Firestorm - Knowledge (XXG)

819: 896: 40: 3572:'+would have required 220 B-29s carrying 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs, 400 tons of high-explosive bombs, and 500 tons of anti-personnel fragmentation bombs, if conventional weapons, rather than an atomic bomb, had been used. One hundred and twenty-five B-29s carrying 1,200 tons of bombs (p. 25 ) would have been required to approximate the damage and casualties at Nagasaki. This estimate pre-supposed bombing under conditions similar to those existing when the atomic bombs were dropped and bombing accuracy equal to the average attained by the Twentieth Air Force during the last 3 months of the war 1420:"The Germans again and again missed their chance, ...of setting our cities ablaze by a concentrated attack. Coventry was adequately concentrated in point of space, but all the same there was little concentration in point of time, and nothing like the fire tornadoes of Hamburg or Dresden ever occurred in this country. But they did do us enough damage to teach us the principle of concentration, the principle of starting so many fires at the same time that no fire fighting services, however efficiently and quickly they were reinforced by the fire brigades of other towns could get them under control." 1093:

of weather and climate processes, including in relation to improved modeling and prediction capabilities. It is essential to fully explore events such as these to properly characterize the fire behavior, pyroCb dynamics, and resultant influence on conditions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS). It is also important to accurately characterize this transport process so that cloud, chemistry, and climate models have a firm basis on which to evaluate the pyrogenic source term, pathway from the boundary layer through cumulus cloud, and exhaust from the convective column.

1764: 1784: 1752: 1106: 685: 1010:(pyroCb) firestorm dynamics and their atmospheric impact. These are well illustrated in the Black Saturday case study below. The "pyroCb" is a fire-started or fire-augmented thunderstorm that in its most extreme manifestation injects huge abundances of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions into the lower stratosphere. The observed hemispheric spread of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions has known important climate consequences. Direct attribution of the stratospheric 1740: 1089:

considerable differences in pyroCb characteristics between Black Saturday and the Canberra fire event. Differences between pyroCb events, such as for the Black Saturday and Canberra cases, indicate considerable potential for improved understanding of pyroconvection based on combining different data sets as presented in the research of the Black Saturday pyroCb's (including in relation to lightning, radar, precipitation, and satellite observations).

808: 4403: 1366: 4425: 1827:, and Tokyo again on May 24....in fact the atomic bomb used against Hiroshima was less lethal than massive fire bombing....Only its technique was novel—nothing more....There was another difficulty posed by mass conventional bombing, and that was its very success, a success that made the two modes of human destruction qualitatively identical in fact and in the minds of the 4414: 1080:

the maximum rate and flame height. As these spot fires continue to grow together, the burning and heat release rates will finally start to decrease but remain at a much elevated level compared to the independent spot fire. The flame height is not expected to change significantly. The more spot fires, the bigger the increase in burning rate and flame height.

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numbers of fires are burning simultaneously over a relatively large area, with the important caveat that the density of simultaneously burning fires needs to be above a critical threshold for a firestorm to form (a notable example of large numbers of fires burning simultaneously over a large area without a firestorm developing was the

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properties, namely its fuel density, are not conducive to one developing. It's worth remembering that such a device would still destroy any city in the world today from its shockwave alone, as well as irradiate the ruins to the point of uninhabitability. A device so large could even vaporize the city (and the

1322:. The reports that the Ube bombing produced a firestorm, along with computer modelling, have set one of the four physical conditions which a city fire must meet to have the potential of developing true firestorm effects, as the size of the Ube firestorm is the smallest ever confirmed. Glasstone and Dolan: 1875:

The second factor explaining the non-intuitive break in the expected results of greater explosive yield producing greater city fire damage is that city fire damage is largely dependent not on the yield of the weapons used, but on the conditions in and around the city itself, with the fuel loading per

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A greater understanding of pyroCb activity is important, given that fire-atmosphere feedback processes can exacerbate the conditions associated with dangerous fire behavior. Additionally, understanding the combined effects of heat, moisture, and aerosols on cloud microphysics is important for a range

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On an intraseasonal level it is established that pyroCbs occur with surprising frequency. In 2002, at least 17 pyroCbs erupted in North America alone. Still to be determined is how often this process occurred in the boreal forests of Asia in 2002. However, it is now established that this most extreme

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A firestorm does not appreciably ignite material at a distance ahead of itself; more accurately, the heat desiccates those materials and makes them more vulnerable to ignition by embers or firebrands, increasing the rate of fire spotting. During the formation of a firestorm many fires merge to form a

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based on World War II experience with mass fires resulting from air raids on Germany and Japan, the minimum requirements for a firestorm to develop are considered by some authorities to be the following: (1) at least 8 pounds of combustibles per square foot of fire area (40 kg per square meter), (2)

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9,000 dead. 24,000 dwellings destroyed. Area burned 23 square miles (60 km); the percentage of this area which was destroyed by conventional conflagration and that destroyed by firestorm is unspecified. Although a much larger area was destroyed by fire in Kassel than even Tokyo and Hamburg, the

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radiation), which may ignite flammable material at a distance ahead of the fire itself. This also serves to expand the area and the intensity of the firestorm. Violent, erratic wind drafts suck movables into the fire and as is observed with all intense conflagrations, radiated heat from the fire can

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fuel loadings. As a point of example, a city with buildings of a mean fuel loading of 40kg/m^2 but with a builtupness factor of 70%, with the rest of the city area covered by pavements, etc., would have a fire area fuel loading of 0.7*40kg/m^2 present, or 28 kg/m^2 of fuel loading in the fire area.

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The .90 fractile of buildings in Switzerland (that is 90% of buildings surveyed fall under the stated fire loading figure) had 'fuel loadings below the crucial 8 lb/sqft or 40 kg/m^2 density'. The .90 fractile is found by multiplying the mean value found by 1.65. Keep in mind, none of these figures

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Since the discovery of smoke in the stratosphere and the pyroCb, only a small number of individual case studies and modeling experiments have been performed. Hence, there is still much to be learned about the pyroCb and its importance. With this work scientists have attempted to reduce the unknowns

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Black Saturday is just one of many varieties of firestorms with these pyroconvective processes and they are still being widely studied and compared. In addition to indicating this strong coupling on Black Saturday between the atmosphere and the fire activity, the lightning observations also suggest

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As the individual spot fires grow together, they will begin to interact. This interaction will increase the burning rates, heat release rates, and flame height until the distance between them reaches a critical level. At the critical separation distance, the flames will begin to merge and burn with

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of up to 100 km. In comparison to fires ignited by burning debris transported by the fire plume, these only go ahead of the fire front up to about 33 km, noting that this also has implications in relation to understanding the maximum rate of spread of a wildfire. This finding is important

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The high temperatures within the firestorm zone ignite most everything that might possibly burn, until a tipping point is reached, that is, upon running low on fuel, which occurs after the firestorm has consumed so much of the available fuel within the firestorm zone that the necessary fuel density

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exists over or near the fire. As the updraft mushrooms, strong inwardly-directed gusty winds develop around the fire, supplying it with additional air. This would seem to prevent the firestorm from spreading on the wind, but the tremendous turbulence created may also cause the strong surface inflow

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A fire storm is characterized by strong to gale force winds blowing toward the fire everywhere around the fire perimeter and results from the rising column of hot gases over an intense, mass fire drawing in the cool air from the periphery. These winds blow the fire brands into the burning area and

