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coiffures can be dated through their depictions on coins. The female hairstyles are what is usually used for the dating of mummy portraits, because other than a number of elite boys who had long hair parted on the forehead and bound into a bun in the neck, male hairstyle does not differ by much. This is because Roman male was advised to avoid excessive attention to hairstyles as he may be criticized for unmanliness. Complex ringlets with nested plaits, and curls over the forehead was popular in the late first century, with small oval nested plaits popular in the time of
Antonines. A later popular woman's hairstyle is one inspired by the Roman Empress, Faustina I, with longer strands at the middle of the scalp drawn back into twists or plaits that were then wound into a tutulus at the crown of the head. Central-parted hair-knots at the back of the neck were common later in the same period. Empress Julia Domna popularized fluffy waved hair. Straight hair was common in the same period while later plaits on the crown of the head were rarely present.
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displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death, an idea perhaps contradicted by the multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme. The habit of depicting the deceased was not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier
Egyptian masks, although the latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies, sometimes even in the same graves.
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895:, but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to a large extent by the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception of occasional pots or sprays of flowers.
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the public and highly visible portraits of
Ptolemaic dynasts and Roman emperors grafted iconography developed for a ruler's Greek or Roman images onto Egyptian statues in the dress and posture of Egyptian kings and queens. The possible combinations of Greek and Egyptian elements can be elucidated by imposing a (somewhat artificial) distinction between form and content, where 'form' is taken as the system of representation, and 'content' as the symbol, concept, or figure being portrayed.
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1098:), on the subject's clothing. Most of the decorative lines are dark colored. While painted mummy portraits are shown to bear the traditional Roman decorative lines, not a single portrait has been definitely shown to depict the toga. It should, however, be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of the 1st and early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to occur.
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the winter of 1910–11 and excavated a further 70 portrait mummies, some of them quite badly preserved. With very few exceptions, Petrie's studies still provide the only examples of mummy portraits so far found as the result of systematic excavation and published properly. Although the published studies are not entirely up to modern standards, they remain the most important source for the find contexts of portrait mummies.
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Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient
Egyptians, than to Greeks or other European populations. This conclusion was seen again in 2009, by Joel D. Irish, where he noted: "Interestingly, Roman period Hawara in Lower Egypt seems not to have been composed of migrants-while there is a possibility that the dynastic occupation of Saqqara may have been."
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the three previous cold desert nights. Fouquet acquired the remaining two of what had originally been fifty portraits. While the exact location of this find is unclear, the likely source is from er-Rubayat. At that location, not long after
Fouquet's visit, the Viennese art trader Theodor Graf found several further images, which he tried to sell as profitably as possible. He engaged the famous
1011:. As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures, especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus, they had a direct influence on the development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces than in the imperial court, or at least that diverse styles might coexist.
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445:. The wood was cut into thin rectangular panels and made smooth. The finished panels were set into layers of wrapping that enclosed the body and were surrounded by bands of cloth, giving the effect of a window-like opening through which the face of the deceased could be seen. Portraits were sometimes painted directly onto the canvas or rags of the mummy wrapping (
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century. In contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of the population. The mummy mask, originally an
Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style, Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult belongs in this general context.
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136:, from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century AD onwards. It is not clear when their production ended, but some research suggests the middle of the 3rd century. They are among the largest groups among the very few survivors of the panel painting tradition of the classical world, which continued into
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materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with a horizontal bar from which two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with pearls, fine
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There is evidence of a religious crisis at the same time. This may not be as closely connected with the rise of
Christianity as previously assumed. (The earlier suggestion of a 4th-century end to the portraits would coincide with the widespread distribution of Christianity in Egypt. Christianity also
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scans reveal a correspondence of age and sex between mummy and image. She concludes that the age distribution reflects the low life expectancy at the time. It was often believed that the wax portraits were completed during the life of the individual and displayed in their home, a custom that belonged
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While commonly believed to depict Greek settlers in Egypt, the Faiyum portraits instead reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant
Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in the city. According to Walker, the early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian
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period, with the rest being native
Egyptians. By the Roman period, much of the "Greek" population of Faiyum was made-up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins. Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army, who, initially at least, were not Egyptian but
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Other than representations of their wealth and social status, the subject's clothing suggests their previous roles in their local communities. For instance, men depicted to show their bare upper torso were usually athletes. The most common attire is a cloak worn over a chiton. It is common to have a
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For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to the end of the 4th century, but recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd century. It
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Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of
Egyptian traditions. Egyptian temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd
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A majority of images show a formal portrait of a single figure, facing and looking toward the viewer, from an angle that is usually slightly turned from full face. The figures are presented as busts against a monochrome background which in some instances are decorated. The individuals are both male
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which yielded 81 portrait mummies in the first year of excavation. At an exhibition in London, these portraits drew large crowds. In the following year, Petrie continued excavations at the same location but now suffered from the competition of a German and an Egyptian art dealer. Petrie returned in
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Once again, a long period elapsed before more mummy portraits came to light. In 1887, Daniel Marie Fouquet heard of the discovery of numerous portrait mummies in a cave. He set off to inspect them some days later, but arrived too late, as the finders had used the painted plaques for firewood during
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The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial. Extant examples indicate that they were mounted into the bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have now been detached from the mummies. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and
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The combination of naturalistic Greek portrait of the deceased with Egyptian-form deities, symbols, and frame was primarily phenomenon of funerary art from the chora, or countryside, in Roman Egypt. Combining Egyptian and Greek pictorial forms or motifs was not restricted to funerary art, however:
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in Paris. Because they were mostly recovered through inappropriate and unprofessional means, virtually all are without archaeological context, a fact which consistently lowers the quality of archaeological and culture-historical information they provide. As a result, their overall significance as
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In the 3rd century the Roman Empire underwent a severe economic crisis, severely limiting the financial abilities of the upper classes. Although they continued to lavishly spend money on representation, they favoured public appearances, like games and festivals, over the production of portraits.
