435:
ultimately create a negative image, after this the film is bleached, fixed, washed, stabilized and dried. The dye is only created where the couplers are. Thus the development chemical must travel a short distance from the exposed silver halide to the coupler and create a dye there. The amount of dye created is small and the reaction only occurs near the exposed silver halide and thus doesn't spread throughout the entire layer. The developer diffuses into the film emulsion to react with its layers. This process happens simultaneously for all three colors of couplers in the film: cyan (in the red-sensitive layer in the film), magenta(for the green-sensitive layer), and yellow (for the blue-sensitive layer). Color film has these three layers, to be able to perform subtractive color mixing and be able to replicate colors in images.
560:
processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light. Alternatively stores may use
149:
125:
2934:
2945:
582:
568:
chemistries have been designed with this in mind given the declining demand for film processing in minilabs, often requiring specific handling. Often chemistries become damaged by oxidation. Also, development chemicals need to be thoroughly agitated constantly to ensure consistent results. The effectiveness (activity) of the chemistry is determined through pre-exposed film control strips.
524:
420:. It is very involved, requiring 4 separate developers, one for black and white and 3 for color, reexposing the film in between development stages, 8 or more tanks of processing chemicals, each with precise concentration, temperature and agitation, resulting in very complex processing equipment with precise chemical control.
697:, these chelating agents are found in alarmingly high concentrations in some water sources from which municipal tap water is taken. Water containing these chelating agents can leach metal from water treatment equipment as well as pipes. This is becoming an issue in Europe and some parts of the world.
768:
Development chemicals may be recycled by up to 70% using an absorber resin, only requiring periodic chemical analysis on pH, density and bromide levels. Other developers need ion-exchange columns and chemical analysis, allowing for up to 80% of the developer to be reused. Some bleaches are claimed to
764:
and its isomers, and other similar sugar derived reductone reducing agents are a viable substitute for many developing agents. Developers using these compounds were actively patented in the US, Europe and Japan, until the 1990s but the number of such patents is very low since the late-1990s, when the
567:
Some processing chemistries used in minilabs require a minimum amount of processing per given amount of time to remain stable and usable. Once rendered unstable due to low use, the chemistry needs to be completely replaced, or replenishers can be added to restore the chemistry to a usable state. Some
297:
images for offset printing, a developer containing methol-hydroquinone and sulfite stabilizers may be used. Exposed silver halide oxidizes the hydroquinone, which then oxidizes a nucleating agent in the film, which is attacked by a hydroxide ion and converts it via hydrolysis into a nucleating agent
665:
sludge in the sewer pipes or treatment plant. However, the maximum silver concentration in discharge is very often tightly regulated. Silver is also a somewhat precious resource. Therefore, in most large scale processing establishments, exhausted fixer is collected for silver recovery and disposal.
289:
From a chemical standpoint, conventional black and white negative film is processed by a developer that reduces silver halide to silver metal, exposed silver halide is reduced faster than unexposed silver halide, which leaves a silver metal image. It is then fixed by converting all remaining silver
152:
Black and white negative processing is the chemical means by which photographic film and paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to
434:
A typical chromogenic color film development process can be described from a chemical standpoint as follows: Exposed silver halide oxidizes the developer. The oxidized developer then reacts with color couplers, which are molecules near the exposed silver halide crystals, to create color dyes which
359:
The colour developer develops the silver negative image by reducing the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to light to metallic silver, this consists of the developer donating electrons to the silver halide, turning it into metallic silver; the donation oxidizes the developer which then
769:
be fully bio-degradable while others can be regenerated by adding bleach concentrate to overflow (waste). Used fixers can have 60 to 90% of their silver content removed through electrolysis, in a closed loop where the fixer is continually recycled (regenerated). Stabilizers may or may not contain
559:
In commercial, central processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the
314:
to remove the developed negative image. This negative image is composed of metallic silver formed in the first developer step. The bleach used here only affects the negative, metallic silver grains, it does not affect the unexposed and therefore undeveloped silver halide. The film then contains a
543:
turned off or a lightproof bag with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed light-proof tank (called a daylight processing tank or a
745:
and sodium metaborate, are toxic to plants, even at a concentration of 100 ppm. Many film developers and fixers contain 1 to 20 g/L of these compounds at working strength. Most non-hardening fixers from major manufacturers are now borate-free, but many film developers still use borate as the
746:
buffering agent. Also, some, but not all, alkaline fixer formulae and products contain a large amount of borate. New products should phase out borates, because for most photographic purposes, except in acid hardening fixers, borates can be substituted with a suitable biodegradable compound.
