226:
give a man (or woman, if a woman had been killed) to the family of the murdered person. If there was no one to give, the murderer was told to choose between death and becoming a slave to the murdered person's family. If the murderer became a slave, his family could ransom him. Their readiness to do so was expressed by the gift of a hoe, and an agreement was reached in front of the royal court. Only the chief could impose the death penalty, which was carried out immediately by poison, spearing, or decapitation.
209:, the older Milansi dynasty retained ritual power and the right to install the Twa chief. It was, however, the Twa (after splitting into two chiefdoms) who exercised territorial and administrative authority through their appointed officials, with orders then transmitted to elected village headmen. The Fipa had now finally become more stratified, had even more precise borders, and were governed in a more strictly supervised manner. It had become a real state.
60:
351:, while all other visitors had to acknowledge the smith's authority with a payment. The smith and his assistants were supposed to abstain from sexual intercourse, for the smelting and forging of ironwork was a very specialized craft totally bound up with knowledge and magic, using very particular ingredients from doctors and sorcerers.
286:
normal; 300–400 people were large and not common. Everyone wore durable cotton cloth of black and white stripes of six by five feet. It took four to five hours to cover the eight-to-nine miles between settlements. Within the settlements, there was a strong emphasis placed on communal values, the most important being sociability.
421:
Twins were considered divinities, having special powers over rain and crops. They could also cause epidemics. They were publicly acclaimed, being carried around the village on a tray, and sacrifices were communally held in their honor at the new moon. They were not killed or allowed to die through
409:
occurred, dances were forbidden, children ceased playing noisy games, and water-pots were covered. Katai could, when s/he was in a kindly mood, also cure illness and heal suffering. When Katai was in an evil-minded mood, s/he could be appealed to for revenge or spite. There was no agreement on the
245:
The rulers of Ufipa, from 1860 to 1890, made alliances with coastal traders, and the state experienced stability and outward prosperity. On entering Ufipa, a visitor paid a small tribute and then became the chief's guest. Each village provided the visitor with accommodations and carried his load to
217:
Nkansi (Nkasi), on the Ufipa
Plateau, was a chiefdom with a particularly extreme and elaborate form of political organization, even having a prime minister, and according to some, had a life comparable to peasantry in the richest of European countries. It became traditional to have hereditary chiefs
253:
Below the surface, however, there were a number of destructive consequences. The local weaving industry declined, while the Twa chiefs were able to enforce much heavier contributions in goods, livestock, and labor from their subjects. In place of cotton, beads, and wire being exchanged, there were
310:
Traditionally, all land belonged to the chief. Any Fipa could plant wherever they wished, as long as payment was made to the local official. While there was no shortage of land itself, there was a shortage of fertile land, and distances between settlements tended to increase. Fishing was supposed
375:
by constant manipulation. This was thought to enhance their sexual attractiveness and favor giving birth. If a birth was difficult, the midwives asked the name of the unborn child's father, for it was thought that unconfessed adultery could cause death in childbirth. At the birth of a girl, the
354:
Spinning and weaving locally grown cotton was universal and always the work of men. The cloth was open, heavy, strong, and durable, was white with a black-stripped border and five by six feet long, sufficient for the toga-like dress worn by men and women (somewhat as the Wahehe are said to look).