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In terms of anthropological characteristics, academic Alan K. Bowman stated that based on skull analysis, the Faiyum mummy burials were said to be the same as 'native' Egyptians of the Pharaonic era. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier
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There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and
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The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30 BC to the 3rd century. To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and
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Comparing the hairstyles on mummy portraits, it is revealed that the vast majority of them correspond to the fast-changing fashion of hairstyles used by the elite of the rest of the Roman Empire. They, in turn, often followed the fashion of the Roman emperors and their wives, whose images and
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The patrons of the portraits apparently belonged to the affluent upper class of military personnel, civil servants and religious dignitaries. Not everyone could afford a mummy portrait; many mummies were found without one. Flinders Petrie states that only one or two percent of the mummies he
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The Fayum portraits reveal a wide range of painterly expertise and skill in presenting a lifelike appearance. The naturalism of the portraits is often revealed in knowledge of anatomic structure and in skilled modelling of the form by the use of light and shade, which gives an appearance of
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Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and thus the centre of the
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are always influenced by Roman fashion. Women and children are often depicted wearing valuable ornaments and fine garments, men often wearing specific and elaborate outfits. Greek inscriptions of names are relatively common, sometimes they include professions. It is not known whether such
637:" is interesting in this regard. It contained four mummies: those of Aline, of two children and of her husband. Unlike his wife and children, the latter was not equipped with a portrait but with a gilt three-dimensional mask. Perhaps plaster masks were preferred if they could be afforded.
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inscriptions always reflect reality, or whether they may state ideal conditions or aspirations rather than true conditions. One single inscription is known to definitely indicate the deceased's profession (a shipowner) correctly. The mummy of a woman named Hermione also included the term
977:, i.e. the granting of Roman citizenship to all free subjects changed the social structures of Egypt. For the first time, the individual cities gained a degree of self-administration. At the same time, the provincial upper classes changed in terms of both composition and inter-relations.
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worn by many men, with very few exceptions, only women are depicted with jewellery. This generally accords with the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East. Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are also depictions of
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The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated grave rites. There is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted by a multi-cultural ruling class. The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the
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excavated were embellished with portraits. The rates for mummy portraits do not survive, but it can be assumed that the material caused higher costs than the labour, since in antiquity, painters were appreciated as craftsmen rather than as artists. The situation from the "
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is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the 3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together.
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strongly support such a view. In view of the near-total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman portrait painting.
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The gold wreath was apparently rarely, if ever, worn in life, but a number have been found in graves from much earlier periods. Based on the plant wreaths given as prizes in contests, the idea was apparently to celebrate the achievements of the deceased in life.
349:. The French archaeologist Albert Gayet worked at Antinoöpolis and found much relevant material, but his work, like that of many of his contemporaries, does not satisfy modern standards. His documentation is incomplete, many of his finds remain without context.
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624:, but this view is no longer widely held given the evidence suggested by the C.A.T. scans of the Faiyum mummies, as well as Roman census returns. In addition, some portraits were painted directly onto the coffin; for example, on a shroud or another part.
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Based on literary, archaeological and genetic studies, it appears that those depicted were native Egyptians, who had adopted the dominant Greco-Roman culture. The name of some of those portrayed are known from inscriptions; they are predominantly Greek.
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The rest of Egypt was kept divided into the forty-two districts (called hsaput in Egyptian and nomos in Greek), which had been traditional for over 3,000 years. Here, some seven to ten million native Egyptians lived the same life they had always
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pharaohs by analogy with other works of art, mainly coin portraits. None of these associations were particularly well argued or convincing, but they gained him much attention, not least because he gained the support of well-known scholars like
800:
676:, the first residential college for women in Britain), but today, it is assumed that the term indicates her level of education. Some portraits of men show sword-belts or even pommels, suggesting that they were members of the Roman military.
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to publish his finds. He produced presentation folders to advertise his individual finds throughout Europe. Although little was known about their archaeological find contexts, Graf went as far as to ascribe the portraits to known
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761:. In funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the presence of the dead.
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1223:. A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that the mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of which later bore an influence on the art of
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A DNA study showed genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman populations of Egypt, indicating that foreign rule impacted Egypt's population only to a very limited degree at the genetic level.
