311:, Arizona to test the Fido explosive detector sensors’ ability to perform soil particle and vapor-only sampling. The testing site at Yuma Proving Ground was situated in a harsh desert environment with extremely dry soil, which reduced the transport of ERCs through soil water movement. The test field was organized into five lanes, each of which were divided into 100 cells marked with very light rope. The Fido explosives detector was used to analyze samples taken from each cell in each lane in order to determine the location of the buried mines under very low concentration calibration standards. However, while the detector was successful in detecting the mine signatures, it was unable to precisely pinpoint the exact location of the mines in the lanes with any degree of certainty. The researchers concluded that the device's performance was due to high density of mines in the lanes which caused the chemical signatures from the mines to overlap each other, making it difficult to pinpoint the mines’ exact location. However, the Fido explosives detector produced fewer sensor responses in areas away from the mine locations while sensor responses within the mine lanes were frequent despite the fact that the mine signatures can travel significantly far from the center of a mine. The researchers also found that the intensity of the sensor responses increased after a night of light rain. The study concluded that while the Fido explosives detector may have difficulty with identifying the exact location of buried landmines, it may be useful in detecting the presence of mine clusters.
420:
focuses on collecting samples in the immediate vicinity of the sensor inlet and thus features a low volumetric sampling rate. Due to how the concentration of ERCs in the vapor signature is five to six orders of magnitude less than that of the contaminated soil producing the vapor signature, the success of this method relies heavily on the condition of the minefield at the time of the sampling. Favorable conditions include warm temperatures, light winds, damp soil conditions, and any other factors that help increase the vapor concentration or disperse the vapor signature. The best recorded performance of the Fido explosives detector using this method occurred during the DARPA field test at Ft. Leonard Wood, where the device achieved a 100 percent probability of detection with a 10 percent
273:
real-world experience finding landmines faced difficulty performing the task due to very hot and dry weather conditions on the field. In contrast, the team using the Fido explosives detector generally performed better than the experienced canine landmine detection team. In terms of detecting the plastic-cased TMA5 landmines, the best sensor performance demonstrated a detection probability of 89 percent with a 27 percent probability of false alarm. At the conclusion of the field tests, DARPA verified that the performance of the Fido explosives detector was at a level equal to or better than that of the trained canines, marking the first time that an electronic “sniffer” device demonstrated a landmine detection ability comparable to that of trained canines under field conditions.
436:
However, data collected from various field tests support the conclusion that the Fido explosives detector possesses TNT detection capabilities at least comparable to that of a trained sniffer dog. In addition, advocates for the device have argued that the Fido system allows for explosives detection in situations better suited for machines than with a dog and a handler, such as in extreme environments with harsh weather conditions. The device can also detect several different types of explosives than just TNT and may be more consistent than a trained dog, which may be expensive to train and whose performance may be affected by a variety of unknown and uncontrollable factors. However, the Fido explosives detector is also inhibited by
194:
threshold. In the same year, Nomadics marketed a new version of the device known as the Fido XT Explosives
Detector, which featured a tethered extension that allowed the sampling head that collected the traces of explosive compounds to be separated from the rest of the device. The XT variant also incorporated a preconcentrator that allowed the device to sample 1000 liters of air at the same time as it would take for the device to sample 1 liter of air without the enhancement. This new addition made it possible for the device to detect the source of the vapor without having the sensor come in physical contact with the contaminated item.
143:
autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) as part of the U.S. Navy Office of Naval
Research's Chemical Sensing in the Marine Environment (CSME) program, becoming the first to demonstrate the mapping of an explosive plume underwater in real time. In 2002, Nomadics was funded by the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) to configure the Fido explosives detector so that it could be used to monitor explosives contamination of groundwater. The system was further modified and field tested by different organizations within the
432:. This approach allows users to collect soil samples from a much larger area compared to the direct sampling method. For the third sampling method, both soil particles and vapor samples are collected drawing in large volumes of air through a bed of adsorbent material designed to trap ERCs. Once the sample is collected, the trapped analytes are extracted into solvent and presented to the Fido explosives detector using a portable gas chromatograph. This approach tends to allow for rapid sample collection from large areas.
