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researchers concluding that weakened bones led to a higher incidence of broken bones or injuries and another study finding that a common factor in mortality cases was leg weakness. The lameness contributed to these weakened bones is also in part due to the hardness of the concrete flooring, which inevitably leads to a higher incidence of injuries to the feet and or legs, not to mention shoulder sores and abrasions to the skin from rocks, sharp edges, and bolts fastening the crates in place. This same flooring is thought to contribute to toe lesions, with some reports claiming that up to 80% of crated sows suffer from this illness. Due to lack of exercise, sows may develop a number of additional physical conditions that compromise their overall well-being. Urinary tract infections may develop as a result of the pigs' immobility, which causes them to drink less frequently and consequently develop bacteria within the urinary tract. Though this same illness is contributed to the fact that sows are forced to lie, or sit, in their own feces – another reason some think there is a higher incidence of respiratory disease among sows confined in gestation crates.
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retained in crates for a further week (following the 4 week maximum in crates post-farrowing) as nurse sows. This practice enables slowly growing or poorly performing piglets to be properly weaned. It has been noted that industry does not accept or comply with this requirement and some producers are exceeding both the maximum 5% of sows allowed to be retained for this purpose and the amount of time that they are being retained (i.e. greater than the one week maximum as stated in the code)." And "The current code requires that sows in any farrowing system constructed after 3 December 2010, must be provided with material that can be manipulated until farrowing (to allow the sow to perform nesting behaviour which she is extremely motivated to do). It has been noted by NAWAC during this review that industry disagrees with this requirement and does not comply with this minimum standard."
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mortality, the authors stating that "Despite the fact that the crate system has been considered to reduce piglet mortality mainly through a reduction of crushing, there is not much scientific evidence for this when considering the few large surveys that compare the mortality rate in commercial herds". The review goes on to describe several large studies dating from as early as 1983, the majority of which found no difference in piglet mortality rates between loose and crated sows. The review also details an argument as to why piglet mortality rates have been reported to be somewhat higher in a comparably small number of studies, citing methodological flaws.
1010:" behavior has been found in "every detailed study" of pigs in gestation crates, but not in any other housing systems examined. A 2004 literature review by animal scientists determined that sows in stalls exhibited more "stereotypical" behavior than sows in group housing, but that animals housed in stalls had lower injury rates and higher farrowing rates. Some studies have shown that "sow behavior has been shown to differ among housing systems; often it seems to be the non-housing component (i.e., direction of bar, other substances present) of the system that is responsible for the behavior displayed by the sow."
285:"recognize gestation stalls and group housing systems as appropriate for providing for the well-being of sows during pregnancy." While the practice of immobilizing the animals in crates limits fighting, it subsequently increases the animals' stress levels, causing other health problems. The American Association of Swine Veterinarians adopted a position statement in 2002 specifying five standards of sow welfare and concluding, "Current scientific literature indicates that individual gestation stalls meet each of the aforementioned, provided the appropriate level of stockmanship is administered."
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ways of reducing, but not eliminating, aggression besides gestation crates. These include eliminating overcrowding, not mixing pigs from different litters, providing straw or other bedding material, and providing sufficient food that not only meets nutritional needs but satisfies the appetite. Other important means to reduce aggression among sows rely on alternative feeding methods, as many sows will compete with each other for food. These include trickle feeding systems, individual feeding stalls, and electronic sow feeding equipment, all of which resolve feed competition among pigs.
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1045:: "Farmers treat their animals well because that's just good business. The key to sow welfare isn't whether they are kept in individual crates or group housing, but whether the system used is well managed." Sundberg said: "cience tells us that she doesn't even seem to know that she can't turn ... She wants to eat and feel safe, and she can do that very well in individual stalls." Sundberg did acknowledge, however, that there is active scientific dispute about the effects of gestation crates on sows.
981:. The paper notes that this suggests their overall health is not compromised. Some producers in Europe use a "free access" maternity pen configuration in which sows are in individual pens for the first four weeks of pregnancy but can "unlock" the stall by backing out and entering a common area. The producers observed that pregnant pigs will stay in the individual pens more than 90 percent of the time, and return to the same stall more than 90 percent of the time.
