1646:, rejects the traditional interpretation of events, based on Theophanes, in favour of the Syriac chroniclers' version. Howard-Johnston asserts that no siege actually took place because of not only its absence in the eastern sources but also the logistical impossibility of such an undertaking for the duration reported. Instead, he believes that the reference to a siege was a later interpolation, influenced by the events of the second Arab siege of 717–718, by an anonymous source that was later used by Theophanes. According to Howard-Johnston, "The blockade of Constantinople in the 670s is a myth which has been allowed to mask the very real success achieved by the Byzantines in the last decade of Mu'awiya’s caliphate, first by sea off Lycia and then on land, through an insurgency which, before long, aroused deep anxiety among the Arabs, conscious as they were that they had merely coated the Middle East with their power".
1161:
1140:. This was the first time the Arabs tried to hold a captured fortress in the interior of Asia Minor beyond the campaigning season, and probably meant that the Arabs intended to return next year and use the town as their base, but Amorium was retaken by the Byzantines during the subsequent winter. Arab sources on the other hand report that the Muslims crossed over into Europe and launched an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople itself, before returning to Syria. Given the lack of any mention of such an assault in Byzantine sources, it is most probable that the Arab chroniclers—taking account of Yazid's presence and the fact that Chalcedon is a suburb of Constantinople—"upgraded" the attack on Chalcedon to an attack on the Byzantine capital itself.
1253:, with thrust and counter-thrust". Then the Arabs departed and made for Cyzicus, which they captured and converted into a fortified camp to spend the winter. This set the pattern that continued throughout the siege: each spring, the Arabs crossed the Marmara and assaulted Constantinople, withdrawing to Cyzicus for the winter. In fact, the "siege" of Constantinople was a series of engagements around the city, which may even be stretched to include Yazid's 669 attack. Both Byzantine and Arab chroniclers record the siege as lasting for seven years instead of five. This can be reconciled either by including the opening campaigns of 672–673, or by counting the years until the final withdrawal of the Arab troops from their forward bases, in 680.
1613:" is recorded for 673/674, but it is unclear if it refers to the Sea of Marmara or the Aegean, and Yazid's 676 expedition is also said to have reached Constantinople. The Syriac chroniclers also disagree with Theophanes in placing the decisive battle and destruction of the Arab fleet by Greek fire in 674 during an Arab expedition against the coasts of Lycia and Cilicia, rather than Constantinople. That was followed by the landing of Byzantine forces in Syria in 677/678, which began the Mardaite uprising that threatened the Caliphate's grip on Syria enough to result in the peace agreement of 678/679.
1347:, a Christian group living in the mountains of Syria that resisted Muslim control and raided the lowlands. Faced with the new threat and after the immense losses suffered against the Byzantines, Mu'awiya began negotiations for a truce, with embassies exchanged between the two courts. They were drawn out until 679, which gave the Arabs time for a last raid into Asia Minor under 'Amr ibn Murra, perhaps intended to put pressure on the Byzantines. The peace treaty, of a nominal 30-year duration, provided that Caliph would pay an annual tribute of 300,000
1257:
59:
1221:
1157:, where a raiding fleet under Fadhala ibn 'Ubayd wintered in 670 or 671. Mu'awiya now began preparing his final assault on the Byzantine capital. In contrast to Yazid's expedition, Mu'awiya intended to take a coastal route to Constantinople. The undertaking followed a careful, phased approach: first the Muslims had to secure strongpoints and bases along the coast, and then, with Cyzicus as a base, Constantinople would be blockaded by land and sea and cut off from the agrarian hinterland that supplied its food.
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the culmination of Mu'awiya's campaign of attrition, which had been pursued steadily since 661. Immense resources were poured into the undertaking, including the creation of a huge fleet. Its failure had similarly important repercussions and represented a major blow to the Caliph's prestige. Conversely, Byzantine prestige reached new heights, especially in the West. Constantine IV received envoys from the
3357:
1085:. From the next year, Muslim attacks recommenced, with pressure mounting as Muslim armies began wintering on Byzantine soil west of the Taurus range, maximizing the disruption caused to the Byzantine economy. These land expeditions were sometimes coupled with naval raids against the coasts of southern Asia Minor. In 668, the Arabs sent aid to
1326:
decisive naval victory before the walls of the city—with the interesting detail that the Arab fleet too possessed fire-throwing ships—and makes a reference to "the fear of their returning shadows", which may be interpreted as confirming the recurring Arab attacks each spring from their base in
Cyzicus.