17:
227:. While the fielded prototypes encountered technical problems that hindered performance, repairs by teams of scientists from different Army labs were able to resolve much of the arising issues. Other efforts included the development of Neural Robotics, Inc.'s AutoCopter, which had the detector mounted on a small, unmanned helicopter platform, as well as the integration of the detection system into the
113:
mass of analyte that binds to the polymer films. The polymer films can be exposed repeatedly to samples due to the reversible nature of the binding of the analytes to the film. The Fido explosives detector can return the fluorescence intensity of the polymer films to near the initial baseline reading by drawing in a new flow of clean air to sweep over the polymer film and desorb the analyte.
299:. In regards to the Fido explosive detector's performance, the system found 59 positives of 108 samples (55 percent) with the majority of the positives located deeper in the soil during the May 2003 proximity sampling. In comparison, the MEDDS found 71 percent of the samples using its own tubes and 83 percent of the samples using the Fido tubes.
291:
PMA-3) randomly distributed at 10, 15, or 20 cm beneath the surface. A separate test field was established adjacent to the primary test field to determine how far trace levels of contamination could be detected from a mine. Multiple sampling trials of the field test took place throughout the duration of the experiment.
427:
Another possible sampling method is the use of an electrostatic soil particle collector (ESPC), which utilizes two electrodes and an air jet to dislodge soil particles from the ground. The electrostatically charged soil samples that stick to the outer electrode are then dislodged into a sampling vial
419:
The Fido explosives detector can collect samples using one of three methods. The most common method is direct, real-time sampling of the vapor traces using the Fido sensor, which tends to provide the most position-sensitive data and allows for greater detection of signature “hot spots.” This approach
294:
The results of the study demonstrated that both the Fido explosives detector and the MEDDS were both able to detect explosive vapor at the test site even as the months passed and field conditions changed drastically. However, there were no discernable patterns or any correlation between the sampling
112:
of the emitted light in order to discern whether the light produced by the polymer film had dimmed. The Fido explosives detector provides near real-time, almost instantaneous analysis of the sampled air by registering the intensity of the photomultiplier tubes, which is inversely proportional to the
83:
of light. However, the fluorescence reactions become quenched the moment an electron-deficient molecule such as TNT binds to the polymer and traps the migrating exciton at the binding site. A single molecule of TNT is capable of diminishing the fluorescence of entire polymer chains in the thin film,
197:
Throughout its continued development, the Fido explosives detector underwent numerous modifications by the U.S. military to be mounted on various types of platforms in order to detect traces of explosive vapors in dangerous environments and hard-to-reach areas. One prominent example was the plan to
121:
The invention of the Fido explosives detector relied heavily on the invention of the amplifying fluorescent polymer (AFP) in the late 1990s. At the time, the use of fluorescent polymers in their solid state was difficult due to their significantly decreased sensitivity and fluorescence compared to
435:
Despite the convenience of the Fido explosives detector, trained sniffer dogs remain the best available detection system for explosives. Researchers have noted that the device still faces issues with a relatively low detection rate (89 percent) and a relatively high false alarm rate (27 percent).
290:
from July 2001 to August 2003. The purpose of the field tests was to determine whether the MEDDS technology could be improved with the incorporation of the Fido explosives detector. The test field on which the experiment took place featured 8 to 15 individual landmines (PROM-1, TMA-1A, PMA-2, and
272:
According to the results of the field tests, the canine team trained to detect landmines performed better than the canine team trained to detect explosives. The latter eventually withdrew from the field tests due to the immense difficulty in completing the task. However, even the canine team with
92:
explosives. The binding of the TNT molecules is believed to be caused by an electrostatic-type interaction between the polymer and the target analyte. Selectivity can also be improved by synthesizing structures into the polymer that are electrostatic mirror images of the desired target analytes.