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1025:." These include freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, distress, and freedom to express normal behavior. Sows that have to lay on concrete flooring can experience excessive heat loss and chronic physical discomfort, while this same concrete flooring can contribute to foot injuries, joint pain complications, and skin lesions – due to the pigs' prolonged contact with an unusually hard surface and chronic inactivity.
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223:, the largest pork producer in the United States, said in January 2007 that it will phase out gestation crates from its 187 piggeries over the next ten years because of concerns from its customers. In 2009 the company stated it would no longer be able to phase them out in ten years due to recent low sales, but reversed the decision in 2011 after intense pressure from the
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gestation, sows should preferably be kept in groups." Likewise in 2008, the Pew
Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, after 2.5 years of research, recommended "the phase-out, within 10 years, of all intensive confinement systems that restrict natural movement and normal behaviors, including swine gestation crates."
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facilities. They are banned in the United
Kingdom, Canada, Switzerland and Sweden, and in nine states in the US (Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Maine, Michigan, Ohio, Oregon and Rhode Island). However, farrowing crates, in which female breeding pigs can be kept for up to five weeks, are not banned in the UK.
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Commission of the
European Communities. 2001. COM(2001) 20 final 2001/0021 (CNS) Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the welfare of intensively kept pigs in particularly taking into account the welfare of sows reared in varying degrees of confinement and in
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Pork producers argue that gestation crates are needed because sows that are housed together in pens will fight, injuring or killing their fellow penmates. The same effect could be achieved with larger pens that kept the animals separate, but allowed them more freedom of movement. There are also other
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Many other health related issues are to be found among pigs confined within gestation crates as opposed to group housing systems. Some of these include urinary tract infections, respiratory disease, skin lesions (e.g. pressure sores), excessive heat-loss, bone density, muscle health, cardiovascular
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In the
European Union, the crates must not be used after the fourth week of pregnancy following a 2013 EU Directive. They are illegal at all times in the United Kingdom and Sweden. However, Denmark and Norway are some of the countries where gestation crates are still used in conventional pig farming
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Although farrowing crates have been used based on the assumption that they reduce piglet mortality rates, there is little published evidence in support of this claim. The most comprehensive publication to date on this subject concluded that there is no significant effect of housing on overall piglet
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Between 60 and 70 percent of sows are kept in crates during pregnancy in the United States. Each pregnancy lasts for three months, three weeks, and three days. Sows will have an average of 2.5 litters every year for two or three years, most of which is spent in the crates. They give birth to between
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concluded that abnormal behavior in sows "develop when the animal is severely or chronically frustrated. Hence their development indicates that the animal is having difficulty in coping and its welfare is poor." This behavior, such as bar-biting and other stereotypic behavior can also lead to other
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Many studies have shown that sows in crates exhibit behavior such as bar-biting, head weaving, and tongue rolling, indicating chronic frustration. When given the choice, pigs will relieve themselves far away from where they sleep and eat. Sows in crates bite the bars, chew even when they have no
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The use of gestation crates following mating will be phased out in New
Zealand by 2015. However the crates are still legal for up to four weeks after farrowing. A review led by the Ministry for Primary Industries, in 2016, found that "The current code of welfare allows for up to 5% of sows to be
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In the United States, they have been banned in
Florida since 2002, Arizona since 2006, and California since late 2008. A Rhode Island law banning the crates, passed in June 2012, took effect in June 2013. They are also being phased out in Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Ohio and Oregon. Furthermore,
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However, other veterinary studies contradict those earlier studies. A 1997 report of the
Scientific Veterinary Committee of the European Union, where a gestation crate ban went into effect in 2013, noted that because "overall welfare appears to be better when sows are not confined throughout
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There were 5.36 million breeding sows in the United States as of 2016, out of a total of 50.1 million pigs. Most pregnant sows in the US are kept in gestation crates. The crates are banned for new installations only in
Austria and Canada, so many sows are still confined there in pig breeding
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Poor cardiovascular health, bone density issues, and poor muscle health all have been attributed to lack of exercise. The decreased amount of muscle mass makes even simple movements difficult, while one study found that crated sows had two thirds the bone density of non-crated sows, with
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A few days before giving birth, sows are moved to farrowing crates, which are slightly wider so they can lie down to nurse. Crates have 18-in. (46-cm) "troughs" on each side where the piglets can safely lie without being in danger of sow overlay (when the sow lies down on top of a piglet).