821:
In modern automatic processing machines, the stop bath is replaced by mechanical squeegee or pinching rollers. These treatments remove much of the carried-over alkaline developer, and the acid, when used, neutralizes the alkalinity to reduce the contamination of the fixing bath with the
136:ν) resulting in the formation of a latent image (step 1). The latent image is amplified using photographic developers, converting the silver halide crystal to an opaque particle of silver metal (step 2). Finally, the remaining silver halide is removed by fixing (step 3).
704:. A common wetting agent for even drying of processed film uses Union Carbide/Dow Triton X-100 or octylphenol ethoxylate. This surfactant is also found to have estrogenic effect and possibly other harms to organisms including mammals.
290:
halide into a soluble silver complex, which is then washed away with water. An example of a black and white developer is Kodak D-76 which has bis(4-hydroxy-N-methylanilinium) sulfate with hydroquinone and sodium sulfite.
1224:
707:
Development of more biodegradable alternatives to the EDTA and other bleaching agent constituents were sought by major manufacturers, until the industry became less profitable when the digital era began.
1004:
298:
for silver metal, which it then forms on unexposed silver halide, creating a silver image. The film is then fixed by converting all remaining silver halide into soluble silver complexes.
959:
693:
polycarboxylic acids are used as iron ligands in colour bleach solutions. These are relatively nontoxic, and in particular EDTA is approved as a food additive. However, due to poor
547:
Sheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements.
2902:
1146:
140:
All photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation and time.
2849:
1221:
863:
267:
and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper. Many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are
1061:
2892:
2844:
423:
In some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as
1011:
2629:
1162:
Fuerhacker, M.; Lorbeer, G.; Haberl, R. (30 June 2003). "Emission factors and sources of ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid in waste water––a case study".
1085:
1035:
990:
431:. In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.
360:
activates the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer, but only does so in the dye couplers that are around unexposed silver halide.
1206:
599:
564:
to develop films and make prints on the spot automatically without needing to send film to a remote, central facility for processing and printing.
1494:
214:
Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading.
905:
1600:
1347:
2897:
325:
The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the second developer, converting them into a positive image composed of metallic silver.
966:
2839:
2391:
449:
Black and white emulsions both negative and positive, may be further processed. The image silver may be reacted with elements such as
2600:
1282:
1222:
https://www.fujifilm.eu/fileadmin/countries/europe/United_Kingdom/Photofinishing_data_files/Technical_bulletins/TB_C41_E13_09-10.pdf
1119:
621:
1320:
487:
If colour negative film is processed in conventional black and white developer, and fixed and then bleached with a bath containing
293:
In graphic art film, also called lithographic film which is a special type of black and white film used for converting images into
370:
A fixer removes all silver halide by converting it into soluble silver complexes that are then washed away, leaving only the dyes.
2567:
1143:
2975:
2970:
2859:
2353:
2532:
2015:
1802:
782:
603:
859:
2441:
2373:
2126:
1648:
2869:
2864:
2874:
2151:
1653:
2293:
1054:
841:
Karlheinz Keller et al. "Photography" in
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
731:. Both ferricyanide and dichromate are tightly regulated for sewer disposal from commercial premises in some areas.
377:
In the RA-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number of processing steps.
2605:
2196:
1489:
592:
495:
solution, the resultant film, once exposed to light, can be redeveloped in colour developer to produce an unusual
98:. Kodachrome film production ceased in 2009, and K-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30, 2010.