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Despite the disadvantage of nuclear weapons when compared to conventional weapons of lower or comparable yield in terms of effectiveness at starting fires, for the reasons discussed above, one undeniable advantage of nuclear weapons over conventional weapons when it comes to creating fires is that

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On the other hand, nuclear weapons produce effects that are in the reverse order, with thermal effects and "flash" occurring first, which are then followed by the slower blast wave. It is for this reason that conventional incendiary bombing raids are considered to be a great deal more efficient at

1709:(about half of which was incendiary bombs) on the night of 13–14 February 1945, and this resulted in "more than" 2.5 square miles (6.5 km) of the city being destroyed by fire and firestorm effects according to one authoritative source, or approximately 8 square miles (21 km) by another. 1912:

from the cities below. Nuclear weapons largely remove these uncertain variables. Therefore, nuclear weapons reduce the question of whether a city will firestorm or not to a smaller number of variables, to the point of becoming entirely reliant on the intrinsic properties of the city, such as fuel

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This break from the linear expectation of more fire damage to occur after greater explosive yield is dropped can be easily explained by two major factors. First, the order of blast and thermal events during a nuclear explosion is not ideal for the creation of fires. In an incendiary bombing raid,

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was that the building density, or builtupness factor, in Berlin was too low to support easy fire spread from building to building. Another reason was that much of the building construction was newer and better than in most of the old German city centers. Modern building practices in the Berlin of

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building construction in the urban area, a mass fire is conceivable from the mere incendiary power of no more than a domestic fireplace. On the other hand, the largest nuclear weapon conceivable (more than a gigaton blast yield) will be incapable of igniting a city into a firestorm if the city's

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It may seem counterintuitive that the same amount of fire damage caused by a nuclear weapon could have instead been produced by smaller total yield of thousands of incendiary bombs; however, World War II experience supports this assertion. For example, although not a perfect clone of the city of

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There is also a sizable difference between the fuel loading of World War II cities that firestormed and that of modern cities, where the quantity of combustibles per square meter in the fire area in the latter is below the necessary requirement for a firestorm to form (40 kg/m). Therefore,

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is considered to be a strong barrier to convection. Two recurring themes have developed as pyroCb research unfolds. First, puzzling stratospheric aerosol-layer observations—and other layers reported as volcanic aerosol can now be explained in terms of pyroconvection. Second, pyroCb events occur

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be stationary; as with any other convective storm, the circulation may follow surrounding pressure gradients and winds, if those lead it onto fresh fuel sources.) Furthermore, non-firestorm conflagrations can develop from a single ignition, whereas firestorms have only been observed where large

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into the burning area and tend to cool the unignited fuel outside the fire area so that ignition of material outside the periphery by radiated heat and fire embers is more difficult, thus limiting fire spread. At Hiroshima, this inrushing to feed the fire is said to have prevented the firestorm

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plume clusters ranging roughly 15 km high. These plumes were proven susceptible to striking new spot fires ahead of the main fire front. The newly ignited fires by this pyrogenic lightning further highlight the feedback loops of influence between the atmosphere and fire behavior on Black

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of ~18 MJ/kg. Thus 530/18 = 29 kg/m^2 of building fuel loading. This, again, is below the necessary 40kg/m^2 needed for a firestorm, even before the open spaces between buildings are included/before the corrective builtupness factor is applied and the all-important fire area fuel loading is

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single convective column of hot gases rising from the burning area and strong, fire-induced, radial (inwardly directed) winds are associated with the convective column. Thus the fire front is essentially stationary and the outward spread of fire is prevented by the in-rushing wind.

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are some of Australia's most destructive and deadly fires that fall under the category of a "firestorm" due to the extreme fire behavior and relationship with atmospheric responses that occurred during the fires. This major wildfire event led to a number of distinct electrified

3822:(Technical report). Issue 26 of Monograph (American Society of Civil Engineers. Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering), American Society of Civil Engineers Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering (illustrated ed.). ASCE Publications. p. 1628:

Unlike the highly combustible World War II cities that firestormed from conventional and nuclear weapons, a FEMA report suggests that due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm is unlikely to occur even after a nuclear detonation because

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square meter value of the city being one of the major factors. A few hundred strategically placed incendiary devices would be sufficient to start a firestorm in a city if the conditions for a firestorm, namely high fuel loading, are already inherent to the city (see

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In contrast, early in World War II, the ability to achieve conventional air raids concentrated in "point of time" depended largely upon the skill of pilots to remain in formation, and their ability to hit the target whilst at times also being under heavy fire from

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In contrast to these raids, when a single 16-kiloton nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, 4.5 square miles (12 km) of the city was destroyed by blast, fire, and firestorm effects. Similarly, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked with the

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trees that have oil in their leaves results in forest fires that are noted for their extremely tall and intense flame front. Hence the bush fires appear more as a firestorm than a simple forest fire. Sometimes, emission of combustible gases from swamps

3334:"On page 31 of Exploratory analysis of Firestorms. It was reported that the weight of fuel per acre in several California cities is 70 to 100 tons per acre. This amounts to about 3.5 to 5 pounds per square foot of fire area (~20 kg per square meter)" 1712:

In total about 4.5 kilotons of conventional ordnance was dropped on the city over a number of months during 1945 and this resulted in approximately 15 square miles (39 km) of the city being destroyed by blast and fire effects. During the

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effect of the structures, and firestorms are unlikely in areas whose modern buildings have totally collapsed, with the exceptions of Tokyo and Hiroshima, because of the nature of their densely-packed "flimsy" wooden buildings in World War II.

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on the city's population....Soon small fires spread, connected, grew into a vast firestorm that sucked the oxygen out of the lower atmosphere. The bomb raid was a 'success' for the Americans; they killed 125,000 Japanese in one attack. The

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World War II led to more effective firewalls and fire-resistant construction. Mass firestorms never proved to be possible in Berlin. No matter how heavy the raid or what kinds of firebombs were dropped, no true firestorm ever developed.

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burning after aerial firebombing attack in 1944. Notice that a firestorm event has yet to develop in this picture, as single isolated fires are seen burning, and not the single large mass fire that is the identifying characteristic of a

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The mean fire load density in buildings, from the most accurate weighing method, was found to be 530 MJ/m^2. The fire load density of a building can be directly converted into building fuel load density as outlined in the document with

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on 9–10 March 1945, 279 of the 334 B-29s dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary and high-explosive bombs on the city, resulting in the destruction of over 10,000 acres of buildings—16 square miles (41 km), a quarter of the city.

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Angell (1953) The number of bombers and tonnage of bombs are taken from a USAF document written in 1953 and classified secret until 1978. Also see Taylor (2005), front flap, which gives the figures 1,100 heavy bombers and 4,500

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8,000 dead. Area destroyed by fire 4 square miles (10 km). Again the percentage of this which was done by firestorm remains unspecified. 20,000 dwellings and one chemical works destroyed and industrial production reduced.

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fuel loading is not presented, that is, the area including the open spaces between buildings. Unless otherwise stated within the publications, the data presented is individual building fuel loadings and not the essential

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loading, and predictable atmospheric conditions, such as wind speed, in and around the city, and less reliant on the unpredictable possibility of hundreds of bomber crews acting together successfully as a single unit.