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The major issues surrounding the housing of sows during gestation are focused on the detrimental effects of close confinement and barren environment afforded by stalls on the one hand versus the detrimental effects of aggressive social behavior afforded by group housing on the
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Mendl MT. 1991. The effects of alternative forms of intensive pig husbandry on measures of pig welfare. In: Bradley A and
Sckofield WL (eds.), Proceedings of the First Association of Veterinary Students Animal Welfare Symposium (Cambridge, U.K.: Association of Veterinary
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five and eight litters before being culled from the herd. Some older sows may reach a size at which they have to sleep on their chests, unable to lie on their sides as pigs usually do. The floors are slatted to allow excrement and other waste to fall into a pit below.
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announced that it would begin working with suppliers to phase out the use of gestation crates in response to pressure from the Humane
Society of the United States and other animal advocates. McDonald's purchases around one percent of all pork in the United States.
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E. M. Baxter, et al., "Breeding for improved pre-weaning piglet survival in alternative farrowing systems," Proceedings of the 41st congress of the International Society for Applied Ethology (F. Galindo and L. Alvarez, eds.), 2007, Merida,
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McGlone, J.J. et al. "Compilation of the Scientific Literature Comparing Housing Systems for Gestating Sows and Gilts Using Measures of Physiology, Behavior, Performance, and Health," Professional Animal Scientist April 2004 vol. 20 no. 2
1036:, told the audience that "In gestation stalls, sows are prevented from performing many of the behavior patterns that pigs would perform in more natural or less restricted conditions resulting in a negative impact on sow welfare."
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Sow stalls contain no bedding material and are instead floored with slatted plastic, concrete or metal to allow waste to be efficiently collected below. This waste is then flushed into open-air pits known as
1719:"N.J. Senate to attempt to override Christie's veto on pig crates bill Gov. Chris Christie vetoed a bill in June that would have prohibited the farm practice of placing pregnant pigs in gestation cages"
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2077:"Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare on a request from the Commission related to welfare of weaners and rearing pigs: effects of different space allowances and floor types"
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Piglet survival also depends on selection pressure. Groups of piglets bred for higher survival showed no difference in mortality when weaned in farrowing crates and outdoor systems.
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Pajor EA. 2002. Group housing of sows in small pens: advantages, disadvantages and recent research. In: Reynells R (ed.), Symposium on Swine Housing and Well-being (Beltsville, MD:
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adopted S998 with a vote in the Senate of 32-1 and in the Assembly 53-13 (with 9 abstentions) On 27 November 2014 Christie vetoed the bill. A new bill was introduced in 2020.
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In 2014 Canada instituted a nationwide ban on new gestation crates. This ban however has been delayed another 5 years until 2029 and will not include existing installations.
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SVC (Scientific Veterinary Committee) (1997). The welfare of intensively kept pigs. Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General for Agriculture, Brussels.
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physical trauma, such as sores from frequent contact with the metal bars, and mouth sores from sham-chewing and bar-biting. They also show behavior that indicates
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1002:, according to Morris, such as remaining passive when poked or when a bucket of water is thrown over them. A review by the Scientific Veterinary Council of the
66:. A few days before giving birth, sows are moved to farrowing crates where they are able to lie down, with an attached crate from which their piglets can nurse.
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prohibits pork from gestation crates from being sold in California, even if they were produced elsewhere, though implementation is stayed pending litigation.
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Kornegay ET, Bryant KL, and Notter DR. 1990. Toe lesion development in gilts and sows housed in confinement as influenced by toe size and toe location.
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Centner, TJ (2009) Limitations on the confinement of food animals in the United States. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics online first
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Opponents of the crates argue that they constitute animal abuse, while proponents say they are needed to prevent sows from fighting among themselves.