2572:
2522:
2482:
2335:
2221:
2171:
1863:
1807:
1663:
1415:
1340:
639:
462:
444:
2773:
2368:
2096:
1888:
2542:
2446:
2310:
2161:
1993:
1898:
1541:
1459:
1425:
283:
756:
compounds or aminated benzene compounds, and they are harmful to humans and experimental animals. Some are
2949:
2793:
2768:
2577:
2562:
2497:
2477:
2383:
2305:
2136:
2055:
2050:
2025:
1953:
1943:
1893:
1883:
1817:
1780:
1708:
1683:
712:
635:
166:
75:
61:
57:
1305:
2854:
2649:
2557:
2552:
2537:
2527:
2502:
2487:
2348:
2281:
2251:
2211:
2121:
2111:
1948:
1827:
1790:
1713:
787:
678:
319:
260:
53:
2406:
2938:
2547:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2492:
2146:
2065:
2035:
1988:
1933:
1923:
1848:
1673:
1620:
1333:
1171:
720:
492:
208:
83:
902:
2644:
2617:
2587:
2241:
2156:
2060:
1938:
1918:
1908:
1903:
1873:
1765:
1678:
1506:
1501:
724:
268:
119:
689:
in all processing solutions, particularly in developers and washing aid solutions. EDTA and other
2788:
2451:
2401:
2226:
2081:
2040:
2020:
1958:
1913:
1878:
1853:
1410:
1375:
196:
49:
2758:
2694:
2681:
2612:
2276:
2201:
2191:
2181:
2166:
2030:
1998:
1858:
1693:
1464:
1288:
1278:
1187:
1144:
https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/wysiwyg/retailers/chemistry/techpub/cis246.pdf
1115:
1111:
1104:
1079:
1029:
984:
548:
488:
45:
2813:
2763:
2721:
2706:
2689:
2659:
2654:
2298:
2256:
2206:
1968:
1928:
1868:
1723:
1179:
842:
797:
694:
279:
107:
78:
are similar, regardless of the film or paper's manufacturer. Exceptional variations include
2818:
2726:
2343:
2091:
1973:
1668:
1615:
1610:
1578:
1563:
1521:
1316:
The
Comprehensive Development Times Chart - Manufacturer's film development times database
1251:
1228:
1150:
909:
532:
481:
477:
469:
402:
238:
103:
31:
1175:
148:
2595:
2421:
2363:
2131:
1812:
1718:
1703:
1698:
1593:
1400:
1390:
1380:
1240:
662:
428:
132:-based photographs. Two silver halide particles, one of which is impinged with light (
1183:
352:. These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.
248:
Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.
124:
2964:
2748:
2716:
2701:
2666:
2426:
2271:
2236:
2186:
1822:
1795:
1775:
1743:
1688:
761:
750:
512:
230:
200:
412:
The film is bleached, fixed, washed/rinsed, stabilised and dried as described above.
2914:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2753:
2639:
2634:
2288:
2008:
1978:
1760:
1755:
1738:
1583:
1405:
1395:
1385:
770:
728:
527:
A cut-away illustration of a typical light-trap tank used in small scale developing
424:
417:
406:
349:
345:
341:
275:
241:
may be required – otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause residual ionic
95:
79:
68:
1272:
2919:
2783:
2778:
2711:
2624:
2461:
2436:
2266:
2261:
2246:
2101:
1983:
1963:
1832:
1733:
1625:
1588:
1558:
1511:
1479:
1474:
1435:
1356:
658:
581:
551:, long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.
385:
337:
315:
latent positive image formed from unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.
185:
181:
71:
into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.
17:
2909:
2431:
2411:
2325:
2315:
2176:
2141:
2116:
2045:
1785:
1770:
1750:
1632:
1568:
1484:
1430:
1292:
742:
701:
523:
473:
458:
381:
234:
219:
99:
87:
846:
2823:
2396:
2358:
2320:
2216:
2106:
1573:
1536:
1531:
1516:
1469:
1452:
934:
690:
686:
661:
complex ions. They are far less toxic than free silver ion, and they become
540:
531:
In amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a
227:
177:
1310:
1191:
363:
A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed metallic silver into silver
218:
The washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely removed if a
1315:
642:
oxygen demand (COD and BOD). These chemical wastes are often treated with
2416:
2231:
1728:
1658:
1526:
1447:
1442:
802:
792:
651:
647:
536:
450:
344:
to form colour images. Modern colour negative film is developed with the
294:
264:
2456:
1605:
1551:
757:
753:
716:
606: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
561:
544:
light-trap tank) where it is retained until final washing is complete.