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but otherwise living in an entirely Hellenistic world, incorporating only very few local elements. Conversely, the Egyptians only slowly developed an interest in the Greek-Hellenic culture that dominated the
292:. As a result, mummy portraits became the centre of much attention. By the late 19th century, their very specific aesthetic made them sought-after collection pieces, distributed by the global arts trade.
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steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy portraits did not become known before the early 19th century. The provenance of these first new finds is unclear; they may come from
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people from disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds, settled in the area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local populations.
1007:. They are one of the main aids in dating the paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are frequently similar to those depicted in
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never banned mummification.) An increasing neglect of Egyptian temples is noticeable during the Roman imperial period, leading to a general drop in interest in all ancient religions.
1505:
1212:(i.e., painting on wood or other mobile surfaces) was held in high regard, but very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy portraits is the
457:
The wooden surface was sometimes primed for painting with a layer of plaster. In some cases the primed layer reveals a preparatory drawing. Two painting techniques were employed:
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599:, settled in Egypt and married local women, as well as native Egyptians who were the majority, many of whom had adopted Greek or Latin names, then seen as 'status symbols'.
559:(elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed lands. Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over the country, notably the
697:, equipped with a decorated coffin and a mummy mask to cover the head. The Greeks who entered Egypt at that time mostly followed their own habits. There is evidence from
235:. In 1820, the Baron of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, but they became part of a whole shipload of Egyptian artifacts lost in the
174:
of Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are frequently very well preserved, often retaining their brilliant colours seemingly unfaded by time.
722:. This situation changed substantially with the arrival of the Romans. Within a few generations, all Egyptian elements disappeared from everyday life. Cities like
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668:(γραμματική). For a long time, it was assumed that this indicated that she was a teacher by profession (for this reason, Flinders Petrie donated the portrait to
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854:
555:, or possibly a total of three to five million for all ethnicities, according to lower estimates. Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans and
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Other examples: a framed portrait from Hawara, the image of a man flanked by two deities from the same site, or the 6th century BC panels from Pitsa in Greece.
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religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek.
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Paula Modersohn-Becker und die ägyptischen Mumienportraits ... Katalogbuch zur Ausstellung in Bremen, Kunstsammlung Böttcherstraße, 14.10.2007–24.2.2008
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are largely Greco-Roman places. There is clear evidence that this resulted from a mixing of different ethnicities in the ruling classes of Roman Egypt.
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in 1615, was the first European to discover and describe mummy portraits. He transported some mummies with portraits to Europe, which are now in the
842:
3119:
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Coussement, S. 'Because I am Greek': Polynymy as an Expression of Ethnicity in Ptolemaic Egypt. Studia Hellenistica 55 (Peeters Publishers, 2016).
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Some aspects of the mummy portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly resemble later
465:. The encaustic images are striking because of the contrast between vivid and rich colours, and comparatively large brush-strokes, producing an "
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three-dimensionality to most of the figures. The graded flesh tones are enhanced with shadows and highlights indicative of directional lighting.
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Today, mummy portraits are represented in all important archaeological museums of the world. Many have fine examples on display, notably the
1370:
1251:, earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or pottery figurines, but from the 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found.
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469:" effect. The tempera paintings have a finer gradation of tones and chalkier colours, giving a more restrained appearance. In some cases,
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98:. The Fayum portraits are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived. They were formerly, and incorrectly, called
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1216:, also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style.
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was used to depict jewellery and wreaths. There also are examples of hybrid techniques or of variations from the main techniques.
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Thus, a combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear causality can be asserted.
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Bilder aus dem Wüstensand. Mumienportraits aus dem Ägyptischen Museum Kairo; eine Ausstellung des Kunsthistorischen Museums Wien
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239:. In 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the
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The majority of preserved mummy portraits were painted on boards or panels, made from different imported hardwoods, including
267:, sent several further portraits to Paris and London. Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban
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575:, to undertake the labor involved in the land reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered
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Irish, JD (April 2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples".
259:. It is so similar to de Laborde's specimens that it is thought to be from the same source. During the 1820s, the British
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Most of the portraits depict the deceased at a relatively young age, and many show children. According to Susan Walker,
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Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs
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341:", which held three mummy portraits; among the most famous today. Other important sources of such finds are at
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1948:
Excavating Egypt: great discoveries from the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University College, London
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140:, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western traditions in the post-classical world, including the local tradition of
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mummy cases date back to pharaonic times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the time of
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412:
Mummy portrait of a woman from Fayum, Hawara, modern-day Egypt. Encaustic on wood, AD 300–325. British Museum
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In parallel, more scientific engagement with the portraits was beginning. In 1887, the British archaeologist
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Broux, Y. Double Names and Elite Strategy in Roman Egypt. Studia Hellenistica 54 (Peeters Publishers, 2016).
1807:
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124:. "Faiyum portraits" is generally used as a stylistic, rather than a geographic, description. While painted
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Pollios Soter, a historical character known from written sources, but this has turned out to be incorrect.
2354:"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods"
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551:, but also in a few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten million native
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1153:. The stones were normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate
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distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at Alexandria. New finds from
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upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from
95:
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Dentition helps archaeologists to assess biological and ethnic population traits and relationships
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The plaited hairstyle of this elite woman makes it possible to date this painting to the reign of
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2983:. Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie/ Sonderhefte der Antiken Welt. Mainz am Rhein: Von Zabern.