268:
or PMA1A landmines with the fuzes and detonators removed along with shipping plugs capping the detonator. Three different teams were tasked with detecting the buried landmines at each test position. One featured the use of the Fido explosives detector and the other two were experienced teams of
142:
The first field tests of the early prototypes of the Fido explosives detector were conducted in 1999 at Fort
Leonard Wood, MO. In 2001, a variant of the Fido explosives detector known as the SeaDog was developed to detect trace amounts of TNT underwater. The SeaDog was then integrated onto an
193:
In 2005, Swager and his team found that adjusting the pump power to just over the required threshold for lasing significantly attenuated the lasing emission, resulting in a thirtyfold increase in the sensitivity of Fido explosives detector sensors when the system is operating near the lasing
170:
requirements. In 2003, Nomadics determined that incorporating a two-element array sensor into the Fido explosives detector had the potential to greatly improve the device's ability to discriminate chemical signature compounds from potential chemical interferents without any loss in sensor
285:
conducted a blind field test comparing the performance of the Fido explosives detector with that of the MECHEM Explosives and Drug
Detection System (MEDDS), which also discerned whether or not an area contains traces of explosive vapor. Testing took place at the Rakovo Polje Test Site in
139:’s Unexploded Ordnance Detection Program, which was also more informally known as the Dog's Nose program. He licensed the AFP technology to Nomadics and worked with the company to create a prototype of the fluorescent polymers that could be used for explosives detection.
263:
in order to evaluate the performance of the device compared to that of trained canines. During the trial, landmines were planted in the test field with two flags approximately 50 cm apart indicating the location of each test position. The landmines were authentic
448:
By the mid-2000s, the Fido explosives detector was deployed in both
Afghanistan and Iraq as either a portable handheld device or an attachment to a robotic platform. The Fido explosives detector also saw use as a tool for vehicle inspection in an effort to combat
1452:
Riley, Larry (October 1, 2007). "Sensor
Feasibility Report: Survey of the Capabilities and Limitations of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) Sensor Technologies Relevant to Vehicle Inspection Systems".
203:
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was selected as the robotic platform for the Fido explosives detector. However, due to challenges with cost and time restrictions, only half of the proposed ten prototype units were ultimately produced, tested, and fielded in
873:
1059:
1527:
507:
88:, drastically increasing the number of opportunities for the TNT binding event to occur. The amplifying fluorescent polymers used in the Fido explosives detector were engineered to be preferentially responsive to
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134:
approach. This technique was later used by Swager to develop AFPs for the first time. Soon afterwards, Swager was awarded a U.S. military research grant to incorporate AFPs into anti-mine technology as part of
84:
thereby amplifying the effect of a single TNT binding event that may bypass the detection of less-sensitive molecular sensors. The design of the thin film allows the TNT molecules to bind anywhere along the
461:
terrorism initiative. Outside of the military domain, the Fido explosives detector was incorporated as a tool for airport and building security and even saw use by the
National Park Police during the
485:
The Fido explosives detector has been recognized by multiple awards since its inception in the early 2000s. The handheld version of the system was named one of the top ten greatest inventions by the
295:
results of the two detector systems. The study also found that the traces of explosive-related compounds (ERCs) are largely transported through the movement of water in the soil rather than by
93:
According to reports, there is evidence that the polymers can amplify the quenching of the fluorescence reactions between 100- and 1000-fold compared to conventional quenching mechanisms.
872:
Fyre-Mason, Greg; Leuschen, Martin; la Grone, Marcus; Wald, Lara; Aker, Craig; Dock, Matt; Hancock, Lawrence; Fagan, Steve; Paul, Kateri (August 13, 2004). Gardner, Patrick J (ed.).
246:(formerly Nomadics) commercially released an upgrade to the Fido XT explosives detector called Fido NXT, which featured a new design for the device to be more durable and modular.
1642:
849:
1565:
1301:
Cumming, Colin; Aker, Craig; Fisher, Mark; Fox, Michael; la Grone, Marcus; Reust, Dennis; Rockley, Mark; Swager, Timothy; Towers, Eric; Williams, Vance (June 2001).
282:
152:
489:
in 2005, and the
Packbot robotic platform with the integrated Fido explosives detector received the same award in 2006. In 2007, Timothy Swager won the $ 500,000
207:
178:
led to the development of a miniature handheld prototype of the Fido explosives detector that was capable of operating for about six hours on a single
450:
28:
is a battery-powered, handheld sensory device that uses amplifying fluorescent polymer (AFP) materials to detect trace levels of high explosives like
503:
Using novel fluorescent polymers as sensory materials for above-ground sensing of chemical signature compounds emanating from buried landmines (2001)
96:
The fluorescent polymer film is coated on the interior surface of the tiny glass tubes that the Fido explosives detector use to draw in air. A blue
1199:
1303:"Using novel fluorescent polymers as sensory materials for above-ground sensing of chemical signature compounds emanating from buried landmines"
474:
453:
used by insurgents in Iraq. In 2017, the U.S. Office of the
Defense Representative - Pakistan (ODRP) provided more than 50 Fido devices to the
148:
210:
as part of a 90-day delivery schedule that promised to produce ten integrated systems for soldiers in combat spaces. After much deliberation,
127:
190:. These changes resulted in an increase in the noise level that the researchers note would likely not be significant for most applications.