1649:
On the other hand, the historian Marek
Jankowiak argues that a major Arab siege occurred but that Theophanes (writing about 140 years after the events, based on an anonymous source, which was itself written about 50 years after the events) misdated and garbled the events and that the proper dating of
1325:
The essential outline of
Theophanes' account may be corroborated by the only near-contemporary Byzantine reference to the siege, a celebratory poem by the otherwise unknown Theodosius Grammaticus, which was earlier believed to refer to the second Arab siege of 717–718. Theodosius' poem commemorates a
1433:
Later Arab sources dwell extensively on the events of Yazid's 669 expedition and supposed attack on
Constantinople, including various mythical anecdotes, which are taken by modern scholarship to refer to the events of the 674–678 siege. Several important personalities of early Islam are mentioned as
1334:
Constantinople was the nerve centre of the
Byzantine state. Had it fallen, the empire's remaining provinces would have been unlikely to hold together and thus become easy prey for the Arabs. At the same time, the failure of the Arab attack on Constantinople was a momentous event in itself. It marked
1211:
in
Cilicia, as well as Rhodes. The latter, midway between Syria and Constantinople, was converted into a forward supply base and centre for Muslim naval raids. Its garrison of 12,000 men was regularly rotated back to Syria, a small fleet was attached to it for defence and raiding, and the Arabs even
1339:
and the Balkan Slavs, who bore gifts and congratulations and acknowledging
Byzantine supremacy. The subsequent peace also gave a much-needed respite from constant raiding to Asia Minor and allowed the Byzantine state to recover its balance and consolidate itself after the cataclysmic changes of the
1274:
The details of the clashes around
Constantinople are unclear, as Theophanes condenses the siege in his account of the first year, and the Arab chroniclers do not mention the siege at all but merely provide the names of leaders of unspecified expeditions into Byzantine territory. Thus from the Arab
1468:
during the siege and was buried there. According to Muslim tradition, Constantine IV threatened to destroy his tomb, but the Caliph warned that if he did so, the
Christians under Muslim rule would suffer. Thus the tomb was left in peace, and even became a site of veneration by the Byzantines, who
1358:
Soon after the Arab retreat from his capital, Constantine IV quickly sent an expedition against the Slavs in the area of
Thessalonica, curtailed their piracy, relieved the city and restored imperial control over the city's surroundings. After the conclusion of peace, he moved against the mounting
1313:
Finally, in autumn 677 or early 678 Constantine IV resolved to confront the Arab besiegers in a head-on engagement. His fleet, equipped with Greek fire, routed the Arab fleet. It is probable that the death of admiral Yazid ibn Shagara, reported by Arab chroniclers for 677/678, is related to this
944:. The Byzantines also defeated the Arab land army in Asia Minor, forcing them to lift the siege. The Byzantine victory was of major importance for the survival of the Byzantine state, as the Arab threat receded for a time. A peace treaty was signed soon after, and following the outbreak of
1212:
sowed wheat and brought along animals to graze on the island. The Byzantines attempted to obstruct the Arab plans with a naval attack on Egypt, but it was unsuccessful. Throughout this period, overland raids into Asia Minor continued, and the Arab troops wintered on Byzantine soil.
1318:, was defeated by the Byzantine army under the generals Phloros, Petron and Cyprian, losing 30,000 men according to Theophanes. These defeats forced the Arabs to abandon the siege in 678. On its way back to Syria, the Arab fleet was almost annihilated in a storm off
948:, the Byzantines even experienced a brief period of ascendancy over the Caliphate. The siege was the first major Arab defeat in 50 years of expansion and temporarily stabilized the Byzantine Empire after decades of war and defeats.