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Egyptians mostly followed ancient traditions. The bodies of members of the upper classes were
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579:. It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the
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Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among the
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on 27 December 2007 – via ETANA (Electronic Tools and Ancient Near Eastern Archives).
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The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that
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777:). The development of mummy portraiture may represent a combination of Egyptian and
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Mummy portrait of a man from Fayum. Encaustic on limewood, AD 80–100. British Museum
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Three-dimensional funerary masks of painted plaster from Faiyum (1st century),
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About 900 mummy portraits are known at present. The majority were found in the
2793:. (trans of Le Icone, Montadori 1981). London: Evans Brothers Ltd. p. 3.
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2817:[This is how two secular artists recreated the Temple in Jerusalem].
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The Fayum mummy images were used to recreate Jewish faces from first-century
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Egypt After the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest
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2179:. Metropolitan Museum of Art Publications. New York: Routledge. p. 27.
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Portrait of a boy, identified by inscription as Eutyches (Greek: Ευτύχης),
3111:"Unraveling the mysteries of ancient Egypt's spellbinding mummy portraits"
2480:
Schillaci, Michael A.; Irish, Joel D.; Wood, Carolan C. E. (5 June 2009).
2889:
Vol. B, 1-4, Rome 1969–2003 (Corpus of most of the known mummy portraits)
2648:
2306:
The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity, and Funerary Religion
1146:
846:
426:
337:
In 1892, the German archaeologist von Kaufmann discovered the so-called "
256:
105:
Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the
76:
3019:
Augenblicke. Mumienporträts und ägyptische Grabkunst aus römischer Zeit
2377:
2129:
2097:
2819:
2497:
2458:
2352:
Schuenemann, Verena; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix (30 May 2017).
1248:
1232:
1178:
1170:
1130:
811:
748:
723:
710:
576:
462:
434:
228:
200:
164:
114:
60:
in winter 1905/06 by French Archaeologist Alfred Gayet and sold to the
701:
and other sites indicating that they practised the Greek tradition of
3162:
1174:
1138:
1117:
1048:
948:
544:
442:
430:
370:
346:
321:
268:
240:
110:
41:
1793:
1775:
1748:
1739:
1730:
1685:
1676:
1649:
1613:
1595:
1523:
1514:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1388:
1307:
1289:
300:
159:. Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique: one of
52:
32:
1927:. Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano Serie B, v. 1-4. Rome.
255:'s 1828–29 expedition to Egypt, brought a further portrait back to
1889:
1188:
1150:
1142:
892:
758:
694:
639:
438:
299:
83:
51:
45:
31:
2647:
Other scholars, e.g. Barbara Borg, suggest that they start under
2482:"Further analysis of the population history of ancient Egyptians"
2981:"Der zierlichste Anblick der Welt ...". Ägyptische Porträtmumien
1236:
3090:
Living Images, Egyptian Funerary Portraits in the Petrie Museum
2887:
Ritratti di mummie, Repertorio d'arte dell'Egitto greco-romano
418:
1070:, an orange chiton with black bands and rod-shaped earrings.
374:
well as their specific interpretations remain controversial.
2145:
Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek Kings as Egyptian Pharaohs
1989:
1987:
825:
Fayum portrait of a man, mid-2nd century, Myers Collection,
1950:. Atlanta, Georgia: Michael C. Carlos Museum. p. 101.
962:
However, other elements of sepulchral representation, like
781:, since it appears only after Egypt was established as a
591:
The portraits are said to represent both descendants of
2529:, Nigel Guy, Routledge Taylor and Francis group, p. 601
1028:
Depiction of a woman with curly hair, wearing a violet
383:
and female and range in age from childhood to old age.
1239:
of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the
994:
Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion
94:, one of the most highly regarded forms of art in the
2537:
2535:
2098:"Villages, Land and Population in Graeco-Roman Egypt"
2071:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 39.
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1864:
Berman, Lawrence; Freed, Rita E.; and Doxey, Denise.
2204:
Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History
3149:
Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in English)
2930:
Mumienporträts. Chronologie und kultureller Kontext
2262:"Egyptian art and architecture – Greco-Roman Egypt"
3154:Detailed discussion of mummy portraits (in French)
3133:Proportion and personality in the Faiyum Portraits
3088:Jan Picton, Stephen Quirke, Paul C. Roberts (ed):
2147:. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 23.
2102:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society
1196:with images of Septimius Severus and his family.
705:. This broadly reflects the general situation in
304:Detail of a portrait within its mummy wrappings,
2170:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2069:The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World
3045:Ancient Faces. Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt
2945:Ancient Faces, Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt
2720:
2708:
2594:
806:Fayum mummy portrait of a man, 1st century AD,
709:Egypt, its rulers proclaiming themselves to be
2415:. University of California Press. p. 17.
2058:
2056:
1003:Mummy portraits depict a variety of different
2177:Ancient Faces: Mummy Portraits in Roman Egypt
8:
2897:. Vol. IV. Wiesbaden. pp. 218–222.