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firestorms resulted from Allied conventional bombing campaigns during World War II: Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo. They do not include the comparatively minor firestorms at Kassel, Darmstadt or even Ube into their

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from 1942 through to the end of the war in Europe, pointed out in his post-war analysis, although many attempts were made to create deliberate man-made firestorms during World War II, few attempts succeeded:

3892:(Third ed.). United States Department of Defense and the Energy Research and Development Administration. pp. 299, 300, § "Mass Fires" ¶7.58, 7.59 and § "The Nuclear Bomb as an Incendiary Weapon" ¶7.61. 899:

A picture of a pyro-cumulonimbus taken from a commercial airliner cruising at about 10 km. In 2002 various sensing instruments detected 17 distinct pyrocumulonimbus cloud events in North America alone.

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are distinct from firestorms if they have moving fire fronts which are driven by the ambient wind and do not develop their own wind system like true firestorms. (This does not mean that a firestorm

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form of pyroconvection, along with more frequent pyrocumulus convection, was widespread and persisted for at least two months. The characteristic injection height of pyroCb emissions is the upper

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gusting at 17 to 28 mph (27 to 45 km/h) at the time of the fire overrode the fire's ability to form its own wind system. These high winds increased by about 50% the damage done by the

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According to physicist David Hafemeister, firestorms occurred after about 5% of all fire-bombing raids during World War II (but he does not explain if this is a percentage based on both

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The examinations presented here for Black Saturday demonstrate that fires ignited by lightning generated within the fire plume can occur at much larger distances ahead of the main fire front

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produced in total 5–10 cm of black soot-filled rain in a 1–3 hour period. Moreover, if the conditions are right, a large pyrocumulus can grow into a pyrocumulonimbus and produce

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at least half of the structures in the area on fire simultaneously, (3) a wind of less than 8 miles per hour at the time, and (4) a minimum burning area of about half a square mile.

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From 22,700 to 25,000 people were killed. A firestorm area of approximately 8 square miles (21 km) was reported at Dresden. The attack was centered on the readily identifiable

1407:. Most large German cities were extensively firebombed starting in 1942, and almost all large Japanese cities were firebombed during the last six months of World War II. As 1097:

by revealing several additional occasions when pyroCbs were either a significant or sole cause for the type of stratospheric pollution usually attributed to volcanic injections.

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do not present any especially characteristic features. In principle, the same overall result with respect to destruction of life and property can be achieved by the use of

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As the fuel load density publications generally do not specify the builtupness factor of the metropolis where the buildings were surveyed, one can safely assume that the

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which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system. It is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires and

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Firestorm covering 4.4 square miles (11 km). No estimate can be given of the number of fire deaths, for the fire area was largely within the blast damage region.

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Dowdy, Andrew J.; Fromm, Michael D.; McCarthy, Nicholas (27 July 2017). "Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia".

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in 1666, although not forming a firestorm due to the single point of ignition, serves as an example that, given a densely packed and predominantly wooden and

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in the Second World War were generally confined to the areas initially seeded with incendiary devices, and the firestorm did not appreciably spread outward.

3363: 1120:, totally engulfed in a firestorm. At the time, the armaments available to the world's various air forces were not powerful enough to produce such a result. 4461: 3417:"Determining Design Fires for Design-level and Extreme Events, SFPE 6th International Conference on Performance-Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods" 883:

A firestorm is characterized by strong to gale-force winds blowing toward the fire, everywhere around the fire perimeter, an effect which is caused by the

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firestorms are not to be expected in modern North American cities after a nuclear detonation, and are expected to be unlikely in modern European cities.

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could have instead been produced by about 1,200 tons/1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs from 220 B-29s distributed over the city; for Nagasaki, a single

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A U.S. Air Force table showing the total number of bombs dropped by the Allies on Germany's seven largest cities during the entirety of World War II.

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incendiary weapons followed after high-explosive blast weapons were dropped, in a manner designed to create the greatest probability of fires from a

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Hiroshima aftermath. Despite a true firestorm developing, reinforced concrete buildings, as in Tokyo, similarly remained standing. Signed by the

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covering 16 square miles (41 km). Although often described as a firestorm event, the conflagration did not generate a firestorm as the high

3600: 1726: 3306:"Medical Effects Of Atomic Bombs The Report Of The Joint Commission For The Investigation Of The Effects Of The Atomic Bomb In Japan Volume 1" 895: 887:

of the rising column of hot gases over the intense mass fire, drawing in cool air from the periphery. These winds from the perimeter blow the

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Die Zerstörung Dresdens: 13. bis 15. Februar 1945. Gutachten und Ergebnisse der Dresdner Historikerkommission zur Ermittlung der Opferzahlen.

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Fromm, Michael; Lindsey, Daniel T.; Servranckx, René; Yue, Glenn; Trickl, Thomas; Sica, Robert; Doucet, Paul; Godin-Beekmann, Sophie (2010).

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to state that the same fire damage suffered at Hiroshima could have instead been produced by about 1 kiloton/1,000 tons of incendiary bombs.

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Although incendiary bombs have been used to destroy buildings since the start of gunpowder warfare, World War II saw the first use of

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Angell (1953) The number of bombers and tonnage of bombs are taken from a USAF document written in 1953 and classified secret until 1978.

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The town was at the center of a tornado of flame. The fire was coming from all directions at once, and the winds were roaring at 100 mph.

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required to keep the firestorm's wind system active drops below the threshold level, at which time the firestorm breaks up into isolated

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A Forgotten Holocaust: US Bombing Strategy, the Destruction of Japanese Cities and the American Way of War from the Pacific War to Iraq

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into flammable hot liquid. The very high temperatures ignite anything that might possibly burn, until the firestorm runs low on fuel.

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Oughterson, A. W.; Leroy, G. V.; Liebow, A. A.; Hammond, E. C.; Barnett, H. L.; Rosenbaum, J. D.; Schneider, B. A. (19 April 1951).

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as the heat of the original fire draws in more and more of the surrounding air. This draft can be quickly increased if a low-level

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Portions of the following fires are often described as firestorms, but that has not been corroborated by any reliable references:

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firestorm category. Despite later quoting and corroborating Glasstone and Dolan and data collected from these smaller firestorms:

2023: 1260: 1034:. Thus, a new appreciation for the role of extreme wildfire behavior and its atmospheric ramifications is now coming into focus. 601: 4454: 4100: 3984: 2680: 2077:. Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering monograph. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers. p. 68. 2053: 1824: 754: 1789:

This Tokyo residential section was virtually destroyed. All that remained standing were concrete buildings in this photograph.

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nuclear weapons undoubtedly produce all their thermal and explosive effects in a very short period of time. That is, to use

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The same underlying combustion physics can also apply to man-made structures such as cities during war or natural disaster.

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for the understanding and modeling of future firestorms and the large scale areas that can be affected by this phenomenon.

1981: 1698: 1132: 499: 3341: 3261: 3009: 2865: 2742:"The California Report: Report Details Injuries to 5 Firefighters in Camp Fire, Compares Blaze's Ferocity to WWII Attack" 2407: 4823: 2164: 2121: 2041: 3818:

American National Fire Protection Association (2005). Scawthorn, Charles; Eidinger, John M.; Schiff, Anshel J. (eds.).

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tend to cool the unignited fuel outside so that ignition by radiated heat is more difficult, thus limiting fire spread.

