1607:, especially in major metropolitan areas, becoming a federal judge can represent a more than 90 percent pay cut. Associates at the largest U.S. law firms with judicial clerkship experience already earn as much as a federal judge in their first year as full-time associates. When those attorneys eventually become experienced partners and reach the stage in life where one would normally consider switching to public service, their interest in joining the judiciary is tempered by the prospect of a giant pay cut back to what they were making 10 to 20 years earlier (adjusted for inflation). One way for attorneys to soften the financial blow is to spend only a few years on the bench and then return to private practice or go into private arbitration, but such turnover creates a risk of a
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1675:, as set forth in Title 28 of the U.S. Code, section 371(c). Beginning at age 65, judges may retire at their current salary, or take senior status, after performing 15 years of active service as an Article III judge (65 + 15 = 80). A sliding scale of increasing age and decreasing service (66 + 14, 67 + 13, 68 + 12, 69 + 11) results in eligibility for retirement compensation at age 70 with a minimum of 10 years of service (70 + 10 = 80).
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judgeships in a particular judicial district, usually in response to shifting population numbers or a changing workload in that district. Although the number of
Supreme Court justices has remained the same for well over a century, the number of court of appeals judges has more than doubled since 1950, and the number of district court judges has increased more than three-fold in that period. In addition, some district court judges serve on more than one court at a time.
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1615:. Roberts has warned that "judges are no longer drawn primarily from among the best lawyers in the practicing bar" and "If judicial appointment ceases to be the capstone of a distinguished career and instead becomes a stepping stone to a lucrative position in private practice, the Framers' goal of a truly independent judiciary will be placed in serious jeopardy."
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1632:. Some of the larger circuit courts like the Ninth Circuit hold regular sessions at multiple locations, and randomly select three-judge panels to hear appeals from all sitting circuit judges regardless of duty station. (Videoconferencing is sometimes now used to reduce the burden of frequent travel on circuit judges.)
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The discipline process of federal judges is initiated by the filing of a complaint by any person alleging that a judge has engaged in conduct "prejudicial to the effective and expeditious administration of the business of the courts, or alleging that such judge is unable to discharge all the duties
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Federal district courts are authorized to hear a wide range of civil and criminal cases. District court judges are recognized as having a certain degree of inherent authority to manage the matters before them, ranging from setting the dates for trials and hearings to holding parties in contempt or
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Each federal judge serves at a particular "duty station" for the duration of their federal service. This is important because of the relationship among several federal statutes. First, 28 U.S.C. § 456(a) entitles federal judges to reimbursement of transportation and "subsistence" expenses incurred
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The primary function of the federal judges is to resolve matters brought before the United States federal courts. Most federal courts in the United States are courts of limited jurisdiction, meaning that they hear only cases for which jurisdiction is authorized by the United States constitution or
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The total number of active federal judges is constantly in flux, for two reasons. First, judges retire or die, and a lapse of time occurs before new judges are appointed to fill those positions. Second, from time to time
Congress will increase (or, less frequently, decrease) the number of federal
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Appeals courts and the
Supreme Court use similar systems, but depending on the type of filing, may assign one, three, all, or some other number of judges to deal with a particular request. (For example, emergency motions might require a response from only one judge assigned to be on duty for a
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If a judge who is the subject of a complaint holds their office during good behavior, action taken by the judicial council may include certifying disability of the judge. The judicial council may also, in its discretion, refer any complaint under 28 U.S.C. § 351, along with the record of any
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The chief judge of each district court is responsible for overseeing assignments of judges to cases, following a written policy. For reasons of impartiality, this is typically done by a random drawing or rotation. Judges may also be assigned particular types of cases based on their technical
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Second, there are several reasons federal judges need to transact official business outside of their regular courthouse. 28 U.S.C. §§ 291 and 292 authorize a broad variety of temporary reassignments of circuit and district judges, both horizontally (i.e., to other circuits or districts) and
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does not dismiss the complaint or conclude the proceedings, then they must promptly appoint himself or herself, along with equal numbers of circuit judges and district judges, to a special committee to investigate the facts and allegations in the complaint. The committee must conduct such
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while transacting official business away from their duty stations. Section 456 also prescribes that the
District of Columbia is the duty station of all members of the U.S. Supreme Court, the D.C. Circuit, the Federal Circuit, and the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia.