2815:"כך שני אמנים חילונים בנו מחדש את בית המקדש"
1946:B. T. Trope; S. Quirke; P. Lacovara (2005).
1868:. p. 193. Museum of Fine Arts Boston. 2003.
481:Subjects and social context of the paintings
333:Late-19th- and early-20th-century collectors
167:. The former are usually of higher quality.
27:Portraits attached to mummies in Roman Egypt
3067:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2967:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2907:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2870:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2216:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2175:Bagnall, R.S. (2000). Susan Walker (ed.).
1937:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
543:Under Hellenic rule, Egypt hosted several
3017:Klaus Parlasca; Hellmut Seemann (Hrsg.):
2486:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2447:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2385:
2347:
2345:
2330:A History of Mathematics: An Introduction
509:A portrait from the late 1st century AD.
3032:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2893:Henning Wrede (1982). "Mumienporträts".
2639:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2554:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2031:Nicola Hoesch (2000). "Mumienporträts".
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1169:, and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold
860:Fayum portrait of a woman, 2nd century,
841:Fayum portrait of a woman, 4th century,
308:, discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1911.
191:Mummies' discovery by Pietro Della Valle
186:
56:This heavily gilt portrait was found in
2943:Susan Walker; Morris Bierbrier (1997).
2189:
1857:
1258:
1018:
931:Portrait of a woman named Isidora from
902:
796:
773:cultivated ancestral spirits (see also
484:
390:
3060:
2960:
2900:
2880:Mumienporträts und verwandte Denkmäler
2863:
2608:The Art of Death in Graeco-Roman Egypt
2209:
2005:
1930:
2660:
2047:
1944:A further specimen discovered since:
1088:traditionally Roman decorative line,
296:Archaeological study: Flinders Petrie
7:
3213:Portraits of ancient Greece and Rome
2696:
2684:
2672:
2626:
2582:
2570:
2541:
1993:
1978:
1157:, with precious stones set in gold.
912:Fayum mummy portrait of a man named
882:Coexistence with other burial habits
757:, images of their ancestors, in the
547:settlements, mostly concentrated in
3113:CNN feature on Getty Museum project
2606:summarised in: Judith A. Corbelli:
1884:Examples still attached are in the
899:End of the mummy portrait tradition
75:are a type of naturalistic painted
1181:, perhaps with magical functions.
213:Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden
90:. They belong to the tradition of
25:
3248:Antiquities in the Pushkin Museum
36:Mummy portrait of a young woman,
3159:Gallery of Fayum Mummy Portraits
2853:Roman Portraits and Memphis (IV)
2067:. In Bugh, Glenn Richard (ed.).
1792:
1783:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1747:
1738:
1729:
1720:
1711:
1702:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1630:
1621:
1612:
1603:
1594:
1585:
1576:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1540:
1531:
1522:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1486:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1387:
1378:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1306:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1059:
1040:
1032:and cloak and pendant earrings.
1021:
940:
924:
905:
853:
834:
818:
799:
522:
502:
487:
405:
393:
1921:Corpus of all known specimens:
947:Fayum portrait of a woman from
461:(wax) painting and animal glue
3006:, Milan/Wien/Ostfildern 1998;
2920:The Mysterious Fayum Portraits
2850:W. M. Flinders Petrie (1911).
2527:Encyclopedia Of Ancient Greece
2266:Encyclopædia Britannica Online
2143:Stanwick, Paul Edmund (2003).
163:(wax) paintings, the other in
1:
3135:, A.J.N.W Prag, November 2002
3038:. Vol. 8. pp. 464f.
2721:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
2709:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
2595:Walker & Bierbrier (1997)
1905:. p. 236 Hermes House. 2002.
1901:Oakes, Lorna; Gahlin, Lucia.
1231:. A pair of panel "icons" of
1173:. Many portraits also depict
743:Link with Roman funeral masks
611:Age profile of those depicted
79:on wooden boards attached to
40:, Middle Egypt, 2nd century,
2723:, pp. 123–124, Nr. 119.
2711:, pp. 121–122, Nr. 117.
2063:Adams, Winthrope L. (2006).
1923:Klaus Parlasca (1969–2003).
1066:Depiction of a woman with a
843:Museo archeologico nazionale
646:Montreal Museum of Fine Arts
142:Coptic Christian iconography
132:. The portraits date to the
2645:. Vol. 8. p. 464.
2560:. Vol. 8. p. 465.
2308:. Oxford University Press.
2037:. Vol. 8. p. 464.
1185:Art-historical significance
363:National Museum of Scotland
3264:
3043:Susan Walker, ed. (2000).
2610:, Princes Risborough 2006
2332:, p. 184. Addison Wesley,
2065:"The Hellenistic Kingdoms"
1810:for the 2021 Israeli film
1105:
680:Culture-historical context
496:Metropolitan Museum of Art
367:Metropolitan Museum of Art
306:Metropolitan Museum of Art
3144:Petrie's report from 1911
2922:. Thames and Hudson, 1995
2114:10.1017/S0068673500005253
935:, 100–110 AD, Getty Villa
771:everyday domestic rituals
593:ancient Greek mercenaries
253:Jean-François Champollion
231:as well, or perhaps from
62:Egyptian Museum of Berlin
3178:1st-century BC paintings
3139:History of Encaustic Art
2856:. London. Archived from
2409:Bowman, Alan K. (1989).