285:
for sleeping and filtering beer were made by the women, who also used a small hoe when working the fields. Men also made the beds: a single cow hide, or cow hide strips, stretched over a wooden frame with a reed mat placed on the bed before sleeping in it. A total of 100 people in a village were
302:
was deforested and the soil exhausted. The Fipa planted their principal crops on earth-covered compost piles of vegetation roughly a mile or more from a settlement. Thompson wrote: "They are more of a purely agricultural race than any other tribe I have seen. To the cultivation of their fields
225:
The judiciary could also be elaborate. Cases were first heard by a headman; from there a defendant could appeal to the district sub-chief, then to the royal court, and finally to the chief, queen mother, and council of elders. If a person were found guilty of murder, the murderer was ordered to
392:
Fipa diviners blamed illness on sorcery, territorial or ancestral spirits, or a neighbor or relative. Commoners tended to blame sorcery alone. Illness made it necessary to discover its cause: an ancestral spirit, a divinity, a demon, a sorcerer, or even a witch (Fipa witches were supposed to be
379:
If a woman died in childbirth, the unborn child was cut from the belly and placed on its dead mother's back inside the grave, while the women would weep and chant inside the hut with the corpse; the men would sit quietly outside. Following the burial, the hut in which the woman died was totally
289:
Almost all of East Africa's people viewed forests and fields to be at least somewhat antagonistic. There was hostility between cultivated land and the wildness of the bush. The Fipa in particular saw the bush as full of dangers and stressed the village as properly dominant over the surrounding
413:
There were other, more localized spirits. Hills, lakes (such as Lake
Tanganyika), large trees, oddly shaped rocks, groves of trees, could all be the home of a spirit. Truly large tame pythons, representing the spirits of these places, would coil themselves on specially made stools and receive
396:
The Wafipa, as with most
Africans, had a supreme god: Umweele, the creator of ultimate power in the world. There was, however, no cult to this god, although it was common for those needing help to utter "Umweele, forgive me". Worship was also directed to lesser and closer divinities, the most
266:
Prophet Kaswa is said to have prophesied the coming of
Europeans: "There are coming terrible strangers who bring war; they will surely come. O you people, you are going to be robbed of your country: you will not even be able to cough." It was not until 1905–1919 that the Wafipa began seeking
221:
The Queen Mother was also important, having her own separate palace and court, a large estate that paid her tribute. On the lowest administrative level was an elected village headman with a female magistrate whose special function was to decide breaches of the public order by either sex,
246:
the next settlement. The Fipa were not aggressive, were said never to wage war, but generally obtained enough firearms to deter most potential aggressors by exchanging their grain for slaves, with which they then bought guns from the coastal traders. The German explorer
280:
The Wafipa tended to live in concentrated, widely spaced settlements of 20–30 round huts, no more than a few yards apart, each housing three to five each, with two surrounding corridor walls for small livestock. An inner room was for eating and sleeping.
342:
Ironsmiths were hereditary specialists. The knowledge was integrated with magic and a special bag of magical ingredients was passed from father to son. The Twa chiefs of the Wafipa, any of his family, and all women were forbidden to visit the site of a
401:
and other diseases. Katai could come as a dog with shining eyes, in dreams; a mouse in a hut corner; a beautiful youth; or even smoke (the
African concept of deities included the souls of animals, spirits, and humans being interchangeable).
393:
carried upside down at night by their wives, work evil, and be all that was opposite of being good), for only with the discovery of the cause could appropriate measures be taken, such as sacrifices, ritual burning, or certain medicines, etc.
376:
father brought firewood on his head; when a boy was born, a bow and arrow was carried in the father's right hand. Following death, a meeting of kin decided the issue of inheritance and a widow was assigned to the heir, if she was willing.
417:
Lastly, there was the worship of ancestral spirits. These were thought to inhabit the threshold of their descendants' huts. Periodically, the owner of a hut would honor them by sprinkling the walls and floors with water and flour.
422:
starvation as with so many other groups. They were in fact so important as to be especially honored by having sacrifices offered at an altar erected by their parents outside their hut during harvest time or epidemics.
290:
bush. With the Wafipa, each spirit cult was associated with rocks, mountain, groves, and lakes, and had a shrine where a priest tended a sacred python whose domestication represented man's control over nature.
258:
wrote of the Ufipa area: "I...have seen all human life and culture stamped out for a distance of 50 miles along the road, where only a short time before the most flourishing villages existed."