1244:
in April, and until September were engaged in constant clashes with the Byzantine troops. As the Byzantine chronicler reports, "Every day there was a military engagement from morning until evening, between the outworks of the
951:
The siege left several traces in the legends of the nascent Muslim world, although it is conflated with accounts of another expedition against the city in 669, led by Mu'awiya's son and future ruler(self-imposed),
956:. As a result, the veracity of Theophanes's account was questioned in 2010 by Oxford scholar James Howard-Johnston, and more recently by Marek Jankowiak. Their analyses have placed more emphasis on the Arabic and
1199:), upon learning of the Arab fleets' approach, began equipping his own fleet for war. Constantine's armament included siphon-bearing ships intended for the deployment of a newly developed incendiary substance,
1148:
The campaign of 669 clearly demonstrated to the Arabs the possibility of a direct strike at Constantinople, as well as the necessity of having a supply base in the region. This was found in the peninsula of
2927:
Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route
1275:
sources it is only known that Abdallah ibn Qays and Fadhala ibn 'Ubayd raided Crete and wintered there in 675, while in the same year Malik ibn Abdallah led a raid into Asia Minor. The Arab historians
227:
960:
sources, but have drawn different conclusions about the dating and existence of the siege. On the other hand, echoes of a large-scale siege of Constantinople and a subsequent peace treaty reached
1557:
has identified as Mu'awiya. The Chinese histories then explain that the Arabs forced the Byzantines to pay tribute afterwards as part of a peace settlement. In these Chinese sources,
3441:
1283:
report that Yazid was dispatched by Mu'awiya with reinforcements to Constantinople in 676, and record that Abdallah ibn Qays led a campaign in 677, the target of which is unknown.
3436:
1176:
Accordingly, in 672 three great Muslim fleets were dispatched to secure the sea lanes and establish bases between Syria and the Aegean. Muhammad ibn Abdallah's fleet wintered at
1607:
sources do not mention any siege but rather individual campaigns, only a few of which reached as far as Constantinople. Thus the capture of an island named Arwad "in the sea of
3016:
1128:. The Arab attacks on Chalcedon were repelled, and the Arab army was decimated by famine and disease. Mu'awiya dispatched another army, led by his son (and future Caliph)
1627:, written in the early eighth century, must refer to the Arab blockade of Constantinople. It mentions how Constantine IV had ships driven (probably on wheels) across the
1374:
In the Muslim world, after the death of Mu'awiya in 680, the various forces of opposition within the Caliphate manifested themselves. The Caliphate's division during the
220:
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In 674, the Arab fleet sailed from its bases in the eastern Aegean and entered the Sea of Marmara. According to the account of Theophanes, they landed on the
3146:
999:
902:
135:
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1042:, then governor of the Levant. Mu'awiya also spearheaded the development of a Muslim navy, which within a few years grew sufficiently strong to occupy
913:, renewed aggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital of
1583:
remarked with some surprise the accuracy of the account in Chinese sources, which even named the negotiator of the peace settlement as 'Yenyo', or
3372:
3009:
3166:
1078:, Arab attacks against Byzantium stopped. In 659, Mu'awiya even concluded a truce with Byzantium, including payment of tribute to the Empire.
484:
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1595:'s account in which he mentions an augmentation of tributary payments a few years later due to the Umayyads facing some financial troubles.
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reports that the Arabs remained before Chalcedon for a while before returning to Syria, and that on their way they captured and garrisoned
526:
511:
1303:
1355:, 50 horses and 50 slaves. The Arab garrisons were withdrawn from their bases on the Byzantine coastlands, including Rhodes, in 679–680.
1286:
At the same time, the preoccupation with the Arab threat had reduced Byzantium's ability to respond to threats elsewhere: in Italy, the
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The peace lasted until the end of the Muslim civil war in 661, from which Mu'awiya and his clan emerged victorious, establishing the
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3002:
2885:
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1439:
2846:(1983). "Siège ou blocus de Constantinople sous Constantin IV" [Siege or Blockade of Constantinople under Constantine IV].
2758:
Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd
2709:
The Lost History of Christianity: the Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia – and How It Died
353:
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Byzantine Reaction to the Expansion of the Arabs. Studies on the Structural Change of the Byzantine State in the 7th and 8th Cent.
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and Cilicia, and a third fleet, under Khalid, joined them later. According to the report of Theophanes, the Emperor
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1603:
The narrative of the siege accepted by modern historians relies largely on Theophanes' account, while the Arab and
742:
579:
283:
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2398:"East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E."
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arrived too late to assist Saborios, who had died after falling from his horse, and they spent the winter in the
563:
402:
397:
368:
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from the Aegean to the Sea of Marmara, a major undertaking for imperial navy ships that makes sense only if the
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921:
446:
431:
385:
323:
313:
1406:
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237:
50:
2765:] (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München.