2232:"Fayoum mummy portraits"
2096:Rathbone, D. W. (1990).
951:, 75–100 AD, Getty Villa
866:University of Manchester
779:Roman funerary practices
685:Changes in burial habits
378:Materials and techniques
324:. He discovered a Roman
3203:Ancient Roman paintings
3092:, Walnut Creek CA 2007
3002:Wilfried Seipel (ed.):
2895:Lexikon der Ägyptologie
2328:Victor J. Katz (1998).
975:Constitutio Antoniniana
718:since the conquests of
219:19th-century collectors
3238:Ancient Greek painting
3218:Roman Empire paintings
3122:3 October 2018 at the
2844:(chronological order)
1996:, pp. 13f., 34ff.
1892:and the British Museum
1247:; as with the cult of
1201:
1198:Antikensammlung Berlin
1112:Crown of justification
775:veneration of the dead
649:
309:
192:
65:
49:
3198:4th-century paintings
3193:3rd-century paintings
3188:2nd-century paintings
3183:1st-century paintings
2358:Nature Communications
1866:Arts of Ancient Egypt
1813:Legend of Destruction
1192:
1106:Further information:
759:atrium of their house
689:The burial habits of
643:
620:to the traditions of
595:, who had fought for
529:Man with sword belt,
303:
223:Although interest in
195:The Italian explorer
190:
73:Fayum mummy portraits
55:
35:
1127:semi-precious stones
1116:Apart from the gold
734:Religious continuity
369:in New York and the
109:, particularly from
3223:Early Christian art
2916:Euphrosyne Doxiadis
2378:10.1038/ncomms15694
2370:2017NatCo...815694S
2202:Alston, R. (1995).
999:Provincial fashions
597:Alexander the Great
453:Painting techniques
243:, the other in the
178:History of research
153:artistic traditions
130:Roman rule in Egypt
2687:, pp. 88–101.
2498:10.1002/ajpa.20976
2459:10.1002/ajpa.20261
2304:Riggs, C. (2005).
1925:Ritratti di mummie
1802:In popular culture
1202:
1072:Museum of Scotland
1053:Walters Art Museum
808:Oriental Institute
716:East Mediterranean
650:
511:Walters Art Museum
310:
249:Ippolito Rosellini
197:Pietro Della Valle
193:
134:Imperial Roman era
66:
50:
3098:978-1-59874-251-0
3084:978-3-7774-3735-4
2903:cite encyclopedia
2765:"[image]"
2699:, pp. 51–52.
2597:, pp. 17–20.
2585:, pp. 40–56.
2573:, pp. 53–55.
2422:978-0-520-06665-6
2315:978-0-191-53487-4
2236:Egyptology Online
2192:, pp. 28–29.
2154:978-0-292-77772-9
2078:978-0-521-53570-0
1826:Ancient Roman art
1149:, rarely also of
1068:ringlet hairstyle
987:Marina el-Alamein
862:Manchester Museum
16:(Redirected from
3255:
3078:, München 2007,
3072:
3066:
3058:
3039:
3021:, München 1999,
2984:
2972:
2966:
2958:
2912:
2906:
2898:
2885:Klaus Parlasca:
2882:, Wiesbaden 1966
2878:Klaus Parlasca:
2875:
2869:
2861:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2771:. Archived from
2769:www.aisthesis.de
2761:
2755:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2740:. Archived from
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
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2682:
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2274:
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2258:
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2249:
2247:
2242:on 8 August 2007
2238:. Archived from
2228:
2222:
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2215:
2207:
2199:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2180:
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2108:(216): 103–142.
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1005:Roman hairstyles
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928:
909:
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822:
803:
526:
506:
491:
409:
397:
199:, on a visit to
183:Pre-19th century
100:Coptic portraits
21:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3252:
3233:Hellenistic art
3168:
3167:
3124:Wayback Machine
3117:Mummy portraits
3107:
3102:
3059:
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2959:
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2785:
2784:
2780:
2775:on 12 May 2012.
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1886:Egyptian Museum
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966:, did continue.
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789:Salon paintings
763:Roman festivals
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539:People of Fayum
534:
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507:
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483:
467:Impressionistic
455:
413:
410:
401:
398:
389:
387:Painted surface
380:
355:
335:
314:Flinders Petrie
298:
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185:
180:
96:Classical world
69:Mummy portraits
28:
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3105:External links
3103:
3101:
3100:
3086:
3073:
3053:
3040:
3035:Der Neue Pauly
3029:
3015:
3000:
2973:
2953:
2940:
2932:, Mainz 1996,
2923:
2913:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2846:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2806:
2799:
2787:Kurt Weitzmann
2778:
2756:
2747:
2744:on 3 May 2015.
2738:www.sikyon.com
2725:
2713:
2701:
2689:
2677:
2665:
2653:
2642:Der Neue Pauly
2631:
2619:
2599:
2587:
2575:
2563:
2557:Der Neue Pauly
2546:
2531:
2519:
2492:(2): 235–243.