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Judges who meet their age and service requirements may retire and will then earn their final salary for the remainder of their life, plus cost-of-living increases. The "Rule of 80" is the commonly used shorthand for the age and service requirement for a judge to retire, or assume
1726:. Although the term "non-Article III judges" is used to describe the absence of tenure and salary protection, bankruptcy courts are formally designated as divisions of U.S. District Courts, whose district judges are Article III judicial officers. Moreover, in
1473:, all federal judges, including the judges of the Supreme Court and inferior federal courts created by the Congress, shall be nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The Constitution does not provide any eligibility criteria – such as age,
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otherwise sanctioning them for improper behavior. In other circumstances their actions are dictated by federal law, the federal rules of procedure, or "local" rules created by the specific court system itself.
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has repeatedly pleaded for an increase in judicial pay, calling the situation "a constitutional crisis that threatens to undermine the strength and independence of the federal judiciary". For some
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of the circuit involved. Upon receipt of such a report, the judicial council of the circuit involved may conduct any additional investigation it deems necessary, and it may dismiss the complaint.
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vertically (so that a district judge can hear appeals and a circuit judge can try cases). Many federal judges serve on administrative panels like the judicial council for their circuit or the
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Section 1 of
Article Three of the U.S. Constitution provides that federal judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour". This clause has long been interpreted to give federal judges
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1690:: nine on the Supreme Court, 179 on the courts of appeals, 677 for the US District Courts (includes territorial courts), 16 on the US Court of Federal Claims* and nine on the
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Under section 376 a survivor's annuity to benefit the widow, widower or minor child of the judge may be purchased via a deduction of 2.2% to 3.5% from the retirement benefit.
1662:. The Judicial Conference may exercise its authority under the judicial discipline provisions as a conference, or through a standing committee appointed by the chief justice.
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may also have profound political and procedural effects, as such circumstances present substantially less opportunity for preparation for an orderly succession.
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of federal government agencies. Although these judges serve on courts of the federal government, they do not have life tenure, and their authority derives from
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for patents, trademarks, and certain employee benefits. Because it geographically covers the headquarters of federal agencies, the judges of the
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Unlike the judges of
Article III courts, non-Article III judges are appointed for specified terms of office. Examples include
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particular time period, but final decisions in important cases require the whole court.) Appeals courts range in size from 6 (
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investigation as it finds necessary and then expeditiously file a comprehensive written report of its investigation with the
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As of 2024, federal judges' annual salaries are: $ 246,300 for district judges, $ 257,900 for circuit judges, $ 298,500 for
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1563:, and Steven D. Smith, have argued that the Good Behavior Clause may, in theory, permit removal by way of a writ of
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1931:"Scalia Denies Abortion Views Influenced by Religion, Calls His GPS Opinion 'Defendant Friendly'"
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1527:). Some judges have specific expertise by virtue of which court they sit on. By statute, the
1457:, not independently via Article Three. These judges are often known as "Article One judges".
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1551:. Federal judges hold their seats until they resign, die, or are removed from office by
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1818:"Frequently Asked Questions: General Information - Supreme Court of the United States"
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by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The
Constitution gives federal judges
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associated proceedings and its recommendations for appropriate action, to the
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2074:"Chronological History of Authorized Judgeships – Courts of Appeals"
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United States Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
27:
Judges on courts authorized by
Article III of the U.S. Constitution
2100:"Chronological History of Authorized Judgeships – District Courts"
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of the office by reason of mental or physical disability." If the
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expertise or assigned to cases in a specific geographic location.
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gain special expertise in administrative and constitutional law.
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List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments
1798:
List of presidents of the United States by judicial appointments
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Uniformity and jurisdiction in U.S. federal court tax decisions
1784:(outline of all state and federal courts in the United States)
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Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts
2054:(Report). Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. p. 8
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Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts
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filed before a federal court, without resort to impeachment.
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Strictly speaking, the term "federal judge" does not include
1745:
List of United States federal judges by longevity of service
53:
1849:
United States
District Court, Northern District of Iowa.
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Deaths of United States federal judges in active service
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United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
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or the judges of lesser federal tribunals such as the
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452:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review
1914:"2006 Year-End Report on the Federal Judiciary"
1765:Article Three of the United States Constitution
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1755:List of current United States district judges
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8:
1750:List of current United States circuit judges
1851:"How are federal judges assigned to cases?"