245:
on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)
242:
159:
199:
makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving remaining
2003:
1420:
1370:
734:
682:
669:
Many photographic chemicals use non-biodegradable compounds, such as
508:
496:
454:
364:
311:
170:
162:
layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments.
106:
process. Deliberately using the wrong process for a film is known as
1274:
The
Chemistry of Photography: From Classical to Digital Technologies
392:
A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.
27:
Chemical process that transforms a latent image into a visible image
937:. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2004. ISBN 978-3-540-20988-1.
2671:
2086:
1546:
738:
643:
522:
233:
to assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by
189:
147:
123:
91:
64:
903:
http://sites.tech.uh.edu/digitalmedia/materials/3351/PHOTCHEM.pdf
715:. This compound decomposes in the waste water stream to liberate
30:"Light room" redirects here. For the photo editing software, see
674:
670:
1329:
169:
converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic
1325:
657:
Exhausted fixer and to some extent rinse water contain silver
575:
355:
The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:
933:
Organic
Chemistry of Photography. Shinsaku Fujita. doi:
252:
Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a
188:, halts the action of the developer. A rinse with clean
1211:. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
760:. They also have a large chemical oxygen demand (COD).
515:, spool or holder in a light-proof room or container.
507:
Before processing, the film must be removed from the
310:
Following the first developer and rinse, the film is
700:
Another non-biodegradable compound in common use is
480:. These chemicals are more resistant to atmospheric
282:
or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or
2885:
2832:
2737:
2680:
2586:
2470:
2382:
2334:
2074:
1841:
1641:
1363:
468:In selenium toning, the image silver is changed to
395:
Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.
1103:
328:Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut.
1321:Ilford guide to processing black & white film
274:Alternatively (or as well), the negative may be
711:In most amateur darkrooms, a popular bleach is
1311:The Massive Dev Chart - film development times
1049:
1047:
1045:
654:to reduce the COD in commercial laboratories.
373:The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.
1341:
685:. EDTA, DTPA, and NTA are very often used as
348:and colour negative print materials with the
226:Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a
158:The film may be soaked in water to swell the
8:
401:The fogged silver halides are developed and
322:, either chemically or by exposure to light.
237:. (In very hard water areas, a pre-rinse in
2893:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1097:
1095:
954:
952:
2630:Comparison of digital and film photography
1348:
1334:
1326:
929:
927:
925:
923:
921:
919:
917:
306:This process has three additional stages:
2850:Photographs considered the most important
935:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09130-2
622:Learn how and when to remove this message
67:. Photographic processing transforms the
719:gas. Other popular bleach solutions use
398:The film is fogged in the reversal step.
1245:. London: Hassel, Watson and Viney Ltd.
834:
814:
535:in complete darkness (usually inside a
1134:Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 429–423
1084:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1077:
1034:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1027:
989:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
982:
946:Photographic Almanac, 1956, p. 149–155
634:Many photographic solutions have high
1258:. London: Henry Greenwood and Co Ltd.
457:to increase image permanence and for
7:
866:from the original on January 2, 2011
604:adding citations to reliable sources
2845:Museums devoted to one photographer
302:Black and white reversal processing
144:Black and white negative processing
2392:Timeline of photography technology
860:"Kodachrome film retires, aged 75"
461:reasons. This process is known as
405:developing agents couple with the
388:, which has the following stages:
25:
858:Matt Warman (December 31, 2010).
416:The Kodachrome process is called
180:, typically a dilute solution of
2943:
2933:
2932:
1110:. Oxford: Focal Press. pp.
580:
86:and thermally developed films.