2472:
2453:(4): 529–543.
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2421:
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2321:
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2287:
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2194:
2190:Bagnall (2000)
2182:
2160:
2153:
2135:
2088:
2077:
2052:
2050:, p. 218.
2040:
2034:Der Neue Pauly
2010:
1998:
1983:
1981:, p. 10f.
1964:
1956:
1914:
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1846:Malibu Painter
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1296:
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1269:
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1260:
1256:
1253:
1225:late antiquity
1206:panel painting
1186:
1183:
1103:
1100:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1065:
1058:
1056:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1034:British Museum
1027:
1020:
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1000:
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979:
978:
971:
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904:
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833:
831:
824:
817:
815:
805:
798:
790:
787:
783:Roman province
751:of displaying
749:Roman nobility
744:
741:
735:
732:
686:
683:
681:
678:
670:Girton College
629:
626:
612:
609:
540:
537:
536:
535:
531:British Museum
528:
521:
519:
508:
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486:
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454:
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388:
385:
379:
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359:British Museum
354:
351:
334:
331:
297:
294:
290:Rudolf Virchow
261:Consul General
251:, a member of
245:British Museum
220:
217:
184:
181:
179:
176:
92:panel painting
26:
24:
18:Fayum portrait
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3260:
3249:
3246:
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3209:
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3134:
3131:
3129:
3128:Petrie Museum
3125:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3064:
3056:
3054:0-415-92744-7
3050:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3036:
3030:
3028:
3027:3-7814-0423-4
3024:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3012:88-8118-459-1
3009:
3005:
3001:
2999:
2998:3-8053-2263-1
2995:
2991:
2990:3-8053-2264-X
2987:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2956:
2954:0-7141-0989-4
2950:
2946:
2941:
2939:
2938:3-8053-1742-5
2935:
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2924:
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2807:
2802:
2800:0-237-45645-1
2796:
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2779:
2774:
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2757:
2751:
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2743:
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2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2678:
2675:, p. 31.
2674:
2669:
2666:
2663:, p. 11.
2662:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2635:
2632:
2629:, p. 78.
2628:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2616:0-7478-0647-0
2613:
2609:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2558:
2550:
2547:
2544:, p. 58.
2543:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
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2338:0-321-01618-1
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2317:
2311:
2307:
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2119:
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2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2006:Petrie (1911)
2002:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1957:1-928917-06-2
1953:
1949:
1940:
1934:
1926:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1911:1-84477-008-7
1908:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1874:0-87846-661-4
1871:
1867:
1861:
1858:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1836:Coptic Museum
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1815:
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1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1229:Byzantine art
1226:
1222:
1221:icon painting
1217:
1215:
1214:Severan Tondo
1211:
1210:wall painting
1207:
1199:
1195:
1194:Severan Tondo
1191:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1113:
1109:
1108:Roman jewelry
1101:
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965:
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959:
958:
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943:
938:
934:
927:
922:
919:
916:, 50–100 AD,
915:
908:
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867:
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851:
848:
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692:
684:
679:
677:
675:
671:
667:
662:
658:
654:
647:
642:
638:
636:
635:Tomb of Aline
628:Social status
627:
625:
623:
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386:
384:
377:
375:
372:
368:
364:
360:
352:
350:
348:
344:
340:
339:Tomb of Aline
332:
330:
327:
323:
319:
315:
307:
302:
295:
293:
291:
286:
281:
278:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
225:ancient Egypt
218:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
189:
182:
177:
175:
173:
168:
166:
162:
158:
157:Egyptian ones
154:
151:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
116:
112:
108:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
82:
78:
74:
70:
63:
59:
54:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
3089:
3075:
3047:. New York.
3044:
3033:
3018:
3003:
2980:
2977:Barbara Borg
2944:
2929:
2926:Barbara Borg
2919:
2894:
2886:
2879:
2858:the original
2852:
2843:
2840:Bibliography
2825:. Retrieved
2818:
2809:
2790:
2781:
2773:the original
2768:
2759:
2750:
2742:the original
2737:
2728:
2716:
2704:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2661:Riggs (2005)
2656:
2640:
2634:
2622:
2607:
2602:
2590:
2578:
2566:
2555:
2549:
2526:
2522:
2489:
2485:
2475:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2431:
2411:
2404:
2361:
2357:
2329:
2324:
2305:
2299:
2290:
2281:
2269:. Retrieved
2265:
2256:
2244:. Retrieved
2240:the original
2235:
2226:
2203:
2197:
2185:
2176:
2144:
2138:
2105:
2101:
2091:
2082:
2068:
2048:Wrede (1982)
2043:
2032:
2008:, p. 1.