1538:(Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies for Homeland Security and Homeland Defense IV): 383.
144:
220:
158:
The Fido explosives detector was promoted by
Nomadics as a low-cost system since most of the hardware, aside from the AFP, consists of
242:
provided $ 7 million in funding to Nomadics to manufacture more Fido explosives detectors for American military operations. In 2011,
71:
The thin film consists of many repeating chains of amplifying fluorescent polymers that naturally emit visible light when exposed to
1663:
1534:. Sensors, and Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (C3I) Technologies for Homeland Security and Homeland Defense IV.
1263:
1253:
984:
641:
1394:
1000:
493:
for his work on amplifying fluorescent polymers. He later won the American Chemical Society Award for Creative Invention in 2013.
937:"Fluorescent Chemosensors Based on Energy Migration in Conjugated Polymers: The Molecular Wire Approach to Increased Sensitivity"
462:
1058:
Fisher, Mark; la Grone, Marcus; Sikes, John (September 11, 2003). Harmon, Russell S; Holloway, Jr, John H; Broach, J. T (eds.).
68:
polymer film that is extremely sensitive to molecules of TNT, which can be found in more than 85 percent of deployed landmines.
1371:
Brady, John; Roberson, Stephen; Farrell, Mikella; Holthoff, Ellen; Stratis-Cullen, Dimitra; Pellegrino, Paul (September 2013).
1583:
661:
1280:
737:
1688:
1601:
1138:"The Nose Knows: Developing Advanced Chemical Sensors for the Remote Detection of Improvised Explosive Devices in 2030"
199:
1620:
1115:
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electronic and optical components. Unlike most fluorescent quenching explosive sensors, the device did not require
1060:"Implementation of serial amplifying fluorescent polymer arrays for enhanced chemical vapor sensing of landmines"
691:
159:
490:
239:
89:
64:
The Fido explosives detector functions as a trace explosives detector through its use of a specially-made
48:
in the real world. The device was named after its ability to detect explosive vapors at concentrations of
16:
1474:
1425:
1344:
1226:
1145:
1031:
818:
49:
1669:
NNI Scientific Accomplishments 2009: Amplifying Fluorescent Polymers for Detecting Hazardous Substances
182:. The production of this system made use of cheaper and more rugged components, such as replacing the
183:
179:
175:
105:
97:
1526:
Fisher, Mark; Sikes, John; Prather, Mark; Wichert, Clint (May 20, 2005). Carapezza, Edward M (ed.).
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458:
437:
308:
296:
228:
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canines, one trained to detect explosives (i.e. bombs) and the other trained to detect landmines.
1547:
1462:
1079:
893:
776:
612:
532:
486:
429:
1643:"New American Chemical Society video on the world's most sensitive explosive detector to date"
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980:
637:
571:
260:
167:
163:
123:
53:
1505:
811:"Detection of Landmines and Suspected Minefields Using Novel Amplifying Fluorescent Polymers"
508:
Reactive chromophores for sensitive and selective detection of chemical warfare agents (2004)
428:
and extracted into acetone before presented to the Fido explosives detector using a portable
238:
By 2010, more than 1500 Fido explosives detectors were fielded to American soldiers, and the
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1454:
1314:
1071:
948:
885:
768:
602:
563:
470:
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79:) travelling down the polymer backbone and between adjacent polymer chains upon absorbing a
259:
Blind field tests for the Fido explosives detector first took place at a DARPA facility at
1487:
1438:
1357:
1239:
1158:
1044:
831:
41:
757:"Analysis of Explosives in Soil Using Solid Phase Microextraction and Gas Chromatography"
1528:"Detection of vehicle-based improvised explosives using ultra-trace detection equipment"
1402:
874:"Reactive chromophores for sensitive and selective detection of chemical warfare agents"
283:
Army Communications Electronics Command, Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate
198:
integrate the Fido explosives detector on robotic platforms in order to remotely detect
1008:
502:
131:
130:
was the first to demonstrate the possibility of sensory signal amplification using the
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466:
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243:
232:
85:
33:
1083:
914:
897:
780:
616:
440:, such that the nominal operating temperature for the system is 32 degrees Celsius.