1772:(Public Access to Court Electronic Records)
1583:Federal judge salaries in the United States
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2106:. Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts
2080:. Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts
1870:Saikrishna Prakash & Steven D. Smith,
1832:"Introduction To The Federal Court System"
1431:U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces
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31:
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1435:U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims
2148:Judicial Discipline Process: An Overview
1660:Judicial Conference of the United States
1630:Judicial Conference of the United States
1339:who serves on a court established under
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1778:(Case Management/Electronic Case Files)
447:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
437:Multidistrict Litigation Judicial Panel
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36:This article is part of a series on the
2217:federal judiciary of the United States
1760:Federal judiciary of the United States
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1720:United States Court of Federal Claims
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7:
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1593:Chief Justice of the United States
345:Supreme Court of the United States
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1375:. These judges are often called "
1373:U.S. Court of International Trade
75:Constitution of the United States
2140: This article incorporates
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1788:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
1724:United States territorial courts
1589:associate Supreme Court justices
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520:Elections by State and Territory
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1872:"How To Remove a Federal Judge"
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1445:". Nor does it apply to the
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432:Court of International Trade
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2656:Supreme Court demographics
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1491:professional certification
1343:. Such judges include the
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2507:F. D. Roosevelt
2258:F. D. Roosevelt
1447:administrative law judges
873:List of political parties
2224:Supreme Court candidates
2005:"FAQs on Federal Judges"
1591:, and $ 312,200 for the
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1716:United States Tax Court
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1005:Individualist anarchism
177:Congressional districts
2226:and nomination results
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1702:Non-Article III judges
1533:appellate jurisdiction
1469:of Article Two of the
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1402:. Instead, they are
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1371:, and judges of the
1369:U.S. District Courts
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886:Political ideologies
510:Presidential primary
1838:. November 7, 2014.
1510:Allocation of cases
1467:Appointments Clause
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1123:Department of State
798:U.S. Virgin Islands
1937:, 4 February 2012.
1919:. supremecourt.us.
1877:2012-04-15 at the
1710:and judges of the
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2010:
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1989:28 U.S.C.
1981:
1974:28 U.S.C.
1966:
1947:28 U.S.C.
1939:
1922:
1912:John Roberts.
1901:
1887:
1863:
1841:
1823:
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1609:revolving door
1581:Main article:
1578:
1575:
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1531:has exclusive
1511:
1508:
1498:
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1462:
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1439:U.S. Tax Court
1392:vice president
1357:circuit judges
1323:
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1134:Antony Blinken
1126:
1125:
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1103:Superior Court
1100:
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1017:
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982:
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970:Libertarianism
967:
962:
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927:
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923:Traditionalist
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723:South Carolina
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688:North Carolina
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2126:
2121:
2118:
2110:September 16,
2105:
2101:
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2092:
2084:September 16,
2079:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2058:September 16,
2050:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1956:
1955:See generally
1952:
1951:§ 351(a)
1948:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1915:
1908:
1906:
1902:
1897:
1891:
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1673:senior status
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1385:
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1330:
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1021:
1018:
1016:
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1012:
1006:
1003:
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998:
997:
996:
993:
991:
990:Republicanism
988:
986:
985:Protectionism
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
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940:Progressivism
938:
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853:Third parties
851:
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763:West Virginia
761:
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668:New Hampshire
666:
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661:
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628:Massachusetts
626:
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386:
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360:
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353:Chief Justice
351:
350:
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346:
342:
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338:
333:
332:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
307:
304:
303:
300:
299:
295:
294:
290:
289:Kamala Harris
287:
286:
283:
282:
278:
277:
273:
270:
269:
266:
265:
261:
260:
257:
252:
251:
243:
240:
237:
236:
232:
231:Chuck Schumer
229:
226:
225:
221:
218:
215:
214:
210:
209:Kamala Harris
207:
204:
203:
200:
199:
195:
194:
190:
187:
186:
182:
178:
175:
174:
170:
167:
164:
163:
159:
158:Steve Scalise
156:
153:
152:
148:
145:
142:
141:
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137:
133:
132:
130:
128:
123:
116:
115:
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81:
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47:United States
40:
37:
34:
33:
30:
19:
18:Federal Judge
2343:
2230:
2159:. Retrieved
2147:
2120:
2108:. Retrieved
2103:
2094:
2082:. Retrieved
2077:
2068:
2056:. Retrieved
2043:
2028:
2013:
1999:
1984:
1969:
1954:
1942:
1934:
1925:
1890:
1866:
1854:. Retrieved
1844:
1835:
1826:
1812:
1727:
1705:
1696:
1685:
1677:
1669:
1656:
1639:
1626:
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1619:Duty station
1597:John Roberts
1586:
1566:scire facias
1564:
1546:
1517:
1513:
1504:
1500:
1464:
1461:Appointments
1416:
1381:
1376:
1332:
1326:
1083:
1059:Legislatures
1039:
950:Abolitionism
893:Conservatism
815:
805:
728:South Dakota
718:Rhode Island
713:Pennsylvania
693:North Dakota
519:
481:
459:
407:
356:John Roberts
343:
296:
279:
262:
220:Patty Murray
196:
147:Mike Johnson
134:
119:
112:
73:
35:
29:
1935:ABA Journal
1643:chief judge
1603:at leading
1553:impeachment
1549:life tenure
1479:citizenship
1412:impeachment
1408:life tenure
1255:Arab League
1169:Visa policy
1045:Territorial
858:Libertarian
793:Puerto Rico
643:Mississippi
558:Connecticut
106:Legislature
2517:Eisenhower
2351:Washington
2268:Eisenhower
2213:Presidents
2161:August 14,
2037:§ 376
2022:§ 371
1885:72 (2006).