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causing mass fires than nuclear weapons of comparable yield. It is likely this led the nuclear weapon effects experts

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On a more continental and global extent, away from the direct vicinity of the fire, wildfire firestorms that produce

4447: 2217: 1828: 661: 28: 3378: 3044:, Stanford Research Institute, pp. 39–40, 53–54. Office of Civil Defense, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. 1806:

on Tokyo, and on 9 March 1945, wave upon wave dropped masses of small incendiaries containing an early version of

1729:(USSBS), said that the 21-kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki did not do as much fire damage as the extended 4223: 3634: 3468:

National Fire Protection Association, 1946, p. 125 – Why didn't Berlin suffer a mass fire? The table on pg 88 of

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Abschlussbericht der Historikerkommission zu den Luftangriffen auf Dresden zwischen dem 13. und 15. Februar 1945

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dropped on the city could have been estimated to be caused by 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs from 125 B-29s.

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perimeter from expanding, and thus the firestorm was confined to the area of the city damaged by the blast.

656: 4228: 4218: 4166: 2280: 1812: 1673:. It has been estimated, for example, that the same fire ferocity and damage produced at Hiroshima by one 1634: 1431: 1158:, which at one point travelled at a speed of up to 76 acres per minute, completely destroying the town of 1128: 1017:

Such an extreme injection by thunderstorms was previously judged to be unlikely because the extratropical

979: 812: 525: 3765: 963:("fire storm") clouds. For example, the black rain that began to fall approximately 20 minutes after the 3687: 1909: 1380:

is a technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by

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Firestorms are thought to have been part of the mechanism of large urban fires, such as accompanied the

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46,000 dead. A firestorm area of approximately 4.5 square miles (12 km) was reported at Hamburg.

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are possible examples of forest fires with some portion of combustion due to a firestorm, as is the

3528: 1861: 1663: 762: 684: 633: 530: 469: 295: 3714: 4068: 3880: 3305: 2635: 2503: 2246: 1969: 1957: 1922: 1670: 1412: 1345: 1307: 1295: 1286:. There were 267,171 buildings destroyed, and between 83,793 and 100,000 killed, making this the 1263: 766: 305: 283: 190: 151: 3975:

Radiation dose reconstruction U.S. occupation forces in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, 1945–1946

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surprisingly frequently, and they are likely a relevant aspect of several historic wildfires.

956: 916: 535: 4417: 3953: 3911: 3823: 2958: 4770: 4764: 4566: 4470: 4270: 4249: 3313: 2619: 2575: 2493: 2474:"Violent pyro-convective storm devastates Australia's capital and pollutes the stratosphere" 1865: 1853: 1834: 1820: 1714: 1279: 1155: 1059: 960: 868: 699: 413: 300: 212: 55: 4669: 4156: 3604: 3464:"'The Cold War: Who won? This ebook cites the firebombing reported in Horatio Bond's book 3400: 3209: 3151: 3119: 2726: 1869: 1840: 1774: 1694: 991: 987: 807: 606: 381: 84: 4439: 3707: 951:

Firestorms will produce hot buoyant smoke clouds of primarily water vapor that will form

3366:

Validation of Methodologies to Determine Fire Load for Use in Structural Fire Protection

3177: 2615: 2571: 2522: 2489: 2454: 2361: 1139:. Genuine firestorms are occurring more frequently in California wildfires, such as the 4622: 4538: 4382: 4136: 4126: 3463: 2890: 2722:"New Horrifying Details Released About Fire Tornado That Killed California Firefighter" 1993: 1702: 1400: 1319: 1304: 1291: 1109: 983: 802: 689: 596: 430: 44: 3665: 3416: 994:

additive in increasing the depth of the "winter" cooling, from near-imperceptible to "

4874: 4868: 4833: 4631: 4406: 4105: 4061: 3995:

Neutzner, Matthias; Schönherr, Nicole; von Plato, Alexander; Schnatz, Helmut (2010).

3862:

Firestorm at Peshtigo: A Town, Its People, and the Deadliest Fire in American History

3593: 2639: 2507: 2441: 1975: 1901: 1795: 1408: 1275: 1117: 940: 924: 907: 855: 758: 731: 552: 506: 452: 401: 288: 3899:

The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945, Volume II: Endeavour, Part 4

1757:

Wind blowing the smoke plume inland during the 26 May 1945 firebombing raid on Tokyo

1365: 4828: 4750: 4745: 4578: 4543: 4491: 4357: 4298: 4141: 3910:. Issue 4 of Readings from Physics Today (Illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 1849: 1396: 1369: 1113: 1031: 952: 827: 442: 366: 197: 3198: 1645:

Similarly, one reason for the lack of success in creating a true firestorm in the

1438:

raids, or combined Allied raids, or U.S. raids alone). In 2005, the American

2910: 4843: 4729: 4662: 4641: 4636: 4514: 4387: 4303: 4277: 4151: 4146: 4017: 2654: 1803: 1630: 1435: 1385: 1377: 1252: 1166: 1027: 851: 847: 840: 836: 770: 739: 591: 479: 474: 437: 386: 317: 263: 219: 207: 156: 3933:(First, Collins 1947 ed.). Pen & Sword military classics. p. 83. 2437:"Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter" 1290:, with destruction to life and property greater than that caused by the use of 1274:

The firebombing of Tokyo started many fires which converged into a devastating

854:. This occurred with the 2002 Durango fire, and probably with the much greater 4524: 4367: 4131: 3887: 3790: 3017: 1932: 1674: 1318:

A momentary firestorm of about 0.5 square miles (1.3 km) was reported at

1144: 1018: 931: 831: 586: 569: 511: 459: 322: 258: 253: 246: 173: 168: 126: 114: 3508: 3506: 3504: 2995: 2786: 2631: 2300: 2298: 955:

clouds as it enters the cooler upper atmosphere, generating what is known as

4853: 4848: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4504: 4499: 4372: 4352: 4293: 4265: 4161: 3598:"Extract from the official account of Bomber Command by Arthur Harris, 1945" 3451:

fuel loading would be some factor less if builtupness was taken into account

3437:

even take the builtupness factor into consideration, thus the all-important

2681:"'Like a blowtorch': Powerful winds fueled tornadoes of flame in Tubbs Fire" 2047: 1770: 1404: 1151: 968: 581: 576: 371: 273: 241: 224: 185: 163: 119: 2580: 2555: 3709:

The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943–1945

3642: 3140: 1222:

city fire caused a smaller less extensive firestorm than that at Hamburg.

17: 4803: 4791: 4696: 4596: 4340: 3983:(Technical report). Science Applications, Inc. p. 24. Archived from 2935:

Alliierte Bombenangriffe auf Dresden 1945: Zahl der Todesopfer korrigiert

2623: 2498: 2473: 1937: 1877: 1294:

on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Prior to the attack, the city had the highest

904: 888: 884: 863: 735: 376: 2472:

Fromm, M.; Tupper, A.; Rosenfeld, D.; Servranckx, R.; McRae, R. (2006).

811:

Firestorm schematic: (1) fire, (2) updraft, (3) strong gusty winds, (A)

4786: 4760: 4721: 4657: 4588: 4509: 3487: 1896:

beneath) all at once without such damage qualifying as a "firestorm".

1682: 1608: 1570: 1551: 1513: 1011: 1006:

A very important but poorly understood aspect of wildfire behavior are

972: 936: 746:

towards the storm's center, where the air is heated and then ascends.

743: 542: 420: 408: 356: 339: 310: 268: 231: 178: 107: 63: 2523:"Russian Firestorm: Finding a Fire Cloud from Space: Feature Articles" 939:) has a similar effect. For instance, methane explosions enforced the 4187: 3058:. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 164. 2953:

Müller, Rolf-Dieter; Schönherr, Nicole; Widera, Thomas, eds. (2010),

1888: 1807: 1633:

do not lend themselves to the formation of firestorms because of the

1532: 1494: 919:

of 1991, where the distance between individual fires was too large).

