: 1533: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1486: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1436: 1435:Ella Maillart 1431: 1429: 1423: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1406: 1404: 1396: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1354: 1351: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1333: 1328: 1325: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1277: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1262: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1238: 1236: 1231: 1230: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1184: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1164: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1137: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1050: 1047: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1025: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012:Joseph Stalin 1009: 1005: 1000: 998: 993: 989: 985: 981: 976: 972: 970: 967:practices in 966: 957: 955: 952: 948:: Ашаршылық, 947: 943: 936: 934: 932: 928: 923: 914: 908: 899: 895: 891: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 821: 816: 814: 809: 807: 802: 801: 799: 798: 790: 787: 785: 782: 781: 774: 773: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 744: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 724: 717: 716: 703: 701: 698: 697: 693: 691: 688: 687: 683: 681: 678: 677: 673: 671: 668: 667: 663: 661: 658: 657: 653: 651: 648: 647: 643: 641: 638: 637: 632: 627: 626: 616: 614: 611: 610: 606: 604: 603:Uzbek Khanate 601: 600: 596: 594: 591: 590: 586: 584: 583:Mongol Empire 581: 580: 576: 574: 571: 570: 566: 564: 561: 560: 556: 554: 551: 550: 546: 544: 541: 540: 536: 534: 531: 530: 526: 524: 521: 520: 516: 514: 511: 510: 505: 500: 499: 490: 488: 485: 484: 481: 479: 476: 475: 472: 470: 467: 466: 463: 461: 458: 457: 454: 452: 449: 448: 443: 438: 437: 433: 429: 428: 425: 418: 413: 407: 397: 392: 390: 385: 383: 378: 377: 375: 374: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 345: 344: 343: 338: 333: 330: 326: 323: 322: 321: 318: 316: 313: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 265: 264: 261: 260: 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Retrieved 4623: 4613: 4601:. Retrieved 4598:www.fpri.org 4597: 4587: 4575:. Retrieved 4571: 4562: 4550:. Retrieved 4546: 4536: 4524:. Retrieved 4520:the original 4515: 4506: 4494:. Retrieved 4482: 4472: 4460:. Retrieved 4456: 4447: 4435:. Retrieved 4432:The Atlantic 4431: 4421: 4409:. Retrieved 4405: 4381:. Retrieved 4377: 4352:. Retrieved 4348: 4339: 4330: 4295: 4291: 4266:. Retrieved 4262: 4222: 4218: 4196: 4192: 4182: 4171:the original 4150: 4146: 4133: 4120:. Retrieved 4116: 4107: 4079: 4072: 4060:. Retrieved 4056: 4046: 4034:. Retrieved 4030: 4020: 3999: 3992: 3980:. Retrieved 3976: 3966: 3954:. Retrieved 3950: 3941: 3929:. Retrieved 3917: 3907: 3898: 3892: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3862:, retrieved 3832: 3822: 3806: 3802: 3797: 3785:, retrieved 3755: 3733: 3727: 3718: 3715:j.ctt1mtz7g6 3687: 3680: 3667: 3660:. Retrieved 3655: 3633: 3628:– via 3599: 3581:Arsharshylyk 3580: 3578: 3559: 3552: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3495: 3483:. 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