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allowed Byzantium to achieve not only peace but also a position of predominance on its eastern frontier.
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Based on a re-evaluation of the original sources used by the medieval historians, the Oxford scholar
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near the city as a base to spend the winter, and returned every spring to launch attacks against the
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516:
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In spring 669, after receiving additional troops, Fadala entered Asia Minor and advanced as far as
1067:
940:, managed to destroy the Arab navy using a new invention, the liquid incendiary substance known as
928:, and then proceeded to install a loose blockade around Constantinople. They used the peninsula of
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17:
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menace in the Balkans, but his huge army, comprising all the available forces of the empire, was
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1015:
692:
551:
494:
298:
2700:. Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance. pp. 237–320.
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between Byzantium and the Caliphate. The peace lasted until Constantine IV's son and successor,
2731:(2008). "Confronting Islam: Emperors versus Caliphs (641–c. 850)". In Shepard, Jonathan (ed.).
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Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century
1644:
Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century
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at the Eyüp mosque upon their accession. Today it remains one of the holiest Muslim shrines in
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1270:. It was used for the first time during the first Arab siege of Constantinople, in 677 or 678.
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1082:
898:
451:
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130:
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The failure of the Arabs before Constantinople coincided with the increased activity of the
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866:
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660:
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589:
584:
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506:
407:
303:
269:
167:
155:
113:
924:, the Arab attack was methodical: in 672–673 Arab fleets secured bases along the coasts of
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58:
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338:
328:
172:
151:
92:
88:
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909:. Mu'awiya, who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following a
3405:
3196:
3040:
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2783:
The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813
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2590:[The Expeditions of the Arabs Against Constantinople in History and Legend].
2588:"Les expéditions des Arabes contre Constantinople dans l'histoire et dans la légende"
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and launched seaborne raids in the Aegean, even penetrating into the Sea of Marmara.
1208:
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defeat. At about the same time, the Muslim army in Asia Minor, under the command of
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Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture. Revised Edition
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frontier zone and deep into Asia Minor began as early as 640, and continued under
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adjacent to it. It became a tradition that Ottoman sultans were girt with the
1299:
1261:
1200:
1132:, to Fadala's aid. Accounts of what followed differ. The Byzantine chronicler
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1007:
941:
925:
3387:
3374:
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2813:
2800:
Olster, David (1995). "Theodosius Grammaticus and the Arab Siege of 674-78".
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the siege should be 667–669, with the spring of 668 having the major attack.
3105:
3095:
1486:
1435:
1401:), broke it in 692, with devastating consequences since the Byzantines were
1344:
1280:
1276:
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2854:. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 89–107.
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at conquering Constantinople in 717–718, which also proved unsuccessful.
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1101:, who had rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor. The Arab troops under
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851:
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prayed there in times of drought. The tomb was "rediscovered" after the
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2615:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies.
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1062:. Finally, the young Muslim navy scored a crushing victory over its
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2938:(1995). "A Gothia in the Hellespont in the Early Eighth Century".
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Travaux et mémoires, Vol. 17: Constructing the Seventh Century
2554:. The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies: 182–208.
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reverted for a time to Byzantine control, and Cyprus became a
1047:
1531:. They record that the large, well-fortified capital city of
2078:
2076:
2737:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 365–394.
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2214:
1844:
1842:
1840:
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1014:. This left the field open for the warriors of the nascent
1541:(大食, i.e. the Umayyad Arabs) and their commander "Mo-yi" (
990:
Europe, the Byzantine Empire and the Umayyad empire c. 650
2976:"Two Arabian sieges of Constantinople (674–678; 717/718)"
2734:
The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500–1492
2653:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
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2061:
2539:"The Arabs in Asia Minor (641–750), from Arabic Sources"
63:
Map of the environs of Constantinople in Byzantine times
1985:
1983:
1981:
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1446:. The most prominent among them in later tradition is
1409:
followed. Muslim incursions intensified, leading to a
1010:, which was shielded from the Muslim expansion by the
2634:. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
1564:
1558:
1302:, while in the Balkans, a coalition of Slavic tribes
964:, where they were recorded in later histories of the
2826:
Byzantium in the Seventh Century, Volume IV: 668–685
1608:
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3220:
3114:
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1002:withdrew the bulk of its remaining forces from the
2980:Encyclopedia of the Hellenic World, Constantinople
2706:
1496:) ordered the construction of a marble tomb and a
1367:, which opened the way for the establishment of a
76:
2396:Paul Halsall (2000) . Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.).