859: 835:

winds to change direction erratically. Firestorms resulting from the

344: 332: 327: 94: 89: 79: 72: 4428: 3534:

United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report (Pacific War)

3318: 982:

events have been found to "surprisingly frequently" generate minor "

3532: 765:. Firestorms have also occurred in cities, usually due to targeted 4617: 4571: 4244: 4202: 4197: 3977:(DNA 5512F) – Final Report for Period 7 March 1980 – 6 August 1980 3607:, National Archives, Catalogue ref: AIR 16/487, which states that 1589: 1364: 894: 858:. The greater draft of a firestorm draws in greater quantities of 817: 806: 547: 484: 146: 139: 38: 3010:"The night hell fell from the sky (Korean translation available)" 4754: 4192: 4182: 4084: 3396: 3038:

Rodden, Robert M.; John, Floyd I.; Laurino, Richard (May 1965).

564: 464: 447: 425: 351: 4443: 4057: 3081:

Five days in August: how World War II became a nuclear war

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from the air to destroy the ability of the enemy to wage war.

1327:

A minimum burning area of about 0.5 square miles (1.3 km)

975:

due to the comparable amounts of hot buoyant material formed.

559: 3791:"Kurzgesagt: What If We Detonated All Nuclear Bombs at Once?" 2148: 2146: 3901:. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 260–261. 3154:

Air Force Historical Studies Office. Retrieved 3 March 2009.

2435:

Fromm, M.; Stocks, B.; Servranckx, R.; et al. (2006).

2699:"How a weird fire vortex sparked a meteorological mystery" 1701:(USAAF) dropped a total of 3441.3 tons (approximately 3.4 1325:

The minimum requirements for a firestorm to develop: no.4

3843:

Firestorm: Allied Airpower and the Destruction of Dresden

3141:

U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology.

1063:

Saturday associated with these pyroconvective processes.

3557:"United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report" 1467:

21st-century cities in comparison to World War II cities

1002:

Pyro-cumulonimbus and atmospheric effects (in wildfires)

4053: 4019:

Year of the Fires: The Story of the Great Fires of 1910

3952:. Essay Index Reprint Series. Ayer Publishing. p. 1802:

During November 1944 American B-29's began their first

1403:, and many other British cities were firebombed during 3537:. Washington: United States Government Printing Office 2351: 2349: 867:

melt asphalt, some metals, and glass, and turn street

3104:

Technical Sergeant Steven Wilson (25 February 2010).

1654:

Nuclear weapons in comparison to conventional weapons

3666:"1945 Tokyo Firebombing Left Legacy of Terror, Pain" 3472:

was sourced from the same 1946 book by Horatio Bond

3248: 3246: 3244: 2891:

https://www.scribd.com/doc/49221078/18-Fire-in-WW-II

4816: 4779: 4738: 4720: 4689: 4682: 4650: 4616: 4609: 4587: 4557: 4523: 4490: 4481: 4333: 4312: 4286: 4258: 4237: 4211: 4175: 4119: 4091: 3106:"This month in history: The firebombing of Dresden" 1815:bombed Hamburg and Dresden in the same manner, and 1116:poster calls up the pictorial image of a destroyed 4016: 3879:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J., eds. (1977). 3706: 2996:American National Fire Protection Association 2005 2787:American National Fire Protection Association 2005 1084:Importance for continued study of these firestorms 1030:, and a subset of these storms pollutes the lower 27:This article is about fires. For other uses, see 3881:"Chapter VII: Thermal Radiation and Its Effects" 2837: 2979: 2977: 2907:Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary 2662:Synthesis of Knowledge of Extreme Fire Behavior 2560:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 1852:and incendiary weapons. The so-called two-ton " 1800: 1453: 1418: 1323: 4002:(Report). Landeshauptstadt Dresden. p. 70 3512: 3235: 3223: 2382: 2304: 1038:Black Saturday firestorm (Wildfire case study) 4455: 4069: 2885: 2883: 2442:Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 2199: 2197: 1141:1991 wildfire disaster in Oakland, California 1014:to pyroCbs only occurred in the last decade. 707: 8: 3635:"Bombings Worse than Nagasaki and Hiroshima" 2767: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2604:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 2394: 2111:"Problems of Fire in Nuclear Warfare (1961)" 1067:Role that pyroCbs have on fire in case study 3897:Frankland, Noble; Webster, Charles (1961). 3746:Taylor, Bloomsbury 2005, pp. 287, 296, 365. 3282: 2889:The Cold War Who won? pp. 82–88 Chapter 18 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 4686: 4613: 4487: 4462: 4448: 4440: 4076: 4062: 4054: 3971:McRaney, W.; McGahan, J. (6 August 1980). 3083:. Princeton University Press. p. 21. 2797: 2795: 2188: 2154:"Problems of fire in Nuclear Warfare 1961" 1745:Hiroshima after the bombing and firestorm. 1169:raids of World War II in cities like 826:A firestorm is created as a result of the 822:A firestorm after the bombing of Hiroshima 714: 700: 50: 4111:Native American use of fire in ecosystems 3611:1,600 acres (6.5 km) were destroyed. 3317: 2579: 2497: 2449:(52 Fall Meet. Suppl): Abstract U14A–04. 2957:(in German), V&R Unipress, pp. 2408:"Atmospheric Processes : Chapter=4" 2216:Hemphill, Stephanie (27 November 2002). 2203: 1928:Civilian casualties of strategic bombing 1470: 1183: 1104: 986:" effects. These are analogous to minor 4320:International Flame Research Foundation 3523: 3521: 2653:Werth, Paul; et al. (March 2016). 2318:"Direct Effects of Nuclear Detonations" 2218:"Peshtigo: A Tornado of Fire Revisited" 2065: 1735: 1689:Hiroshima in 1945, in the conventional 62: 2771: 2655:"Specific Effects of Fire Interaction" 2556:"The Untold Story of Pyrocumulonimbus" 1727:United States Strategic Bombing Survey 3948:Kartman, Ben; Brown, Leonard (1971). 3860:Gess, Denise; Lutz, William (2003) . 3254:"Exploratory Analysis of Fire Storms" 2942:from the original on 21 February 2014 2858:"Exploratory Analysis of Fire storms" 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 1298:of any industrial city in the world. 1162:within 24 hours on November 8, 2018. 959:("fire clouds") or, if large enough, 7: 4413: 3668:. CommonDreams.org. Associated Press 3633:Laurence M. Vance (14 August 2009). 2356:Michael Finneran (19 October 2010). 2163:. pp. 8 & 9. Archived from 1440:National Fire Protection Association 1228:Bombing of Darmstadt in World War II 1165:Firestorms were also created by the 846:A firestorm may also develop into a 3364:"Canadian cities fuel loading from 3166:"Part I: A Failure of Intelligence" 3041:Exploratory analysis of Firestorms. 2099:Dresden 1945: The Devil's Tinderbox 3906:Hafemeister, David W, ed. (1991). 3377:. 2011. p. 42. Archived from 3164:Freeman Dyson. (1 November 2006). 2720:Jennifer Calfas (16 August 2018). 2705:. 19 December 2018. Archived from 1731:conventional airstrikes on Hamburg 1243:Bombing of Dresden in World War II 1199:Bombing of Hamburg in World War II 1179:two nuclear weapons used in combat 25: 2932:Shortnews staff (14 April 2010), 2679:Peter Fimrite (19 October 2017). 2521:Riebeek, Holli (31 August 2010). 2247:"Unintentional Irony: Firestorms" 1647:bombing of Berlin in World War II 1471: 1213:Bombing of Kassel in World War II 4423: 4412: 4402: 4401: 4038:Weaver, John; Biko, Dan (2002). 3664:Joseph Coleman (10 March 2005). 3639:The Future of Freedom Foundation 2073:Scawthorn, Charles, ed. (2005). 1782: 1762: 1750: 1738: 930:In Australia, the prevalence of 683: 4101:Control of fire by early humans 3008:David McNeill (10 March 2005). 2251:Unintentional-irony.blogspot.no 2245:James Killus (16 August 2007). 2054:2021 British Columbia wildfires 1288:most lethal air raid in history 879:Characterization of a firestorm 755:2021 British Columbia wildfires 3908:Physics and Nuclear Arms Today 3889:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 2358:"Fire-Breathing Storm Systems" 1442:stated in a report that three 742:winds from every point of the 1: 3755:Longmate (1983), pp. 162–164. 3737:De Bruhl (2006), pp. 210–211. 3285:, p. 24 (¶ 2nd to last). 2903:"Campaign Diary October 1943" 2744:. KQED News. 14 December 2018 2327:. 11 May 2016. Archived from 1850:limited quantity of explosive 1699:United States Army Air Forces 1133:1906 San Francisco earthquake 990:, with each mass addition of 4824:Potentially hazardous object 3766:"In Search of a Bigger Boom" 3515:, pp. 299, 300, ¶ 7.61. 3226:, pp. 299, 200, ¶ 7.58. 2838:Frankland & Webster 1961 2478:Geophysical Research Letters 2385:, pp. 299, 300, ¶ 7.59. 2307:, pp. 299, 300, ¶ 7.58. 1831:. "I was a little fearful", 1798:also echoed this sentiment: 1658:The incendiary effects of a 1150:During the July–August 2018 1147:in Santa Rosa, California. 34:High intensity conflagration 4040:"Firestorm Induced Tornado" 3841:De Bruhl, Marshall (2006). 3713:. Pantheon Books. pp. 3054:Werrell, Kenneth P (1996). 2024:Okanagan Mountain Park Fire 2000:Second Great Fire of London 1461:Glasstone and Dolan (1977). 1343:Atomic bombing of Hiroshima 1334:Glasstone and Dolan (1977). 1137:1923 Great Kantō earthquake 965:atomic bombing of Hiroshima 947:Weather and climate effects 791:atomic bombing of Hiroshima 611:Severe weather terminology 73:Temperate and polar seasons 4891: 3513:Glasstone & Dolan 1977 3236:McRaney & McGahan 1980 3224:Glasstone & Dolan 1977 3079:Michael D. Gordin (2007). 2703:www.nationalgeographic.com 2415:Globalecology.stanford.edu 2383:Glasstone & Dolan 1977 2305:Glasstone & Dolan 1977 2273:"Thermal Radiation Damage" 1041: 850:and induce true tornadoes/ 800: 29:Firestorm (disambiguation) 26: 4396: 4015:Pyne, Stephen J. (2001). 3820:Fire Following Earthquake 3426:. 14 June 2006. p. 3 3203:. Japan Focus, 2 May 2007 2983:De Bruhl (2006), pp. 209. 2527:Earthobservatory.nasa.gov 2075:Fire following earthquake 2042:Predrógâo Grande wildfire 1411:, the officer commanding 4325:The Combustion Institute 4023:. Viking-Penguin Press. 3705:Kolko, Gabriel (1990) . 3111:Ellsworth Air Force Base 2395:Kartman & Brown 1971 2030:Black Saturday bushfires 1982:San Francisco earthquake 1280:prevailing surface winds 1055:Black Saturday bushfires 1044:Black Saturday bushfires 751:Black Saturday bushfires 3929:Harris, Arthur (2005). 3603:3 December 2008 at the 3116:United States Air Force 2277:Holbert.faculty.asu.edu 2006:Ash Wednesday bushfires 1683:21 kiloton nuclear bomb 1675:16-kiloton nuclear bomb 1143:, and the October 2017 4167:Spontaneous combustion 3694:: 33. 10 January 1946. 2581:10.1175/2010bams3004.1 2360:. NASA. Archived from 2222:Minnesota Public Radio 2189:Weaver & Biko 2002 2036:Fort McMurray wildfire 1988:Great Kantō earthquake 1845: 1716:Operation MeetingHouse 1464: 1428: 1374: 1337: 1190:Date of the firestorm 1129:1755 Lisbon earthquake 1121: 980:pyrocumulonimbus cloud 900: 823: 815: 813:pyrocumulonimbus cloud 672:Tropical cyclone terms 48: 1804:incendiary bomb raids 1368: 1108: 996:year without a summer 898: 821: 810: 279:Extratropical cyclone 203:Air-mass thunderstorm 43:A view of one of the 42: 3770:Nuclear Secrecy Blog 3208:24 July 2008 at the 3122:on 29 September 2011 2624:10.1002/2017jd026577 2610:(14): 2017JD026577. 2499:10.1029/2005GL025161 2204:Gess & Lutz 2003 1964:Great Fire of London 1949:Potential firestorms 1885:Great Fire of London 1718:firebombing of Tokyo 1671:high-explosive bombs 1388:to douse the fires. 1248:13–15 February 1945 1160:Paradise, California 639:Weather modification 237:Anticyclonic tornado 47:fires in August 1933 3645:on 13 November 2012 3561:Marshall.csu.edu.au 3474:Fire in the Air War 3466:Fire in the Air War 3344:on 7 September 2012 3264:on 7 September 2012 3150:2 June 2013 at the 2868:on 7 September 2012 2840:, pp. 260–261. 2616:2017JGRD..122.7342D 2572:2010BAMS...91.1193F 2490:2006GeoRL..33.5815F 2455:2006AGUFM.U14A..04F 2170:on 18 February 2013 2127:on 18 February 2013 1794:American historian 1480:Population in 1939 1473: 771:aerial firebombings 763:Great Hinckley Fire 634:Weather forecasting 470:Rain and snow mixed 296:Subtropical cyclone 4475:list by death toll 3470:Cold War: Who Won? 3020:on 5 December 2008 2461:on 6 October 2014. 