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Marchant JN, Broom DM. 1993. The effects of dry sow housing conditions on lying behaviour of sows. Nichelmann M, Wierenga HK, Braun S, editors.
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190:, are kept in gestation crates. In survey conducted in 2013, 90% of New Jersey voters were in favor of banning the crates. In June 2013,
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Animal welfare advocates regard the use of gestation crates as one of the most inhumane features of intensive animal production.
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groups. Proposal for a Council Directive amending Directive 91/630/EEC laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs.
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Paul Sundberg, a veterinarian and vice president of the U.S. National Pork Board, a leading proponent of gestation crates, told
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used for breeding may be kept during pregnancy. A standard crate measures 6.6 ft x 2.0 ft (2 m x 60 cm).
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270:'s Department of Animal Science said in 2007: "... basically you're asking a sow to live in an airline seat."
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Marchant, JN; Broom, DM (1996). "Effects of dry sow housing conditions on muscle weight and bone strength".
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In a symposium held in 2002 on swine housing and well-being, Edmond A. Pajor, Associate Professor at
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reported in 2001 that researchers have not found sows in gestation crates to have elevated levels of
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2006:
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in the United Kingdom, "Sows on concrete in confinement stalls suffer abuse according to all the
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1604:"Clock ticking for Chris Christie to act on controversial N.J. pig bill with 2016 implications"
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pressured McDonald's board of directors to increase the speed of phasing out gestation crates.
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281:, which promotes pork as a food product and is a leading proponent of gestation crates, the
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2119:"Sow stalls and farrowing crates – ethically, scientifically and economically indefensible"
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As of 2013 New Jersey had a pig population of about 9,000 none of which, according to the
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1947:
1441:(NRK Documentary on animal welfare of conventional pigs in Norway). Accessed 2019-20-06.)
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1274:"Summer Fun, But Not for Pigs: The Horror of Gestation Crates and Life in a Factory Farm"
277:
Early veterinary studies seemed to support the use of gestation crates. According to the
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1932:"Science, Pigs, and Politics: A New Zealand Perspective on the Phase-Out of Sow Stalls"
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food, and press their water bottles obsessively, all reportedly signs of boredom. The
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2548:, pp. 37-44). www.ces.purdue.edu/pork/sowhousing/swine_02.pdf. Accessed 19 May 2008.
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Gestation crates, used on modern pig-production facilities, commonly referred to as
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29–4. An attempt to override the veto did not come to a vote. In October 2014 the
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1552:"New R.I. law bans cutting dairy-cow tails, raising pigs and calves in crates"
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http://cratefreefuture.com/pdf/Gestation%20Crate%20Elimination%20Policies.pdf
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The Welfare of Sows in Gestation Crates: A Summary of the Scientific Evidence
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will stay in a gestation crate for the four-month period of her pregnancy.
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vetoed S1921, a bill to ban pig gestation crates. which had passed in the
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2696:
2625:
1797:"Christie vetoes pig crate ban, accuses sponsors of partisan politicking"
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1531:"What A Delay On Canada's Gestation Crate Ban Will Mean For Pig Welfare"
1169:"An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows"
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Sows used for breeding in 6.6 ft Ă— 2.0 ft (2 m Ă— 60 cm) gestation crates
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Over 60 major food companies have policies to eliminate their use.
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Annales de Recherches Vétérinaires (Annals of Veterinary Research)
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health, foot injuries, damage to joints, and even lameness.
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Ethically disputed business practices towards animals
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A comprehensive review of housing for pregnant sows
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1119:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
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2473:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (
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2060:"Pork industry gives sows room to move"
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2035:"The Welfare Of Intensively Kept Pigs"
1698:P. J. Huffstuutter (27 January 2013).
1345:, Humane Society of the United States.
1307:Jeremy N. Marchant Forde (Fall 2010),
1112:
1868:Strom, Stephanie (13 February 2012).
1529:Ellen Tennenhouse (21 January 2021).
7:
1077:Animal Welfare in Animal Agriculture
279:U.S. National Pork Producers Council
1717:Portnoy, Jenna (11 November 2013).