2508:
2472:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
1216:Arab attacks and related expeditions in 674–678
43:
1425:Building that houses the tomb of Abu Ayyub at
3442:Naval battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate
3010:
221:
8:
3437:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire
2873:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
2848:Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik
1144:Opening moves: the campaigns of 672 and 673
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1690:
1537:(拂菻, i.e. Byzantium) was besieged by the
936:. Finally, the Byzantines, under Emperor
27:Major conflict of the Arab–Byzantine wars
2900:The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453
2694:"The First Arab Siege of Constantinople"
2376:
1290:used the opportunity to conquer most of
1180:, a fleet under a certain Qays (perhaps
1034:shortly after. Muslim raids against the
985:
920:As reported by the Byzantine chronicler
2484:
2424:
2232:
2133:
1659:
1070:in 655. Following the murder of Caliph
893:in 674–678 was a major conflict of the
3452:Sieges involving the Umayyad Caliphate
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1635:was blocked by the Arabs at Cyzicus.
901:'s expansionist strategy towards the
7:
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1619:believes that an obscure passage in
1571:, which is now considered by modern
1563:was directly related to the earlier
1203:. In 673, another Arab fleet, under
2785:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2677:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1124:across from the Byzantine capital,
897:, and the first culmination of the
2982:. Foundation of the Hellenic World
2940:Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies
2696:. In Zuckerman, Constantin (ed.).
891:first Arab siege of Constantinople
44:First Arab siege of Constantinople
32:For other sieges of the city, see
25:
18:First Arab Siege of Constantinople
3462:Sieges of the Arab–Byzantine wars
1693:, pp. 303–307, 310, 312–313.
1464:, who died of illness before the
3355:
2451:, pp. 48–49 (esp. note #1).
1494: 1444–1446, 1451–1481
57:
34:list of sieges of Constantinople
2828:. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.
2632:The Church of the T'ang Dynasty
2609:El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004).
2547:The Journal of Hellenic Studies
1491:
1450:, one of the early companions (
1396:
1194:
3182:Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab
3167:Second siege of Constantinople
3157:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
3142:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
1405:, Justinian was deposed and a
1:
3132:First siege of Constantinople
2612:Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs
1599:Modern reassessment of events
1407:twenty-year period of anarchy
1371:in the northeastern Balkans.
1153:on the southern shore of the
982:Muslim conquest of the Levant
3417:670s in the Byzantine Empire
3212:Umayyad rule in North Africa
3152:Umayyad conquest of Hispania
2713:. New York: Harper Collins.
2475:, pp. 302–303, 492–495.
1587:, the unnamed envoy sent to
1399: 685–695, 705–711
1349:
1166:
1120:, on the Asian shore of the
1091:
2596:(in French) (208): 61–121.
1609:
1565:
1559:
625:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
3483:
3187:Revolt of Harith b. Surayj
3162:Umayyad campaigns in India
2952:10.1179/030701395790836649
2930:. London: Hakluyt Society.
1517:Chinese dynastic histories
975:
31:
3353:
3343:Painting of the Six Kings
2878:Stanford University Press
2692:Jankowiak, Marek (2013).
1113:awaiting reinforcements.
994:Following the disastrous
671:George Maniakes in Sicily
247:
191:
178:
141:
124:
67:
56:
48:
3457:Sieges of Constantinople
3326:Great Mosque of Damascus
3172:Umayyad invasion of Gaul
3147:Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath
2876:. Stanford, California:
2705:Jenkins, Philip (2008).
2647:Haldon, John F. (1990).
2172:, pp. 80–81, 89–91.
2043:, p. 80 (note #73).
2031:, p. 494 (note #3).
1899:, p. 76 (note #61).
1330:Importance and aftermath
1260:Depiction of the use of
1134:Theophanes the Confessor
1074:and the outbreak of the
946:another Muslim civil war
922:Theophanes the Confessor
2974:Radic, Radivoj (2008).