2097:Alexander Mckee's 2018:Canberra bushfires 1970:Great Chicago Fire 1958:Great Fire of Rome 1923:Blackout (wartime) 1910:anti-aircraft fire 1691:bombing of Dresden 1631:highrise buildings 1413:RAF Bomber Command 1382:incendiary devices 1375: 1296:population density 1233:11 September 1944 1122: 1112:'s 1918 prophetic 973:volcanic eruptions 957:pyrocumulus clouds 901: 824: 816: 690:Weather portal 306:Atlantic hurricane 284:European windstorm 191:Volcanic lightning 152:Cumulonimbus cloud 49: 4862: 4861: 4839:Geomagnetic storm 4812: 4811: 4678: 4677: 4605: 4604: 4549:Soil liquefaction 4471:Natural disasters 4437: 4436: 4346:List of wildfires 4030:978-0-670-89990-6 3963:978-0-8369-2280-6 3940:978-1-84415-210-0 3921:978-0-88318-640-4 3871:978-0-8050-7293-8 3833:978-0-7844-0739-4 3529:D'Olier, Franklin 3170:Technology Review 3090:978-0-691-12818-4 3065:978-1-56098-665-2 2709:on 14 April 2019. 2364:on 24 August 2014 2084:978-0-7844-0739-4 2012:Yellowstone fires 1943:Wildfire modeling 1829:American military 1660:nuclear explosion 1626: 1625: 1483:American tonnage 1409:Sir Arthur Harris 1393:strategic bombing 1358: 1357: 917:Kuwaiti oil fires 769:, such as in the 724: 723: 16:(Redirected from 4882: 4771:Tropical cyclone 4765:Tornado outbreak 4687: 4614: 4567:Pyroclastic flow 4559:Volcano eruption 4488: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4441: 4427: 4416: 4415: 4405: 4404: 4250:Death by burning 4212:Individual fires 4078: 4071: 4064: 4055: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4034: 4022: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4001: 3991: 3990:on 24 June 2006. 3989: 3982: 3967: 3944: 3931:Bomber Offensive 3925: 3902: 3893: 3885: 3875: 3856: 3845:. Random House. 3837: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3787: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3747: 3744: 3738: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3712: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3641:. Archived from 3630: 3624: 3620: 3614: 3585: 3579: 3576: 3569: 3567: 3553: 3547: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3525: 3516: 3510: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3433: 3431: 3421: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3391: 3389: 3383: 3372: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3340:. Archived from 3330: 3324: 3323: 3321: 3301: 3295: 3292: 3286: 3283:Hafemeister 1991 3280: 3274: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3260:. Archived from 3250: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3176:. Archived from 3161: 3155: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3118:. Archived from 3101: 3095: 3094: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3056:Blankets of Fire 3051: 3045: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3016:. Archived from 3005: 2999: 2993: 2984: 2981: 2972: 2971: 2950: 2944: 2943: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2909:. Archived from 2899: 2893: 2887: 2878: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2864:. Archived from 2854: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2818: 2812:. Archived from 2807: 2799: 2790: 2784: 2775: 2769: 2754: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2599: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2566:(9): 1193–1210. 2551: 2538: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2501: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2457:. Archived from 2432: 2426: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2412: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2353: 2344: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2333: 2325:Dge.stanford.edu 2322: 2314: 2308: 2302: 2293: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2283:on 16 March 2018 2279:. Archived from 2271:Chris Cavanagh. 2268: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2228: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2169: 2158: 2150: 2141: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2126: 2120:. Archived from 2115: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2088: 2070: 1866:Samuel Glasstone 1862:Franklin D'Olier 1786: 1766: 1754: 1742: 1486:British tonnage 1474: 1462: 1426: 1335: 1315: 1284:incendiary bombs 1271: 1261:Bombing of Tokyo 1255:sports stadium. 1218:22 October 1943 1184: 1060:pyrocumulonimbus 1008:pyrocumulonimbus 988:volcanic winters 961:pyrocumulonimbus 757:, and the Great 716: 709: 702: 688: 687: 301:Tropical cyclone 213:Dry thunderstorm 108:Tropical seasons 51: 21: 4890: 4889: 4885: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4880: 4879: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4858: 4808: 4775: 4739:Cyclonic storms 4734: 4716: 4674: 4670:Limnic eruption 4646: 4620: 4601: 4589:Natural erosion 4583: 4553: 4527: 4519: 4477: 4468: 4438: 4433: 4392: 4329: 4308: 4282: 4254: 4233: 4207: 4171: 4157:Fire protection 4115: 4087: 4082: 4044: 4042: 4037: 4031: 4014: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3987: 3980: 3970: 3964: 3947: 3941: 3928: 3922: 3905: 3896: 3883: 3878: 3872: 3859: 3853: 3840: 3834: 3817: 3814: 3812:Further reading 3809: 3799: 3797: 3789: 3788: 3784: 3774: 3772: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3688:"News in Brief" 3686: 3685: 3681: 3671: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3658: 3648: 3646: 3632: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3617: 3605:Wayback Machine 3592:Bomber Command 3586: 3582: 3565: 3563: 3555: 3554: 3550: 3540: 3538: 3527: 3526: 3519: 3511: 3502: 3492: 3490: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3429: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3410: 3401:specific energy 3387: 3385: 3384:on 9 March 2013 3381: 3370: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3347: 3345: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3319:10.2172/4421057 3303: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3289: 3281: 3277: 3267: 3265: 3252: 3251: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3210:Wayback Machine 3197: 3193: 3183: 3181: 3180:on 2 March 2012 3163: 3162: 3158: 3152:Wayback Machine 3139: 3135: 3125: 3123: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3053: 3052: 3048: 3037: 3033: 3023: 3021: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2987: 2982: 2975: 2969: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2931: 2930: 2926: 2916: 2914: 2913:on 3 March 2009 2901: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2881: 2871: 2869: 2856: 2855: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2822: 2820: 2819:on 4 March 2016 2816: 2805: 2801: 2800: 2793: 2785: 2778: 2770: 2757: 2747: 2745: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2657: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2601: 2600: 2589: 2553: 2552: 2541: 2531: 2529: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2419: 2417: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2355: 2354: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2334:on 3 April 2015 2331: 2320: 2316: 2315: 2311: 2303: 2296: 2286: 2284: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2255: 2253: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2226: 2224: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2195: 2187: 2183: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2144: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2113: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2085: 2072: 2071: 2067: 2063: 1951: 1919: 1870:Philip J. Dolan 1790: 1787: 1778: 1775:Paul W. Tibbets 1767: 1758: 1755: 1746: 1743: 1695:Royal Air Force 1693:, the combined 1656: 1469: 1463: 1460: 1427: 1425:Arthur Harris, 1424: 1363: 1346:in World War II 1336: 1333: 1313: 1308:in World War II 1292:nuclear weapons 1270:9–10 March 1945 1269: 1264:in World War II 1103: 1101:City firestorms 1086: 1069: 1051: 1046: 1040: 1004: 949: 881: 805: 799: 720: 682: 677: 676: 652: 644: 643: 502: 492: 491: 404: 394: 393: 382:Ground blizzard 142: 132: 131: 110: 100: 99: 75: 35: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4888: 4886: 4878: 4877: 4867: 4866: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4820: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4789: 4783: 4781: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4758: 4748: 4742: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4732: 4726: 4724: 4718: 4717: 4715: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4693: 4691: 4684: 4683:Meteorological 4680: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4667: 4666: 4665: 4654: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4645: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4628: 4626: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4599: 4593: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4563: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4552: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4539:Seismic hazard 4535: 4533: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4496: 4494: 4485: 4479: 4478: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4459: 4452: 4444: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4431: 4420: 4409: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4383:Slash-and-burn 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4337: 4335: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4290: 4288: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4241: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4215: 4213: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4137:Dust explosion 4134: 4129: 4127:Chain reaction 4123: 4121: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4106:Historic fires 4103: 4097: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4081: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4035: 4029: 4012: 3992: 3968: 3962: 3945: 3939: 3926: 3920: 3903: 3894: 3876: 3870: 3857: 3852:978-0679435341 3851: 3838: 3832: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3807: 3782: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3730: 3723: 3697: 3679: 3656: 3625: 3615: 3613: 3612: 3590: 3580: 3548: 3531:, ed. (1946). 