250:, who visited the Ufipa around 1882, said that "calm, peace and order" reigned within the Fipa state. He described the rule of King Kapuufi as "generally energetic, but nevertheless mild".
238:-style hide shields and spears. The villages had become palisaded, and slowly chaos, terror, and warfare began to dominate the area, primarily as a result of the private army of
567:
327:, collecting firewood, making and spreading compost piles, cutting grass, and threshing millet. The threshing was often done by cooperative groups of kinsmen and neighbors.
20:
234:
Until the 1860s, the Wafipa were described as still peaceful and prosperous, although somewhat plagued by raiders. By the 1870s, however, warriors were now carrying
178:– with roughly 20,000 people in the 1890s. Many had come from the Congo, with chiefdoms dominating a number of clans. Since iron was a precious commodity, and iron
303:
they devote themselves entirely." During the busy time of harvest, those working the land built round huts in which to sleep and find shelter. The main crop was
414:
offerings of millet porridge and meat from worshipers. Worship was often conducted by a hereditary priest, often seemingly possessed of a particular spirit.
1638:
560:
205:
from the north, who were organized as a single clan and dominated others by force and cunning. While the Twa established themselves as an
1597:
1633:
553:
489:
315:(although the Germans make no mention of fish products found in Kimaurunga's Boma), Lake Tanganyika, and the surrounding rivers.
439:
218:
who were surrounded by a court of at least nine titled officials and others to administer specific areas of the chiefdom.
167:
371:, the Wafipa had no initiation ceremony for either sex. It was general practice among unmarried girls to extend their
1602:
576:
141:
languages. In 1992, the Fipa population was estimated to number 200,000, reduced to 195,000 in the 2002 census.
118:
1359:
1433:
1177:
1035:
182:
required technical knowledge, it was jealously guarded, resulting in a number of clans being subject to
330:
The women's most important tasks were drawing water, weeding, cooking, plastering huts and granaries,
627:
1607:
254:
guns and powder going into the interior to trade for human beings. In 1889–1890, British explorer
873:
397:
important and terrible being Katai, said to be the enemy of domestic animals and the bringer of
239:
1258:
977:
485:
334:, pounding grain, sweeping huts, using the coil method to make pottery, and raising children.
175:
479:
1369:
1344:
282:
1489:
1484:
1387:
1225:
1093:
1068:
967:
909:
838:
159:
138:
84:
194:"), was headed by a dynasty of ironsmiths, which exchanged its products for woven cloth.
307:, to be made into dry porridge and usually eaten with the fingers accompanied by beans.
1579:
1574:
1547:
1537:
1494:
1415:
1334:
1311:
1268:
1159:
1144:
1126:
1030:
949:
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924:
914:
858:
800:
757:
683:
663:
635:
597:
515:
464:
255:
163:
122:
197:
These clans and dynasties were later taken over by an even newer immigrant group, the
1627:
1542:
1532:
1517:
1512:
1476:
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1443:
1428:
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80:
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1055:
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1005:
972:
919:
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886:
881:
863:
795:
790:
772:
711:
693:
678:
612:
602:
381:
372:
171:
126:
323:
The most important tasks for the men were hunting wild animals, building huts and
1253:
1215:
1205:
1106:
1040:
1015:
997:
957:
891:
843:
828:
762:
729:
668:
235:
206:
96:
1589:
1248:
962:
607:
312:
183:
1456:
833:
545:
331:
1557:
406:
398:
364:
179:
130:
65:
848:
368:
324:
187:
1569:
304:
222:
particularly in regards to the use of obscene language and brawling.
198:
100:
1612:
348:
202:
344:
549:
410:
sex of Katai: in the north it was male, in the south, female.