225:Humane Society of the United States
2492:Canadian Journal of Animal Science
2356:Canadian Journal of Animal Science
2007:"Individual pens for sows' safety"
1948:10.1023/B:JAGE.0000010844.52041.32
1846:Walzer, Philip (9 December 2012).
51:, is a metal enclosure in which a
25:
2134:, 62, no. 1, Jan/Feb 2003, 38–39.
1621:Melissa Hayes (27 October 2014).
1224:"U.S. Hog Inventory up 4 Percent"
1079:, CRC Press, 2011, p. 151ff.
3339:
3338:
2952:
2349:Fredeen, HT; Sather, AP (1978).
1507:Alexis Croswell (7 March 2014).
1316:Livestock Behavior Research Unit
931:
298:
107:Nursing sow in a farrowing crate
3244:The Tale of Little Pig Robinson
2087:. The EFSA Journal: 268. 2005.
1550:Philip Marcelo (21 June 2012).
1486:Ministry for Primary Industries
917:Agriculture and the environment
383:British Agricultural Revolution
2546:U.S. Department of Agriculture
1602:Matt Arco (26 November 2014).
363:Agriculture in the Middle Ages
181:2018 California Proposition 12
1:
2334:Applied Agricultural Research
2206:Tillon, JP; Madec, F (1984).
1427:Produktion af grise i Danmark
1148:10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30699-x
2419:; Darmstadt: KTBL; p 455-58.
368:Arab Agricultural Revolution
201:with a vote of 60-5 and the
2168:"The Reality of Sow Stalls"
1979:Advances in Pork Production
3402:
1089:Bernard E. Rollin (1995),
328:Agriculture in Mesoamerica
3334:
3251:The Tale of Pigling Bland
2950:
2614:
2503:24 September 2015 at the
2447:(inactive 20 July 2024).
2302:10.1017/s1357729800014387
2266:10.1017/s1357729800013928
2236:24 September 2015 at the
855:Universities and colleges
815:Universities and colleges
268:Colorado State University
1360:21 February 2007 at the
1006:states that repetitive "
840:Agriculturist profession
659:Agricultural engineering
644:Agricultural cooperative
3311:List of individual pigs
3168:Fair, then Partly Piggy
2166:Salak-Johnson, Janeen.
2124:14 October 2007 at the
2094:10.2903/j.efsa.2005.268
1460:. NZPA. 1 December 2010
1228:Quarterly Hogs and Pigs
810:Sustainable food system
805:Sustainable agriculture
696:Animal-free agriculture
664:Agricultural technology
3316:List of fictional pigs
3020:Flitch of bacon custom
2818:Religious restrictions
1457:The New Zealand Herald
938:Agriculture portal
897:History of agriculture
882:Agriculture by country
877:Agricultural machinery
845:Agricultural machinery
763:Mechanised agriculture
333:Austronesian expansion
259:
207:New Jersey Legislature
172:
108:
91:
40:
3098:Babe: Pig in the City
3055:The Three Little Pigs
2445:10.1136/vr.137.16.395
887:Agriculture companies
850:Government ministries
649:Agricultural supplies
486:Convertible husbandry
253:
158:
106:
89:
35:
3118:Empress of Blandings
1000:learned helplessness
701:Cellular agriculture
654:Agricultural science
323:Neolithic Revolution
128:Limitations on usage
2823:Scottish pork taboo
2533:National Hog Farmer
2520:National Hog Farmer
2414:Proceedings of the
2131:Organic New Zealand
2117:Morris, Michael C.
2064:The Washington Post
2040:. 30 September 1997
1392:The Washington Post
1278:The Huffington Post
1214:, 14 December 2006.
1195:The Washington Post
1042:The Washington Post
1004:European Commission
975:The Washington Post
582:Steam sterilization
3376:Cruelty to animals
3326:Pigasus (politics)
3188:Olivia (character)
3126:My Brother the Pig
2370:10.4141/cjas78-095
1920:, 10 January 2007.
1894:. 21 February 2022
1874:The New York Times
1824:. 21 January 2021.