3517: 3500: 3455: 3408: 3355: 3325: 3296: 3287: 3275: 3240: 3228: 3216: 3191: 3156: 3133: 3096: 3089: 3071: 3064: 3046: 3031: 3000: 2985: 2973: 2968:978-3899717730 2967: 2945: 2924: 2894: 2879: 2842: 2830: 2791: 2776: 2755: 2733: 2712: 2690: 2671: 2645: 2587: 2539: 2513: 2464: 2427: 2399: 2387: 2375: 2345: 2309: 2294: 2263: 2237: 2208: 2193: 2181: 2142: 2102: 2090: 2083: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2021: 2015: 2009: 2003: 1997: 1994:Tillamook Burn 1991: 1985: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1918: 1915: 1792: 1791: 1788: 1781: 1779: 1768: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1737: 1677:from a single 1655: 1652: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1567: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1491: 1490: 1489:Total tonnage 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1468: 1465: 1458: 1422: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1351:6 August 1945 1349: 1339: 1338: 1331: 1316: 1311: 1305:Ube, Yamaguchi 1300: 1299: 1272: 1267: 1257: 1256: 1249: 1246: 1239: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1224: 1223: 1219: 1216: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1110:Joseph Pennell 1102: 1099: 1085: 1082: 1068: 1065: 1050: 1047: 1039: 1036: 1003: 1000: 992:volcanic gases 984:nuclear winter 948: 945: 925:conflagrations 908:conflagrations 880: 877: 803:Thermal column 798: 795: 722: 721: 719: 718: 711: 704: 696: 693: 692: 679: 678: 675: 674: 669: 664: 662:Climate change 659: 653: 650: 649: 646: 645: 642: 641: 636: 631: 630: 629: 628: 627: 622: 617: 609: 604: 597:Severe weather 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 573: 572: 567: 557: 556: 555: 545: 540: 539: 538: 533: 528: 523: 515: 514: 509: 503: 498: 497: 494: 493: 490: 489: 488: 487: 482: 477: 472: 462: 457: 456: 455: 445: 440: 435: 434: 433: 431:Megacryometeor 423: 418: 417: 416: 405: 400: 399: 396: 395: 392: 391: 390: 389: 384: 379: 374: 364: 359: 354: 349: 348: 347: 337: 336: 335: 330: 320: 315: 314: 313: 308: 298: 293: 292: 291: 286: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 250: 249: 244: 239: 229: 228: 227: 217: 216: 215: 210: 205: 195: 194: 193: 183: 182: 181: 176: 171: 161: 160: 159: 154: 143: 138: 137: 134: 133: 130: 129: 124: 123: 122: 111: 106: 105: 102: 101: 98: 97: 92: 87: 82: 76: 71: 70: 67: 66: 60: 59: 45:Tillamook Burn 33: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4887: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4834:Meteor shower 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4737: 4731: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4719: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4681: 4671: 4668: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4632:Coastal flood 4630: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4556: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4526: 4522: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4460: 4458: 4453: 4451: 4446: 4445: 4442: 4430: 4426: 4421: 4419: 4410: 4408: 4399: 4398: 4395: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4347: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313:Organizations 4311: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4276: 4272: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4124: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4067: 4065: 4060: 4059: 4056: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4021: 4020: 4013: 3998: 3993: 3986: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3923: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3867: 3864:. Macmillan. 3863: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3835: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3740: 3734: 3731: 3726: 3724:9780679727576 3720: 3716: 3711: 3710: 3701: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3680: 3667: 3660: 3657: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3629: 3626: 3619: 3616: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3594:Arthur Harris 3591: 3588: 3587: 3584: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3574: 3562: 3558: 3552: 3549: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3524: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3501: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3425: 3424:Fire.nist.gov 3418: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3359: 3356: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3300: 3297: 3294:Angell (1953) 3291: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3276: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3241: 3238:, p. 24. 3237: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3217: 3211: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199:Mark Selden. 3195: 3192: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3160: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3137: 3134: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3097: 3092: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3072: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3042: 3035: 3032: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3004: 3001: 2998:, p. 24. 2997: 2992: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2949: 2946: 2941: 2938:(in German), 2937: 2936: 2928: 2925: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2886: 2884: 2880: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2831: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2789:, p. 68. 2788: 2783: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2743: 2737: 2734: 2729: 2728: 2723: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2694: 2691: 2686: 2682: 2675: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2540: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2484:(5): L05815. 2483: 2479: 2475: 2468: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2416: 2409: 2403: 2400: 2397:, p. 48. 2396: 2391: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2376: 2363: 2359: 2352: 2350: 2346: 2330: 2326: 2319: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2264: 2252: 2248: 2241: 2238: 2234: 2223: 2219: 2212: 2209: 2206:, p. 234 2205: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2182: 2166: 2162: 2155: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2123: 2119: 2112: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2086: 2080: 2076: 2069: 2066: 2060: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1976:Peshtigo Fire 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1914: 1911: 1905: 1903: 1902:Arthur Harris 1897: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1879: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1809: 1805: 1799: 1797: 1796:Gabriel Kolko 1785: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1765: 1760: 1753: 1748: 1741: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1492: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1466: 1457: 1452: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1421: 1417: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1371: 1367: 1360: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1340: 1330: 1328: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1276:conflagration 1273: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1204:27 July 1943 1203: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1187:City / event 1186: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1119: 1118:New York City 1115: 1111: 1107: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1056: 1048: 1045: 1037: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1023: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1001: 999: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 946: 944: 942: 941:Peshtigo Fire 938: 933: 928: 926: 920: 918: 913: 909: 906: 897: 893: 890: 886: 878: 876: 872: 870: 865: 861: 857: 856:Peshtigo Fire 853: 849: 844: 842: 838: 833: 829: 820: 814: 809: 804: 796: 794: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 759:Peshtigo Fire 756: 752: 747: 745: 741: 737: 733: 732:conflagration 729: 717: 712: 710: 705: 703: 698: 697: 695: 694: 691: 686: 681: 680: 673: 670: 668: 667:Tornado terms 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 654: 648: 647: 640: 637: 635: 632: 626: 625:United States 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 612: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 599: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 571: 568: 566: 563: 562: 561: 558: 554: 551: 550: 549: 546: 544: 541: 537: 534: 532: 529: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 517: 516: 513: 510: 508: 507:Air pollution 505: 504: 501: 496: 495: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 467: 466: 463: 461: 458: 454: 451: 450: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 432: 429: 428: 427: 424: 422: 419: 415: 412: 411: 410: 407: 406: 403: 402:Precipitation 398: 397: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 346: 343: 342: 341: 338: 334: 331: 329: 326: 325: 324: 321: 319: 316: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 302: 299: 297: 294: 290: 287: 285: 282: 281: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 234: 233: 230: 226: 223: 222: 221: 218: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 200: 199: 196: 192: 189: 188: 187: 184: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 166: 165: 162: 158: 155: 153: 150: 149: 148: 145: 144: 141: 136: 135: 128: 125: 121: 118: 117: 116: 113: 112: 109: 104: 103: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 77: 74: 69: 68: 65: 61: 57: 53: 52: 46: 41: 37: 30: 19: 4829:Impact event 4817:Astronomical 4796: 4751:Thunderstorm 4746:Bomb cyclone 4610:Hydrological 4579:Volcanic ash 4544:Seismic risk 4492:Mass wasting 4362: 4358:Firefighting 4299:Fire worship 4142:Fire ecology 4043:. 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