1070:(Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets VIII): 991.
65:
551:
512:
204:
Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics and Technology (ASAALT)
1417:
1416:
Heberlein, David; Balko, Bohdan; Chappell, Isaac; Biddle, John (April 20, 2007).
1336:
1218:
1137:
1023:
974:
810:
756:
720:"Chemist Inventor 'Sniffs' His Way to Prestigious US$ 500,000 Lemelson-MIT Prize"
631:
669:
607:
590:
72:
1373:"Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy: A Review of Applied Explosive Detection"
1372:
936:
56:’s nose, i.e. the historical “gold standard” for finding concealed explosives.
32:. It was developed by Nomadics, a subsidiary of ICX Technologies (now owned by
1302:
1066:. Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets VIII.
809:
La Grone, Marcus; Fisher, Mark; Cumming, Colin; Towers, Eric (December 2002).
772:
265:
187:
109:
1024:"Investigations of Novel Sensor Technology for Explosive Specific Detection"
45:
575:
513:
Chemical Sensors Based on Amplifying Fluorescent Conjugated Polymers (2007)
1628:
224:
101:
40:
Dog's Nose program. The Fido explosives detector is considered the first
952:
1673:
1458:
287:
215:
76:
1543:
1318:
1075:
889:
567:
552:"Chemical Sensors Based on Amplifying Fluorescent Conjugated Polymers"
75:
rays. The fluorescence is the result of excited state electrons (i.e.
211:
80:
1097:
755:
Mayfield, Howard; Burr, Eila; Cantrell, Marlene (January 24, 2006).
1506:"The Value of The Modern Research University: MIT As a Case Study"
136:
37:
15:
400:
Bar chart display; audio signal; connection to external computer
719:
633:
Electronic Noses & Sensors for the Detection of Explosives
29:
1420:. ADA475760 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1382:. ADA585868 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1339:. ADA462212 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1221:. ADA430111 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1140:. ADA539918 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1026:. ADA539685 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
1001:"Research lab chief scientist gains presidential recognition"
813:. ADA409370 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
783:. ADA449403 – via Defense Technical Information Center.
550:
Thomas, Samuel; Joly, Guy; Swager, Timothy (March 27, 2007).
307:
In 2001, researchers from Nomadics conducted field tests at
1179:"Technology Transition - Lessons Learned From Fido/PackBot"
52:(1 in 10^15), which is comparable to the sensitivity of a
1418:"Detection of Buried Mines and Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)"
100:
inside the detector serves to excite fluorescent polymer
1674:
Amplifying fluorescent polymer detection of bioanalytes
153:
Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD)
1566:"US provides Pakistan Army latest explosive detectors"
1219:"Explosive Chemical Signature-Based Detection of IEDs"
1200:"iRobot to Host PackBot Payload Developers Conference"
1258:. Vol. 151. Bernan Assoc. 2009. p. 16804.
1177:Parmentola, John; Szkrybalo, Irena (October 2007).
451:
vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs)
38:
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA)
1307:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
1281:"Explosives Detector As Sensitive As A Dog's Nose"
473:was launched and soon became commonly used by the
850:"Devices Go Nose to Nose With Bomb-Sniffer Dogs"
1337:"Trace Chemical Mine Detection Data Collection"
935:Zhou, Qin; Swager, Timothy (December 1, 1995).
589:Ma, Jianjun; Bock, Wojtek (December 27, 2013).
1584:"US Army Awards for Top 10 Inventions of 2005"
591:"Fiber-Optic Sensors for Explosives Detection"
1395:"Military Working Dog Science and Technology"
1098:"MIT scientists improve explosives detection"
8:
469:. In 2009, a version of the Fido system for
320:Fido XT Explosives Detector Specifications
128:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
1602:"US Army Awards Top 10 Inventions of 2006"
533:"Infantry: Electronic Nose for Explosives"
884:(Chemical and Biological Sensing V): 54.