1776:on 5 December 2014
1750:on 5 December 2014
1659:"SENATE, No. 1921"
1394:, 26 January 2007.
1297:, 26 January 2012.
1019:Bristol University
491:Rotational grazing
373:Columbian exchange
260:
213:Corporate policies
173:
109:
92:
47:, also known as a
41:
3353:
3352:
3265:Toot & Puddle
3258:This Little Piggy
3025:Floyd of Rosedale
2711:Intensive farming
2432:Veterinary Record
2399:Webster J. 2005.
2386:Webster J. 2005.
1744:"SENATE, No. 998"
1665:on 26 August 2014
1583:. 26 January 2022
1055:Veterinary ethics
1034:Purdue University
972:
971:
820:Urban agriculture
793:Rice-duck farming
741:Intensive farming
711:Extensive farming
230:In February 2012
16:(Redirected from
3393:
3342:
3341:
3112:Blandings Castle
2956:
2920:
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2569:Smith, Lewis W.
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2270:
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2243:
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2203:
2190:
2189:
2187:
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2179:
2173:. Archived from
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2115:
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936:
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934:
798:Rice-fish system
706:Contract farming
691:Animal husbandry
429:Animal husbandry
388:Green Revolution
339:Ancient history
302:
288:
221:Smithfield Foods
199:General Assembly
169:
163:
119:Piglet mortality
21:
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3400:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3330:
3299:
3206:Pinky and Perky
3200:Pink Floyd pigs
3133:Charlotte's Web
3001:
2997:Boar–pig hybrid
2957:
2948:
2918:
2829:
2757:
2741:Cross-fostering
2736:Gestation crate
2703:
2689:
2676:
2610:
2605:
2557:
2555:Further reading
2552:
2543:
2539:
2530:
2526:
2517:
2513:
2505:Wayback Machine
2489:
2482:
2465:
2439:(16): 395–399.
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2238:Wayback Machine
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2126:Wayback Machine
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2018:
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2004:
2003:
1999:
1994:
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1971:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1912:Shapiro, Paul.
1911:
1907:
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1803:
1801:The Star-Ledger
1794:
1793:
1789:
1779:
1777:
1770:"S998 Sca (1R)"
1768:
1767:
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1753:
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1727:
1725:
1723:The Star-Ledger
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1608:The Star-Ledger
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1421:
1413:L.J. Pedersen,
1412:
1408:
1402:
1398:
1386:Marc Kaufmann,
1385:
1372:
1362:Wayback Machine
1353:
1349:
1336:
1327:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1289:Oliver Thring,
1288:
1284:
1280:, 16 July 2015.
1268:Brett Mizelle,
1267:
1263:
1253:
1251:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1222:
1218:
1205:
1201:
1197:, 18 June 2001.
1189:Marc Kaufmann,
1188:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1111:
1103:
1102:
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1063:
1051:
979:stress hormones
968:
932:
930:
925:
924:
923:
922:
921:
912:Poultry farming
869:
861:
860:
859:
834:
826:
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824:
768:Organic farming
633:
625:
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623:
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586:
418:
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379:Modern history
359:Post-classical
312:
248:
215:
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135:
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84:
79:
45:gestation crate
28:
23:
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18:Farrowing crate
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12:
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5:
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3350:
3348:
3347:
3345:Category: Pigs
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3328:
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3290:Hamilton Hocks
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3017:
3015:Freddy the Pig
3011:
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2999:
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2857:Pig's trotters
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2671:Sus domesticus
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2596:
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2553:
2551:
2550:
2537:
2535:, 15 February.
2524:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2480:
2421:
2405:
2392:
2376:
2338:
2320:
2307:
2290:Animal Science
2271:
2254:Animal Science
2244:
2242:
2241:
2191:
2180:on 8 July 2011
2158:
2148:
2136:
2110:
2100:
2068:
2066:, 29 May 2012.
2051:
2026:
2015:. Cedar Rapids
1997:
1988:
1969:
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1199:
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1161:
1142:(3): 475–502.