2944:
1067:from the original on 2023-03-22
749:Developing agents are commonly
591:needs additional citations for
572:Environmental and safety issues
263:; the negative is placed in an
44:is the chemical means by which
1277:, Royal Society of Chemistry,
1271:Rogers, David (October 2007),
783:List of photographic processes
129:
1:
2442:Painted photography backdrops
2374:Golden triangle (composition)
1649:35 mm equivalent focal length
1184:10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00037-7
74:All processes based upon the
1205:Blair-Tyler, Martha (1995).
476:, the image is converted to
128:Key stages in production of
2152:Intentional camera movement
380:Transparency films, except
2992:
2840:Most expensive photographs
2197:Multi-exposure HDR capture
1102:Langford, Michael (2000).
442:
384:, are developed using the
117:
29:
2928:
1242:Dictionary of Photography
445:photographic print toning
222:is used after the fixer.
2774:Digital image processing
1306:Kodak Processing manuals
847:10.1002/14356007.a20_001
259:The negative may now be
42:photographic development
2447:Photography and the law
38:Photographic processing
2976:Photographic processes
2971:Science of photography
2794:Gelatin silver process
1818:Science of photography
1803:Photographic processes
1781:Perspective distortion
741:(sodium tetraborate),
713:potassium ferricyanide
528:
519:Small scale processing
154:
137:
82:such as those made by
76:gelatin silver process
2252:Schlieren photography
1791:Photographic printing
1714:Exposure compensation
1208:Look Before You Build
862:. London: Telegraph.
788:Fogging (photography)
555:Commercial processing
526:
151:
127:
54:photographic exposure
2036:Straight photography
1674:Chromatic aberration
1256:Photographic Almanac
893:Wall, 1890, p. 88–89
884:Wall, 1890, p. 30–63
721:potassium dichromate
600:improve this article
503:Processing apparatus
493:potassium dichromate
209:ammonium thiosulfate
203:. A common fixer is
2903:photographic plates
2588:Digital photography
1766:Hyperfocal distance
1679:Circle of confusion
1239:Wall, E.J. (1890).
1176:2003Chmsp..52..253F
765:digital era began.
725:hexavalent chromium
269:dodging and burning
220:hypo clearing agent
192:may be substituted.
120:Alternative process
2407:Autochrome Lumière
2402:Analog photography
2227:Pigeon photography
2016:Social documentary
1495:discontinued films
1227:2020-08-14 at the
1149:2020-08-14 at the
908:2018-01-24 at the
529:
439:Further processing
155:
138:
102:materials use the
2958:
2957:
2759:Collodion process
2695:Chromogenic print
2682:Color photography
2192:Multiple exposure
2167:Lo-fi photography
1694:Color temperature
1106:Basic Photography
632:
631:
624:
549:Stand development
489:hydrochloric acid
333:Colour processing
52:is treated after
46:photographic film
16:(Redirected from
2983:
2947:
2946:
2936:
2935:
2814:Print permanence
2764:Cross processing
2722:CMYK color model
2707:Color management
2660:Foveon X3 sensor
2655:Three-CCD camera
2299:Miniature faking
2257:Sabattier effect
1869:Astrophotography
1724:Zebra patterning
1350:
1343:
1336:
1327:
1295:
1259:
1246:
1231:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1159:
1153:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1109:
1099:
1090:
1089:
1083:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1066:
1059:
1051:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1016:
1010:. Archived from
1009:
1001:
995:
994:
988:
980:
978:
977:
971:
965:. Archived from
964:
956:
947:
944:
938:
931:
912:
900:
894:
891:
885:
882:
876:
875:
873:
871:
855:
849:
839:
823:
819:
798:Cross processing
695:biodegradability
687:chelating agents
627:
620:
616:
613:
607:
584:
576:
482:oxidising agents
280:digital printing
131:
114:Common processes
108:cross processing
21:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2961:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2924:
2881:
2828:
2819:Push processing
2740:
2733:
2727:RGB color model
2676:
2582:
2466:
2378:
2344:Diagonal method
2330:
2070:
1974:Photojournalism
1837:
1669:Black-and-white
1637:
1616:Slide projector
1611:Movie projector
1490:available films
1359:
1354:
1302:
1285:
1270:
1267:
1265:Further reading
1262:
1252:British Journal
1249:
1238:
1234:
1229:Wayback Machine
1220:
1216:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1151:Wayback Machine
1142:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1055:"Archived copy"
1053:
1052:
1043:
1026:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1005:"Archived copy"
1003:
1002:
998:
981:
975:
973:
969:
962:
960:"Archived copy"
958:
957:
950:
945:
941:
932:
915:
910:Wayback Machine
901:
897:
892:
888:
883:
879:
869:
867:
857:
856:
852:
840:
836:
832:
827:
826:
820:
816:
811:
779:
628:
617:
611:
608:
597:
585:
574:
557:
521:
505:
499:colour effect.