2781:; Scott, Roger (1997).
1376:Second Muslim Civil War
3321:Great Mosque of Aleppo
3177:Second Arab–Khazar War
2669:Howard-Johnston, James
2107:Mango & Scott 1997
2083:Mango & Scott 1997
2029:Mango & Scott 1997
2014:Mango & Scott 1997
1945:Mango & Scott 1997
1885:Mango & Scott 1997
1471:Fall of Constantinople
1430:
1271:
1233:
1173:
1076:First Muslim Civil War
991:
978:Early Muslim conquests
142:Commanders and leaders
3432:Amphibious operations
3291:Arab–Sasanian coinage
3192:Revolt of Zayd b. Ali
2936:Zuckerman, Constantin
2753:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
2630:Foster, John (1939).
2537:Brooks, E.W. (1898).
1935:, pp. 75, 90–91.
1828:, pp. 72–74, 90.
1640:James Howard-Johnston
1434:taking part, such as
1424:
1259:
1223:
1205:Junada ibn Abi Umayya
1163:
1064:Byzantine counterpart
989:
976:Further information:
934:city's fortifications
192:Casualties and losses
164:Junada ibn Abi Umayya
3311:Umayyad architecture
2509:Howard-Johnston 2010
2473:Howard-Johnston 2010
1777:, pp. 373, 375.
1625:Gregory of Nazianzus
1617:Constantin Zuckerman
996:Battle of the Yarmuk
764:Byzantine reconquest
3467:Abu Ayyub al-Ansari
3388:41.0122°N 28.9760°E
3384: /
3273:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
2844:Stratos, Andreas N.
2822:Stratos, Andreas N.
2523:, pp. 237–320.
2511:, pp. 303–304.
2463:, pp. 186–188.
2319:, pp. 334–349.
2307:, pp. 107–132.
2295:, pp. 382–385.
2283:, pp. 330–332.
2259:, pp. 328–329.
2196:, pp. 381–382.
2124:, pp. 326–327.
2055:, pp. 187–188.
2016:, pp. 493–494.
1729:, pp. 312–313.
1642:, in his 2010 book
1629:Thracian Chersonese
1621:Cosmas of Jerusalem
1585:Ioannes Pitzigaudes
1448:Abu Ayyub al-Ansari
1411:second Arab attempt
1068:Battle of the Masts
1046:and raid as far as
895:Arab–Byzantine wars
239:Arab–Byzantine wars
75:674–678 (disputed,
51:Arab–Byzantine wars
3263:Qays–Yaman rivalry
3207:Abbasid Revolution
2405:Fordham University
2271:, pp. 99–107.
1669:, pp. 369ff..
1431:
1427:Eyüp Sultan Mosque
1340:previous decades.
1272:
1234:
1174:
1018:to complete their
1016:Rashidun Caliphate
992:
666:Straits of Messina
485:2nd Constantinople
470:1st Constantinople
148:Yazid ibn Mu'awiya
3367:
3366:
3026:Umayyad Caliphate
2913:978-1-84176-759-8
2904:Osprey Publishing
2896:Turnbull, Stephen
2868:Treadgold, Warren
2792:978-0-19-822568-3
2744:978-0-52-183231-1
2720:978-0-06-147280-0
2684:978-0-19-920859-3
2622:978-0-932885-30-2
2593:Journal Asiatique
2487:, pp. 90–95.
2427:, pp. 64–68.
2367:, pp. 62–63.
2355:, pp. 71–77.
2331:, pp. 70–71.
2235:, pp. 87–88.
2208:, pp. 81–82.
2148:, pp. 23–28.
2136:, pp. 84–87.
2097:, pp. 79–80.
2070:, pp. 78–79.
2004:, pp. 77–78.
1971:, pp. 74–76.
1959:, pp. 76–77.
1923:, pp. 90–91.
1863:, pp. 73–74.
1816:, pp. 71–72.
1789:, pp. 69–71.
1717:, pp. 64–68.
1681:, pp. 60–68.