1804:References
1666:Retirement
1636:Discipline
1047:government
1033:Federalism
975:Monarchism
930:Liberalism
845:Republican
840:Democratic
758:Washington
678:New Mexico
673:New Jersey
548:California
2386:Van Buren
2361:Jefferson
1993:§ 71
1958:28 U.S.C.
1883:Yale L.J.
1605:law firms
1523:) to 29 (
1404:nominated
1388:president
1159:Passports
1054:Governors
1000:Anarchism
995:Socialism
768:Wisconsin
733:Tennessee
638:Minnesota
613:Louisiana
475:Elections
390:Kavanaugh
373:Sotomayor
337:Judiciary
272:Joe Biden
256:Executive
206:President
2669:Category
2497:Coolidge
2472:McKinley
2441:Garfield
2416:Buchanan
2406:Fillmore
2248:Coolidge
2215:and the
1875:Archived
1734:See also
1601:partners
1485:, legal/
1475:literacy
1451:Congress
980:Populism
965:Feminism
753:Virginia
703:Oklahoma
683:New York
658:Nebraska
648:Missouri
633:Michigan
623:Maryland
608:Kentucky
588:Illinois
563:Delaware
553:Colorado
543:Arkansas
88:Taxation
2622:Clinton
2557:Clinton
2522:Kennedy
2492:Harding
2421:Lincoln
2381:Jackson
2366:Madison
2308:Clinton
2273:Kennedy
2243:Harding
1856:May 31,
1647:circuit
1645:of the
1489:or any
1367:of the
1359:of the
1351:of the
1327:In the
898:history
773:Wyoming
748:Vermont
653:Montana
593:Indiana
573:Georgia
568:Florida
538:Arizona
528:Alabama
400:Jackson
395:Barrett
385:Gorsuch
314:Cabinet
144:Speaker
2612:Reagan
2607:Carter
2547:Reagan
2542:Carter
2512:Truman
2502:Hoover
2487:Wilson
2446:Arthur
2411:Pierce
2401:Taylor
2371:Monroe
2298:Reagan
2293:Carter
2263:Truman
2253:Hoover
2238:Wilson
2035:
2020:
1991:
1976:
1962:ch. 16
1949:
1881:, 116
1776:CM/ECF
1722:, and
1577:Salary
1543:Tenure
1437:, the
1433:, the
1429:, the
1425:, the
1235:Canada
1215:Russia
1069:Courts
935:Modern
918:Social
913:Paleo-
708:Oregon
663:Nevada
603:Kansas
578:Hawaii
533:Alaska
363:Thomas
198:Senate
93:Policy
2642:Biden
2637:Trump
2632:Obama
2597:Nixon
2577:Biden
2572:Trump
2567:Obama
2532:Nixon
2436:Hayes
2431:Grant
2391:Tyler
2328:Biden
2323:Trump
2318:Obama
2283:Nixon
2152:(PDF)
2144:from
2052:(PDF)
1960:
1917:(PDF)
1770:PACER
1337:judge
1335:is a
1230:Japan
1225:India
1220:China
1098:Mayor
1041:State
903:Black
863:Green
738:Texas
618:Maine
583:Idaho
378:Kagan
368:Alito
2602:Ford
2537:Ford
2482:Taft
2466:(II)
2396:Polk
2288:Ford
2163:2014
2112:2018
2086:2018
2060:2018
1858:2024
1453:via
1398:and
1394:and
1390:and
1347:and
1331:, a
1197:NATO
1063:list
1043:and
908:Neo-
783:Guam
743:Utah
698:Ohio
598:Iowa
426:list
181:list
2453:(I)
1487:bar
1379:".
1202:G20
291:(D)
274:(D)
244:(R)
233:(D)
222:(D)
211:(D)
171:(D)
160:(R)
149:(R)
83:Law
2671::
2654:•
2154:.
2102:.
2076:.
1953:.
1933:,
1904:^
1834:.
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1061:(
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816:(
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424:(
183:)
179:(
20:)
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