154:
Historically, the Fipa lived on the largely treeless
1588:
1556:
1503:
1475:
1442:
1414:
1396:
1368:
1325:
1287:
1239:
1196:
1168:
1135:
1092:
1054:
996:
948:
900:
872:
819:
781:
748:
720:
692:
649:
626:
583:
90:
74:
56:
51:
41:
34:
117:) are a Bantu ethno-linguistic group based in the
21:Festival International de Programmes Audiovisuels
561:
380:destroyed. The dead were not "thrown away",
8:
478:Cohen, Ronald; Toland, Judith Drick (1988).
29:
568:
554:
546:
28:
16:Ethnic group from Rukwa Region of Tanzania
481:State formation and political legitimacy
440:"Fipa - Religion and Expressive Culture"
363:Aside from extracting two or four lower
170:. They were a mixed population – Fipa,
162:, appearing as a bridge joining east to
431:
484:. Transaction Publishers. p. 87.
7:
52:Regions with significant populations
14:
1639:Indigenous peoples of East Africa
58:
311:to be important in the area of
530:The Fipa: Tanzania Before 1900
465:"Fipa: A language of Tanzania"
19:For the television prize, see
1:
523:A Modern History of Tanganika
537:The Fipa and Related People
267:employment with Europeans.
1655:
18:
1634:Ethnic groups in Tanzania
577:Ethnic groups in Tanzania
186:. The central chiefdom,
95:
79:
46:
516:Ethnologue report: Fipa
510:Raising the Flag of War
359:Birth, life, and death
262:Contact with Europeans
230:19th century history
271:Traditional society
192:the eternal village
31:
1603:Chinese Tanzanians
1621:
1620:
1608:Indian Tanzanians
107:
106:
1646:
1598:White Tanzanians
570:
563:
556:
547:
508:Bauer, Andreus.
496:
495:
475:
469:
468:
461:
455:
454:
452:
450:
436:
367:before or after
158:looking down on
150:Dynastic history
129:in southwestern
119:Sumbawanga Rural
64:
62:
61:
42:Total population
32:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1584:
1552:
1499:
1471:
1438:
1410:
1392:
1364:
1321:
1283:
1235:
1192:
1164:
1131:
1088:
1050:
992:
944:
896:
868:
815:
777:
744:
716:
688:
645:
622:
579:
574:
535:Willis, Roy G.
528:Willis, Roy G.
505:
500:
499:
492:
477:
476:
472:
463:
462:
458:
448:
446:
438:
437:
433:
428:
390:
361:
340:
321:
296:
278:
273:
264:
232:
215:
201:, possibly the
160:Lake Tanganyika
152:
147:
59:
57:
37:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1652:
1650:
1642:
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1610:
1605:
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1594:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
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1577:
1572:
1566:
1564:
1554:
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1551:
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1520:
1515:
1509:
1507:
1501:
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1498:
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1492:
1487:
1481:
1479:
1473:
1472:
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1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1448:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1402:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1374:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1331:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1284:
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1281:
1276:
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1261:
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1243:
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1233:
1228:
1223:
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1213:
1208:
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1033:
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1023:
1018:
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1002:
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991:
990:
985:
980:
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965:
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952:
946:
945:
943:
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937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
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906:
904:
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581:
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521:Iliffe, John.
519:
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470:
456:
430:
429:
427:
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389:
386:
360:
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339:
336:
320:
317:
295:
292:
277:
274:
272:
269:
263:
260:
256:H. H. Johnston
242:(Kimalaunga).
231:
228:
214:
211:
164:central Africa
151:
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104:
93:
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1199:
1195:
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127:Rukwa Region
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26:Ethnic group
874:Kilimanjaro
276:Settlements
207:aristocracy
1628:Categories
1590:Immigrants
1259:Ndengereko
503:References
313:Lake Rukwa
240:Kimaurunga
184:ironsmiths
1490:Nyanyembe
1457:Nyamwanga
1370:Shinyanga
1345:Ndendeule
332:winnowing
325:granaries
283:Reed mats
97:Christian
75:Languages
1558:Zanzibar
1485:Nyamwezi
1388:Nyamwezi
1094:Morogoro
1069:Nyakyusa
968:Barabaig
910:Machinga
839:Holoholo
449:2 August
407:epidemic
405:When an
399:smallpox
384:-style.