606:
941:Journal of the American Chemical Society
742:Advance Avionics & Aviation Co., Ltd
408:Moderately hot tip (90 degrees Celsius)
318:
20:The Fido XT Portable Explosives Detector
630:Gardner, Julian; Yinon, Jehuda (2004).
524:
122:polymers in solution. In 1995, chemist
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1154:
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1040:
1029:
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475:Transportation Security Administration
281:In 2001, researchers sponsored by the
1621:"Creator of bomb-detector wins prize"
1513:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1131:
1129:
968:
966:
964:
962:
930:
928:
909:
907:
880:. Chemical and Biological Sensing V.
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802:
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208:Joint IED Defeat Task Force (JIEDDTF)
206:, the project was spearheaded by the
166:and was not as tightly restrained by
36:), in the early 2000s as part of the
7:
1504:Ortiz, Christine (October 1, 2012).
976:Trace Chemical Sensing of Explosives
848:Fountain, Henry (October 15, 2012).
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
685:
683:
681:
679:
660:Merti, Melissa (September 1, 2001).
655:
653:
477:in at least 70 airports nationwide.
1335:Williams, A. (September 15, 2003).
384:1 femtogram (1 x 10^-15 g) for TNT
200:improvised explosive devices (IEDs)
149:U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL)
1554:– via SPIE. Digital Library.
1217:Fisher, Mark (December 31, 2004).
1086:– via SPIE. Digital Library.
900:– via SPIE. Digital Library.
14:
1022:Lapointe, Aaron (December 2009).
202:. Initially proposed by the then-
1279:Hill, David (November 2, 2012).
373:Detectable Explosive Substances
233:U.S. Marine Corps’ Dragon Runner
690:Davies, Emma (April 30, 2012).
160:commercial off-the-shelf (COTS)
1619:Jewell, Mark (April 2, 2007).
1393:Lee, Stephen (April 2, 2014).
1136:Guill, Julie (April 1, 2009).
1116:"Fido® XT Explosives Detector"
1007:. July 2, 2012. Archived from
738:"Fido® XT Explosives Detector"
718:Sherer, Kyle (April 3, 2007).
1:
1399:Army Research Laboratory News
1005:Army Research Laboratory News
973:Woodfin, Ronald, ed. (2006).
955:– via ACS Publications.
578:– via ACS Publications.
360:100 - 250V, 50 - 60 Hz
1664:Fido XT Explosives Detector
608:10.2174/1874328501307010141
457:as part of a $ 128 million
1705:
1469:. AFRL-RX-TY-TR-2007-4548.
176:Army Research Office (ARO)
174:By 2004, funding from the
145:U.S. Department of Defense
98:light-emitting diode (LED)
1647:American Chemical Society
773:10.1080/00032710600669358
692:"Sniffing Out Explosives"
1380:Army Research Laboratory
1321:– via IEEE Xplore.
636:. Springer Netherlands.
397:Presentation of Results
376:Nitroaromatic compounds
336:700 g including battery
108:amplifies and reads the
26:Fido explosives detector
595:The Open Optics Journal
1606:Defense Industry Daily
1588:Defense Industry Daily
1482:Cite journal requires
1433:Cite journal requires
1352:Cite journal requires
1234:Cite journal requires
1153:Cite journal requires
1039:Cite journal requires
826:Cite journal requires
186:with a less sensitive
21:
1405:on September 6, 2015.
1011:on December 10, 2016.
106:photomultiplier tubes
104:, and the detector's
50:parts per quadrillion
44:capable of detecting
30:trinitrotoluene (TNT)
19:
1255:Congressional Record
672:on January 22, 2011.
467:Washington D.C. Mall
261:Ft. Leonard Wood, MO
180:rechargeable battery
1689:Explosive detection
1532:Proceedings of SPIE
1206:. November 3, 2005.
1064:Proceedings of SPIE
953:10.1021/ja00155a023
947:(50): 12593–12602.
878:Proceedings of SPIE
438:ambient temperature
321:
309:Yuma Proving Ground
303:Yuma Proving Ground
297:molecular diffusion
229:Foster-Miller TALON
1649:. October 1, 2013.
1570:The Economic Times
1459:10.21236/ada475257
854:The New York Times
761:Analytical Letters
491:Lemelson-MIT Prize
463:July 4 celebration
319:
164:solid-state lasers
22:
1544:10.1117/12.606668
1319:10.1109/36.927423
1188:. pp. 12–15.