2001:
1947:
1943:
1924:
1917:
1902:
1897:
1880:
1865:
1860:
1841:Pitsa panels
1811:
1805:
1241:Getty Museum
1218:
1208:rather than
1203:
1163:
1159:
1115:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1077:
1002:
983:
980:
955:
933:Ankyronpolis
885:
876:
827:Eton College
792:
765:such as the
752:
746:
737:
688:
665:
655:
651:
631:
614:
605:
601:
590:
586:
556:
542:
475:
456:
416:
381:
356:
343:Antinoöpolis
336:
311:
277:Egyptologist
273:
222:
194:
169:
146:
122:Antinoopolis
107:Faiyum Basin
104:
99:
72:
68:
67:
58:Antinoöpolis
38:Antinoöpolis
29:
3243:Roman Egypt
2823:(in Hebrew)
2697:Borg (1998)
2685:Borg (1998)
2673:Borg (1998)
2627:Borg (1998)
2583:Borg (1998)
2571:Borg (1998)
2542:Borg (1998)
2206:. New York.
1994:Borg (1998)
1979:Borg (1998)
918:Getty Villa
914:Herakleides
769:as well as
728:Oxyrhynchus
707:Hellenistic
569:Oxyrhynchus
565:Upper Egypt
449:painting).
318:excavations
280:Georg Ebers
150:Greco-Roman
88:Roman Egypt
81:upper class
3228:Coptic art
3172:Categories
2947:. London.
2827:3 December
2734:"Painting"
2271:16 January
2246:16 January
1852:References
1831:Coptic art
1051:(98–117).
1015:Hairstyles
964:sarcophagi
767:Parentalia
699:Alexandria
666:grammatike
657:Hairstyles
561:Nile Delta
549:Alexandria
447:cartonnage
326:necropolis
265:Henry Salt
263:to Egypt,
209:Albertinum
172:necropolis
144:in Egypt.
126:cartonnage
3208:Greek art
3063:cite book
2963:cite book
2866:cite book
2506:1096-8644
2364:: 15694.
2212:cite book
2122:0068-6735
1933:cite book
1135:carnelian
1009:sculpture
720:Alexander
703:cremation
695:mummified
691:Ptolemaic
674:Cambridge
622:Greek art
581:Ptolemaic
553:Egyptians
515:Baltimore
471:gold leaf
459:encaustic
285:Ptolemaic
237:North Sea
161:encaustic
138:Byzantine
115:Hadrianic
3120:Archived
2979:(1998).
2791:The Icon
2789:(1982).
2649:Tiberius
2514:19140183
2467:16331657
2396:28556824
2130:44696684
1820:See also
1179:pendants
1171:hairnets
1155:colliers
1147:amethyst
1123:precious
1094:(plural
1083:Clothing
847:Florence
754:imagines
711:pharaohs
661:clothing
557:cleruchs
427:sycamore
316:started
257:Florence
113:and the
77:portrait
64:in 1907.
3126:in the
2820:Haaretz
2387:5459999
2366:Bibcode
1255:Gallery
1249:Mithras
1233:Serapis
1175:amulets
1167:diadems
1131:emerald
1118:wreaths
1102:Jewelry
812:Chicago
724:Karanis
573:Memphis
463:tempera
435:cypress
353:Museums
229:Saqqara
205:Memphis
201:Saqqara
165:tempera
84:mummies
3163:Flickr
3096:
3082:
3051:
3025:
3010:
2996:
2988:
2951:
2936:
2797:
2614:
2512:
2504:
2465:
2419:
2394:
2384:
2336:
2312:
2151:
2128:
2120:
2075:
1954:
1909:
1872:
1808:Judaea
1245:Malibu
1151:pearls
1139:garnet
1091:clavus
1049:Trajan
1030:chiton
949:Hawara
617:C.A.T.
577:papyri
443:citrus
441:, and
371:Louvre
365:, the
361:, the
347:Akhmim
322:Hawara
269:Archon
241:Louvre
233:Thebes
111:Hawara
42:Louvre
2126:JSTOR
1890:Cairo
1143:agate
1129:like
1096:clavi
893:Nubia
889:Delta
873:Style
545:Greek
431:cedar
155:than
120:city
118:Roman
86:from
46:Paris
3094:ISBN
3080:ISBN
3069:link
3049:ISBN
3023:ISBN
3008:ISBN
2994:ISBN
2986:ISBN
2969:link
2949:ISBN
2934:ISBN
2909:link
2872:link
2829:2022
2795:ISBN
2612:ISBN
2510:PMID
2502:ISSN
2463:PMID
2417:ISBN
2392:PMID
2334:ISBN
2310:ISBN
2273:2007
2248:2007
2218:link
2149:ISBN
2118:ISSN
2084:led.
2073:ISBN
1952:ISBN
1939:link
1907:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1237:Isis
1235:and
1227:and
1177:and
1110:and
973:The
659:and
571:and
423:lime
345:and
3161:at
2494:doi
2490:139
2455:doi
2451:129
2382:PMC
2374:doi
2110:doi
1243:at
1145:or
1125:or
891:to
726:or
439:fig
419:oak
320:at
215:).
71:or
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3065:}}
3061:{{
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2116:.
2106:36
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2081:.
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2911:)
2874:)
2831:.
2803:.
2651:.
2516:.
2496::
2469:.
2457::
2425:.
2398:.
2376::
2368::
2362:8
2318:.
2275:.
2250:.
2220:)
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2132:.
2112::
1960:.
1941:)
1200:.
829:.
648:.
533:.
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211:(
203:-
48:.
20:)
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