1623:'s commentary on
1513:is even mentioned
1365:decisively beaten
1232:of Constantinople
1182:Abdallah ibn Qais
1172:of Constantine IV
1083:Umayyad Caliphate
899:Umayyad Caliphate
884:
883:
204:
203:
131:Umayyad Caliphate
120:
119:
16:(Redirected from
3474:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3393:41.0122; 28.9760
3389:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3359:
3331:Dome of the Rock
3277:Umayyad coinage
3019:
3012:
3005:
2996:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2963:
2931:
2917:
2891:
2863:
2839:
2817:
2802:Byzantinoslavica
2796:
2774:
2748:
2729:Kaegi, Walter E.
2724:
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1562:
1528:New Book of Tang
1522:Old Book of Tang
1495:
1493:
1400:
1398:
1354:
1267:Madrid Skylitzes
1230:Theodosian Walls
1198:
1196:
1171:
1103:Fadala ibn Ubayd
1096:
1012:Taurus Mountains
1000:Byzantine Empire
905:, led by Caliph
903:Byzantine Empire
651:Marianos Argyros
527:Asia Minor (806)
512:Asia Minor (782)
501:Border conflicts
398:Babylon Fortress
242:
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168:Fadala ibn Ubayd
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136:Byzantine Empire
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3233:Umayyad dynasty
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2212:
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2200:
2192:
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2020:
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1988:
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1955:
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1939:
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1697:
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1673:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1601:
1555:Friedrich Hirth
1551:Mó zhuāi fá zhī
1490:
1483:Ak Shams al-Din
1477:in 1453 by the
1458:standard-bearer
1419:
1417:Cultural impact
1395:
1332:
1316:Sufyan ibn 'Awf
1218:
1193:
1146:
984:
974:
887:
886:
885:
880:
728:Gulf of Corinth
250:Early conflicts
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3412:670s conflicts
3404:
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3316:Desert castles
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2969:
2968:External links
2966:
2965:
2964:
2946:(1): 234–241.
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2689:
2683:
2665:
2660:978-0521319171
2659:
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2627:
2621:
2606:
2584:Canard, Marius
2580:
2560:10.2307/623724
2532:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2521:Jankowiak 2013
2513:
2501:
2497:Zuckerman 1995
2489:
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2453:
2441:
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2417:
2381:
2369:
2365:El-Cheikh 2004
2357:
2345:
2341:El-Cheikh 2004
2333:
2321:
2317:Treadgold 1997
2309:
2297:
2285:
2281:Treadgold 1997
2273:
2261:
2257:Treadgold 1997
2249:
2237:
2225:
2223:, p. 327.
2221:Treadgold 1997
2210:
2198:
2186:
2174:
2162:
2150:
2138:
2126:
2122:Treadgold 1997
2111:
2109:, p. 495.
2099:
2087:
2085:, p. 494.
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2006:
1994:
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1949:
1947:, p. 493.
1937:
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1887:, p. 492.
1877:
1865:
1853:
1851:, p. 325.
1849:Treadgold 1997
1830:
1818:
1806:
1804:, p. 320.
1802:Treadgold 1997
1791:
1779:
1767:
1765:, p. 318.
1763:Treadgold 1997
1755:
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1727:Treadgold 1997
1719:
1707:
1705:, p. 372.
1695:
1691:Treadgold 1997
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1502:Sword of Osman
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1197: 661–685
1190:Constantine IV
1184:) wintered in
1155:Sea of Marmara
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1126:Constantinople
1099:Armeniac Theme
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2750:
2746:
2740:
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2735:
2730:
2726:
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2716:
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2686:
2680:
2676:
2675:
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2652:
2651:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2614:
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2607:
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2599:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
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2557:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2540:
2535:
2534:
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2522:
2517:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2474:
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2462:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2418:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2379:, p. 48.
2378:
2377:Turnbull 2004
2373:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2346:
2343:, p. 62.
2342:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2250:
2247:, p. 83.
2246:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2187:
2184:, p. 66.
2183:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2163:
2160:, p. 91.
2159:
2154:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1995:
1992:, p. 64.
1991:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1911:, p. 63.
1910:
1905:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1878:
1875:, p. 75.
1874:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1753:, p. 69.
1752:
1747:
1744:
1741:, p. 68.