365:incisors
338:Industry
180:smelting
166:and the
131:Tanzania
91:Religion
66:Tanzania
1580:Swahili
1575:Shirazi
1548:Swahili
1495:Swahili
1434:Nyaturu
1416:Singida
1335:Matengo
1312:Tumbuka
1269:Swahili
1160:Swahili
1145:Makonde
1127:Vidunda
1031:Ngurimi
978:Kw'adza
950:Manyara
940:Swahili
925:Makonde
915:Matumbi
859:Swahili
849:Manyema
801:Konongo
758:Hangaza
684:Sandawe
664:Burunge
636:Swahili
598:Datooga
388:Worship
369:puberty
188:Milanzi
145:History
99:(70%),
70:195,000
47:195,000
1570:Hadimu
1560:&
1543:Zigula
1538:Sambaa
1533:Segeju
1518:Dhaiso
1513:Bondei
1477:Tabora
1467:Lambya
1452:Malila
1444:Songwe
1429:Isanzu
1424:Iramba
1406:Sukuma
1398:Simiyu
1383:Sukuma
1378:Iramba
1327:Ruvuma
1307:Mambwe
1279:Zigula
1274:Zaramo
1264:Rufiji
1226:Pangwa
1198:Njombe
1188:Sukuma
1183:Kerewe
1170:Mwanza
1155:Maviha
1137:Mtwara
1122:Sagara
1117:Pogolo
1112:Luguru
1102:Kaguru
1046:Zanaki
988:Mbugwe
983:Maasai
935:Ngindo
930:Ndonde
882:Chagga
854:Tongwe
821:Kigoma
811:Rungwa
806:Pimbwe
783:Katavi
768:Nyambo
750:Kagera
740:Ndamba
735:Mbunga
722:Iringa
707:Sumbwa
702:Sukuma
674:Gorowa
659:Alagwa
651:Dodoma
641:Zaramo
618:Maasai
593:Arusha
585:Arusha
488:
305:millet
236:Wahehe
213:Nkansi
174:, and
139:Mambwe
115:Wafipa
101:Muslim
85:Mambwe
63:
36:Wafipa
1613:Arabs
1562:Pemba
1528:Ngulu
1523:Mbugu
1505:Tanga
1462:Ndali
1355:Nindi
1350:Ngoni
1340:Mpoto
1317:Wanda
1302:Lungu
1289:Rukwa
1241:Pwani
1231:Wanji
1221:Manda
1211:Kinga
1150:Makua
1084:Sangu
1079:Safwa
1074:Nyiha
1064:Kimbu
1056:Mbeya
1026:Kuria
1021:Kabwa
1011:Ikoma
1006:Ikizu
973:Iraqw
920:Mwera
902:Lindi
887:Ngasa
864:Vinza
796:Bende
791:Bembe
773:Shubi
712:Zinza
694:Geita
679:Rangi
613:Sonjo
603:Hadza
426:Notes
382:Sangu
349:forge
203:Tutsi
176:Nyika
172:Wanda
168:Congo
123:Nkasi
103:(30%)
1297:Fipa
1254:Kami
1216:Kisi
1206:Bena
1178:Kara
1107:Kutu
1041:Ware
1036:Suba
1016:Jita
998:Mara
958:Akie
892:Pare
844:Jiji
829:Goma
763:Haya
730:Hehe
669:Gogo
608:Meru
542:Norm
486:ISBN
451:2014
345:kiln
298:The
294:Land
137:and
135:Fipa
121:and
113:(or
111:Fipa
109:The
81:Fipa
30:Fipa
1360:Yao
1249:Doe
963:Asa
347:or
199:Twa
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190:("
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