478:silver sulphide
470:silver selenide
447:
441:
335:
304:
239:distilled water
207:, specifically
146:
122:
116:
104:dye destruction
94:'s proprietary
35:
32:Adobe Lightroom
28:
23:
22:
18:Film processing
15:
12:
11:
5:
2989:
2987:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2963:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2941:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2745:
2743:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2686:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2596:Digital camera
2592:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2422:Camera obscura
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2388:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2364:Rule of thirds
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2132:Harris shutter
2129:
2127:Hand-colouring
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1813:Red-eye effect
1810:
1805:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1719:Exposure value
1716:
1711:
1706:
1704:Depth of focus
1701:
1699:Depth of field
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1504:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1338:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1301:
1300:External links
1298:
1297:
1296:
1283:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1247:
1235:
1233:
1232:
1214:
1197:
1170:(1): 253–257.
1154:
1136:
1127:
1120:
1091:
1041:
996:
948:
939:
913:
895:
886:
877:
850:
833:
831:
828:
825:
824:
813:
812:
810:
807:
806:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
778:
775:
663:silver sulfide
630:
629:
588:
586:
579:
573:
570:
556:
553:
520:
517:
504:
501:
440:
437:
429:glutaraldehyde
414:
413:
410:
409:in each layer.
399:
396:
393:
375:
374:
371:
368:
361:
340:materials use
334:
331:
330:
329:
326:
323:
316:
303:
300:
250:
249:
246:
216:
215:
212:
193:
174:
163:
145:
142:
115:
112:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2988:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2951:
2942:
2940:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2855:Photographers
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2831:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2749:Bleach bypass
2747:
2746:
2744:
2742:
2736:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2717:primary color
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2702:Reversal film
2700:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2667:Image sharing
2665:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:United States
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2427:Daguerreotype
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2272:Stopping down
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2237:Rephotography
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2172:Long-exposure
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1864:Architectural
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1823:Shutter speed
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1776:Metering mode
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1689:Color balance
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1654:Angle of view
1652:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1601:Manufacturers
1599:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1284:9780854042739
1280:
1276:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1209:
1201:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1121:0-240-51592-7
1117:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1063:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1031:
1017:on 2020-03-25
1013:
1006:
1000:
997:
992:
986:
972:on 2020-03-25
968:
961:
955:
953:
949:
943:
940:
936:
930:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
914:
911:
907:
904:
899:
896:
890:
887:
881:
878:
865:
861:
854:
851:
848:
844:
838:
835:
829:
818:
815:
808:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
776:
774:
772:
766:
763:
762:Ascorbic acid
759:
755:
752:
747:
744:
740:
736:
732:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
705:
703:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
667:
664:
660:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
626:
623:
615:
605:
601:
595:
594:
589:This section
587:
583:
578:
577:
571:
569:
565:
563:
554:
552:
550:
545:
542:
538:
534:
525:
518:
516:
514:
511:and from its
510:
502:
500:
498:
494:
490:
485:
484:than silver.