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995:European Union
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567:Slash-and-burn
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348:Ancient Greece
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264:Temple Grandin
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246:Welfare issues
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195:Chris Christie
188:Humane Society
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3140:The Sheep-Pig
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3036:Pigs in Space
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2729:
2727:
2724:
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2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2653:
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2639:
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2627:
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2409:
2406:
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2363:(4): 759–73.
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2267:
2263:
2260:(2): 369–85.
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2255:
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2140:
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2104:
2101:
2095:
2090:
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2078:
2072:
2069:
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2061:
2055:
2052:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1918:Globe Gazette
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1691:
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1632:
1629:
1625:. The Record.
1624:
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1225:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1212:Rolling Stone
1209:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1184:
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1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
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1157:
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1145:
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1137:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1100:
1097:
1092:
1085:
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1078:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1023:Five Freedoms
1020:
1015:
1011:
1009:
1008:stereotypical
1005:
1001:
996:
992:
986:
982:
980:
976:
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951:
946:
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907:Meat industry
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892:Biotechnology
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773:Paludiculture
771:
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343:Ancient Egypt
341:
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326:
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321:
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151:North America
150:
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81:
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50:
46:
39:
38:factory farms
34:
30:
19:
3277:
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3263:
3249:
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3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3110:
3103:
3096:
3089:
3060:
2793:Chitterlings
2735:
2669:
2661:
2638:Artiodactyla
2563:
2540:
2532:
2527:
2519:
2514:
2494:62:1119-28.
2491:
2469:cite journal
2436:
2430:
2424:
2413:
2408:
2395:
2360:
2354:
2336:5(4):327-34.
2293:
2289:
2257:
2253:
2247:
2218:(2): 195–9.
2215:
2211:
2182:. Retrieved
2175:the original
2161:
2151:
2139:
2129:
2113:
2103:
2084:
2081:EFSA Journal
2080:
2071:
2063:
2058:Tim Carman,
2054:
2042:. Retrieved
2029:
2017:. Retrieved
2010:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1942:(1): 51–66.
1939:
1935:
1925:
1917:
1908:
1896:. Retrieved
1891:
1882:
1873:
1863:
1851:. Retrieved
1841:
1830:
1816:
1804:. Retrieved
1800:
1790:
1778:. Retrieved
1774:the original
1764:
1752:. Retrieved
1748:the original
1738:
1726:. Retrieved
1722:
1712:
1703:
1693:
1679:
1667:. Retrieved
1663:the original
1653:
1641:. Retrieved
1631:
1616:
1607:
1597:
1585:. Retrieved
1580:
1571:
1560:
1545:
1534:
1524:
1512:. Retrieved
1502:
1491:, retrieved
1484:
1474:
1462:. Retrieved
1455:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1409:
1399:
1391:
1365:
1350:
1338:
1337:J. Webster,
1319:
1315:
1302:
1295:The Guardian
1294:
1285:
1277:
1269:
1264:
1252:. Retrieved
1249:The Guardian
1248:
1227:
1219:
1211:
1206:Jeff Tietz,
1202:
1194:
1164:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1105:
1099:
1090:
1084:
1076:
1040:
1038:
1031:
1027:
1016:
1012:
990:
987:
983:
974:
973:
778:Permaculture
736:Horticulture
681:Agroforestry
639:Agribusiness
596:Hydroculture
572:Smallholding
560:
353:Ancient Rome
276:
272:
261:
237:
229:
219:
216:
185:
177:
174:
145:
138:operations.
136:
122:
114:
110:
93:
72:
68:
60:
48:
44:
42:
29:
3371:Pig farming
3227:Porco Rosso
3213:Preston Pig
3105:Bad Piggies
3062:Animal Farm
2842:Boston butt
2522:, 15 March.
2012:The Gazette
1898:21 February
1806:30 November
1780:30 November
1754:30 November
1728:30 November
1669:30 November
1643:30 November
1587:20 February
788:Polyculture
614:Hydroponics
604:Aquaculture
545:Paddy field
530:Monoculture
424:Agrivoltaic
398:Monoculture
319:Prehistory
292:Agriculture
142:New Zealand
3360:Categories
3279:Wibbly Pig
3272:Huxley Pig
3238:Spider pig
3233:Spider-Ham
3030:Miss Piggy
3007:In culture
2919:Other uses
2902:Pork steak
2892:Spare ribs
2882:Tenderloin
2862:Pork belly
2837:Back bacon
2654:Subfamily
2296:: 105–13.