1104:. April 20, 2005.
1076:10.1117/12.487902
890:10.1117/12.542913
666:Discover Magazine
568:10.1021/cr0501339
430:gas chromatograph
412:
411:
328:9.8” x 4.8” x 2”
255:Fort Leonard Wood
168:thermal stability
54:bomb-sniffing dog
1696:
1651:
1650:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1631:on May 14, 2021.
1627:. Archived from
1616:
1610:
1609:
1608:. June 19, 2007.
1598:
1592:
1591:
1590:. June 26, 2006.
1580:
1574:
1573:
1572:. July 19, 2017.
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1413:
1407:
1406:
1401:. Archived from
1390:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1332:
1323:
1322:
1313:(6): 1119–1128.
1298:
1289:
1288:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1222:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1183:
1174:
1163:
1162:
1156:
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1141:
1133:
1124:
1123:
1120:CBRNE Tech index
1112:
1106:
1105:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1027:
1019:
1013:
1012:
997:
991:
990:
970:
957:
956:
932:
923:
922:
915:"Timothy Swager"
911:
902:
901:
869:
858:
857:
845:
836:
835:
829:
824:
822:
814:
806:
785:
784:
767:(7): 1463–1474.
752:
746:
745:
734:
728:
727:
715:
700:
699:
687:
674:
673:
668:. Archived from
657:
648:
647:
627:
621:
620:
610:
586:
580:
579:
562:(4): 1339–1386.
556:Chemical Reviews
547:
541:
540:
539:. June 28, 2006.
529:
471:airport security
422:false alarm rate
322:
147:, including the
1704:
1703:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1679:
1678:
1660:
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1641:
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1577:
1564:
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1525:
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1508:
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1481:
1471:
1451:
1450:
1446:
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1392:
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1387:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1351:
1341:
1334:
1333:
1326:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1285:Singularity Hub
1278:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1233:
1223:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1181:
1176:
1175:
1166:
1152:
1142:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1038:
1028:
1021:
1020:
1016:
999:
998:
994:
987:
972:
971:
960:
934:
933:
926:
913:
912:
905:
871:
870:
861:
847:
846:
839:
825:
815:
808:
807:
788:
754:
753:
749:
736:
735:
731:
717:
716:
703:
696:Chemistry World
689:
688:
677:
659:
658:
651:
644:
629:
628:
624:
588:
587:
583:
549:
548:
544:
531:
530:
526:
521:
499:
497:Further reading
483:
465:in 2006 at the
446:
417:
317:
305:
279:
257:
252:
184:photomultiplier
119:
62:
42:artificial nose
12:
11:
5:
1702:
1700:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1659:
1658:External links
1656:
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240:U.S. Congress
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1403:the original
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1017:
1009:the original
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670:the original
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537:StrategyPage
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444:Applications
434:
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381:Sensitivity
344:Lithium-ion
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277:Rakovo Polje
271:
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244:FLIR Systems
237:
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34:FLIR Systems
25:
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459:counter-IED
415:Performance
221:Afghanistan
73:ultraviolet
66:fluorescent
519:References
392:5 seconds
188:photodiode
110:wavelength
1552:108652209
1467:108055594
979:. Wiley.
724:New Atlas
487:U.S. Army
102:electrons
46:landmines
1683:Category
1625:NBC News
1102:MIT News
1084:62764449
898:98320805
781:94219589
617:16159448
576:17385926
352:4 hours
341:Battery
231:and the
151:and the
77:excitons
60:Overview
368:256 MB
365:Memory
333:Weight
288:Croatia
216:PackBot
126:at the
117:History
1550:
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481:Awards
212:iRobot
81:photon
1548:S2CID
1509:(PDF)
1463:S2CID
1376:(PDF)
1182:(PDF)
1080:S2CID
894:S2CID
777:S2CID
613:S2CID
325:Size
250:Tests
137:DARPA
1536:5778
1488:help
1439:help
1358:help
1260:ISBN
1240:help
1159:help
1068:5089
1045:help
981:ISBN
882:5416
832:help
638:ISBN
599:2013
572:PMID
266:TMA5
225:Iraq
223:and
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560:104
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