483:
479:
475:
471:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
446:
438:
436:
432:
430:
426:
421:
419:
411:
408:
404:
400:
397:
394:
391:
390:
389:
387:
383:
378:
372:
369:
366:
362:
358:
357:
356:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
332:
327:
324:
321:
317:
313:
309:
308:
307:
301:
299:
296:
291:
287:
285:
281:
277:
272:
270:
266:
262:
257:
255:
247:
244:
240:
236:
232:
231:wetting agent
229:
225:
224:
223:
221:
213:
210:
206:
202:
201:silver halide
198:
194:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
172:
168:
164:
161:
157:
156:
150:
143:
141:
135:
126:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
80:instant films
77:
72:
70:
66:
63:
59:
56:to produce a
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
2915:Polaroid art
2809:K-14 process
2804:Instant film
2799:Gum printing
2754:C-41 process
2739:Photographic
2738:
2640:Image sensor
2635:Film scanner
2289:Sun printing
2222:Print toning
2009:space selfie
1979:Pictorialism
1909:Ethnographic
1889:Conservation
1761:Guide number
1756:Focal length
1273:
1255:
1241:
1217:
1207:
1200:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1139:
1130:
1112:210, 215–216
1105:
1069:. Retrieved
1019:. Retrieved
1012:the original
999:
974:. Retrieved
967:the original
942:
898:
889:
880:
868:. Retrieved
853:
837:
817:
771:formaldehyde
767:
751:hydroxylated
748:
733:
729:permanganate
710:
706:
699:
668:
656:
633:
618:
609:
598:Please help
593:verification
590:
566:
558:
546:
530:
506:
486:
474:sepia toning
467:
448:
433:
425:formaldehyde
422:
415:
407:dye couplers
379:
376:
354:
350:RA-4 process
346:C-41 process
342:dye couplers
336:
318:The film is
305:
292:
288:
284:manipulation
273:
258:
253:
251:
217:
204:
139:
133:
96:K-14 process
73:
69:latent image
41:
37:
36:
2920:Stereoscopy
2784:E-6 process
2779:Dye coupler
2712:color space
2625:Digiscoping
2618:camera back
2533:Philippines
2462:Visual arts
2452:Glass plate
2437:Heliography
2336:Composition
2311:Ultraviolet
2267:Stereoscopy
2262:Slow motion
2247:Scanography
2162:Kite aerial
2102:Contre-jour
1994:Post-mortem
1984:Pornography
1964:Neues Sehen
1899:Documentary
1833:Zone System
1808:Reciprocity
1734:Film format
1664:Backscatter
1642:Terminology
1512:beauty dish
1411:rangefinder
1376:light-field
1357:Photography
1164:Chemosphere
659:thiosulfate
612:August 2020
386:E-6 process
338:Chromogenic
186:citric acid
182:acetic acid
2965:Categories
2910:Lomography
2741:processing
2690:Print film
2606:comparison
2573:Uzbekistan
2523:Luxembourg
2483:Bangladesh
2432:Dufaycolor
2412:Box camera
2369:Simplicity
2326:Zoom burst
2321:Xerography
2316:Vignetting
2306:Time-lapse
2294:Tilt–shift
2187:Mordançage
2177:Luminogram
2142:Holography
2137:High-speed
2117:Fill flash
2097:Burst mode
2075:Techniques
2056:Vernacular
2051:Underwater
2046:Toy camera
2026:Still life
1954:Monochrome
1944:High-speed
1894:Cloudscape
1884:Conceptual
1786:Photograph
1771:Lens flare
1751:Film speed
1633:Zone plate
1579:wide-angle
1564:long-focus
1293:1184188382
1071:2023-03-01
1021:2020-08-15
976:2020-08-15
870:January 2,
830:References
822:developer.
743:boric acid
737:, such as
702:surfactant
640:biological
443:See also:
382:Kodachrome
235:hard water
118:See also:
100:Ilfochrome
88:Kodachrome
2860:Norwegian
2824:Stop bath
2769:Developer
2397:Ambrotype
2359:Lead room
2282:Slit-scan
2217:Photogram
2212:Panoramic
2122:Fireworks
2107:Cyanotype
1949:Landscape
1594:telephoto
1542:reflector
1537:monolight
1532:lens hood
1517:cucoloris
1453:safelight
1364:Equipment
691:polyamine
541:safelight
539:with the
459:aesthetic
228:non-ionic
178:stop bath
167:developer
90:required
2939:Category
2645:CMOS APS
2543:Slovenia
2471:Regional
2417:Calotype
2354:Headroom
2232:Redscale
2147:Infrared
2092:Brenizer
2066:Wildlife
1989:Portrait
1934:Forensic
1924:Fine-art
1859:Aircraft
1849:Abstract
1729:F-number
1709:Exposure
1684:Clipping
1659:Aperture
1527:hot shoe
1448:enlarger
1443:Darkroom
1254:(1956).