2184:10 January
2108:Students).
2044:3 December
2019:10 January
1464:1 December
1439:Brennpunkt
1366:Swine News
1208:"Boss Hog"
1061:References
868:Categories
783:Plantation
731:Free range
726:Feed ratio
619:Aeroponics
609:Aquaponics
476:Free-range
471:Fertilizer
240:Carl Icahn
232:McDonald's
3366:Livestock
3285:Zhu Bajie
3193:TV series
3154:Super Pig
3147:Peppa Pig
3068:Old Major
3044:Porky Pig
2992:Razorback
2975:Wild boar
2944:Truffling
2939:Wrestling
2897:Pork rind
2872:Pork jowl
2867:Pork chop
2803:Slaughter
2773:Capocollo
2746:Swineherd
2731:Hog oiler
2642:Suborder
1964:154248185
1956:1573-322X
1493:1 January
1254:6 October
902:Livestock
721:Farmhouse
503:Intensive
466:Extensive
82:Pregnancy
49:sow stall
3321:Piganino
3295:Pig City
3182:Kazoops!
3083:Squealer
3078:Snowball
3073:Napoleon
2980:Heraldry
2852:Ham hock
2808:Suckling
2768:Bondiola
2751:Feedback
2691:Breeding
2682:Domestic
2668:Species
2632:Mammalia
2626:Chordata
2620:Animalia
2618:Kingdom
2501:Archived
2461:46369935
2234:Archived
2156:105-117.
2122:Archived
1985:: 101–7.
1892:BBC News
1358:Archived
1318:, USDA,
1115:citation
1049:See also
686:Agronomy
550:Ranching
192:Governor
2985:Hunting
2924:Bladder
2847:Fatback
2798:Scalder
2758:As food
2721:Pannage
2705:Farming
2648:Family
2624:Phylum
2453:8545936
2224:6486691
1853:31 July
1704:Reuters
1514:2 March
1404:Mexico.
1364:(pdf),
1156:1446265
746:animals
669:Digital
632:Related
577:Terrace
561:Colonia
540:Organic
535:Orchard
525:Natural
508:animals
481:Grazing
461:Dryland
444:poultry
416:On land
393:Organic
310:History
64:lagoons
3343:
3220:Rasher
3049:Piglet
2929:Racing
2726:Toilet
2660:Genus
2656:Suinae
2650:Suidae
2636:Order
2630:Class
2459:
2451:
2222:
1962:
1954:
1536:Forbes
1154:
434:cattle
203:Senate
168:
162:
133:Europe
53:farmed
3304:Other
2967:feral
2813:Blood
2763:Bacon
2697:Shows
2644:Suina
2457:S2CID
2178:(PDF)
2171:(PDF)
2038:(PDF)
1960:S2CID
1489:, MPI
1321:other
1312:(PDF)
833:Lists
756:crops
518:crops
498:Hobby
456:Dairy
449:sheep
99:Birth
77:Usage
3091:Babe
2965:and
2963:Wild
2912:Tail
2887:Ribs
2877:Loin
2831:Cuts
2788:Pork
2783:Lard
2608:Pigs
2475:link
2449:PMID
2220:PMID
2186:2014
2046:2020
2021:2014
1952:ISSN
1900:2022
1855:2012
1808:2014
1782:2014
1756:2014
1730:2014
1671:2014
1645:2014
1589:2022
1581:KGTV
1516:2015
1495:2017
1466:2010
1256:2018
1152:PMID
1121:link
991:Post
751:pigs
716:Farm
513:pigs
439:pigs
2934:War
2907:Ear
2778:Ham
2716:Sty
2663:Sus
2441:doi
2437:137
2365:doi
2298:doi
2262:doi
2089:doi
1944:doi
1270:Pig
1144:doi
266:of
256:sow
56:sow
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