1225:Archived
1192:12729709
1147:Archived
1080:cite web
1062:Archived
1030:cite web
985:cite web
906:Archived
864:Archived
803:Caffenol
793:Darkroom
777:See also
758:mutagens
652:aeration
648:peroxide
636:chemical
562:minilabs
537:darkroom
513:cassette
451:selenium
403:oxidized
312:bleached
295:halftone
265:enlarger
254:negative
84:Polaroid
62:positive
58:negative
2950:Outline
2886:Related
2578:Vietnam
2563:Ukraine
2498:Denmark
2478:Albania
2457:Tintype
2384:History
2349:Framing
2242:Rollout
2207:Panning
2157:Kirlian
2061:Wedding
1939:Glamour
1919:Fashion
1904:Eclipse
1874:Banquet
1796:Albumen
1606:Monopod
1584:fisheye
1552:softbox
1401:pinhole
1391:instant
1381:digital
1172:Bibcode
754:benzene
735:Borates
717:cyanide
455:sulphur
276:scanned
261:printed
243:calcium
160:gelatin
2948:
2937:
2870:street
2865:Polish
2558:Turkey
2553:Taiwan
2538:Serbia
2528:Norway
2503:Greece
2488:Canada
2082:Afocal
2041:Street
2021:Sports
2004:Selfie
1959:Nature
1914:Erotic
1879:Candid
1854:Aerial
1842:Genres
1744:medium
1621:Tripod
1589:swivel
1502:Filter
1480:holder
1475:format
1371:Camera
1291:
1281:
1190:
1118:
683:borate
509:camera
497:pastel
463:toning
365:halide
320:fogged
171:silver
153:light.
2875:women
2833:Lists
2789:Fixer
2672:Pixel
2601:D-SLR
2548:Sudan
2518:Korea
2513:Japan
2508:India
2493:China
2277:Strip
2202:Night
2182:Macro
2087:Bokeh
2031:Stock
1999:Ruins
1739:large
1569:prime
1547:snoot
1507:Flash
1485:stock
1460:Drone
1421:still
1406:press
1396:phone
1386:field
1065:(PDF)
1058:(PDF)
1015:(PDF)
1008:(PDF)
970:(PDF)
963:(PDF)
809:Notes
739:borax
727:) or
644:ozone
472:; in
197:fixer
190:water
92:Kodak
65:image
50:paper
2898:film
2613:MILC
2112:ETTR
1969:Nude
1929:Fire
1828:Sync
1626:head
1574:zoom
1559:Lens
1522:gobo
1470:base
1465:Film
1436:view
1289:OCLC
1279:ISBN
1250:The
1188:PMID
1116:ISBN
1086:link
1036:link
991:link
872:2011
681:and
675:DTPA
671:EDTA
638:and
533:reel
491:and
427:and
418:K-14
278:for
205:hypo
195:The
165:The
2650:CCD
1431:toy
1426:TLR
1416:SLR
1180:doi
843:doi
723:(a
679:NTA
650:or
602:by
453:or
184:or
60:or
48:or
40:or
2967::
1287:,
1186:.
1178:.
1168:52
1166:.
1114:.
1094:^
1082:}}
1078:{{
1060:.
1044:^
1032:}}
1028:{{
987:}}
983:{{
951:^
916:^
773:.
677:,
673:,
646:,
465:.
286:.
271:.
256:.
176:A
130:Ag
110:.
1349:e
1342:t
1335:v
1194:.
1182::
1174::
1124:.
1088:)
1074:.
1038:)
1024:.
993:)
979:.
874:.
845::
625:)
619:(
614:)
610:(
596:.
367:.
211:.
173:.
134:h
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