1740:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1699:
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1675:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1660:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1610:Kustantiniyya
1606:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1593:Edward Gibbon
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1488:
1485:, and Sultan
1484:
1480:
1476:
1475:Ottoman Turks
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1444:Ibn al-Zubayr
1441:
1437:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1393:
1389:
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1123:
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855:
854:
853:
850:Campaigns of
849:
845:
842:
840:
837:
836:
835:
832:Campaigns of
831:
830:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
806:
805:
804:Nikephoros II
802:Campaigns of
801:
800:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
781:
780:
779:Sayf al-Dawla
777:Campaigns of
776:
775:
772:
769:Campaigns of
768:
767:
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756:
754:
751:
749:
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711:
709:
706:
704:
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691:
689:
686:
685:
684:
683:
682:Naval warfare
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:Campaigns of
648:
646:
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
628:
626:
622:
619:Campaigns of
618:
616:
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583:
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518:
515:
513:
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86:
83:
82:
78:
74:
71:
70:
66:
60:
55:
52:
47:
42:
35:
30:
19:
3369:
3137:Second Fitna
3131:
3061:Abd al-Malik
2984:. Retrieved
2979:
2943:
2939:
2926:
2899:
2872:
2851:
2847:
2825:
2808:(1): 23–28.
2805:
2801:
2782:
2779:Mango, Cyril
2762:
2757:
2733:
2708:
2697:
2673:
2649:
2631:
2611:
2591:
2551:
2545:
2516:
2504:
2492:
2485:Stratos 1983
2480:
2468:
2456:
2444:
2439:, p. 3.
2432:
2425:Jenkins 2008
2420:
2408:. Retrieved
2400:
2372:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2324:
2312:
2300:
2288:
2276:
2264:
2252:
2240:
2233:Stratos 1978
2228:
2201:
2189:
2177:
2165:
2153:
2141:
2134:Stratos 1978
2129:
2102:
2090:
2048:
2036:
2009:
1997:
1964:
1952:
1940:
1928:
1916:
1904:
1892:
1880:
1868:
1856:
1821:
1809:
1782:
1770:
1758:
1746:
1734:
1722:
1710:
1698:
1686:
1674:
1662:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1615:
1602:
1577:Roman Empire
1550:
1538:
1533:
1526:
1520:
1510:
1451:
1432:
1392:Justinian II
1373:
1369:Bulgar state
1357:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1312:
1308:Thessalonica
1306:the city of
1294:, including
1285:
1273:
1265:
1235:
1175:
1147:
1115:
1080:
998:in 636, the
993:
966:Tang dynasty
950:
919:
890:
888:
839:Alexandretta
763:
762:
743:Thessalonica
681:
680:
656:2nd Taormina
640:1st Taormina
610:3rd Syracuse
600:2nd Syracuse
575:1st Syracuse
562:
561:
542:Mauropotamos
500:
499:
475:Sebastopolis
469:
457:
456:
425:North Africa
423:
422:
384:
383:
289:al-Qaryatayn
275:
274:
249:
157:
125:Belligerents
96:(modern-day
49:Part of the
29:
3391: /
3338:Umayyad art
3202:Third Fitna
3127:First Fitna
3091:Al-Walid II
3051:Mu'awiya II
2922:Yule, Henry
2461:Brooks 1898
2437:Foster 1939
2401:Fordham.edu
2353:Canard 1926
2329:Canard 1926
2182:Haldon 1990
2146:Olster 1995
2053:Brooks 1898
1990:Haldon 1990
1909:Haldon 1990
1633:Dardanelles
1573:sinologists
1511:This siege
1388:condominium
1264:, from the
1247:Golden Gate
1240:shore near
1226:Golden Gate
1207:, captured
635:2nd Milazzo
630:1st Milazzo
615:Caltavuturo
557:Bathys Ryax
369:Iron Bridge
334:Marj ar-Rum
3406:Categories
3379:28°58′34″E
3376:41°00′44″N
3281:Gold dinar
3221:Government
3066:Al-Walid I
3041:Mu'awiya I
2902:. Oxford:
2410:2016-09-10
2305:Lilie 1976
2293:Kaegi 2008
2269:Lilie 1976
2245:Lilie 1976
2206:Lilie 1976
2194:Kaegi 2008
2170:Lilie 1976
2158:Lilie 1976
2095:Lilie 1976
2068:Lilie 1976
2041:Lilie 1976
2002:Lilie 1976
1969:Lilie 1976
1957:Lilie 1976
1933:Lilie 1976
1921:Lilie 1976
1897:Lilie 1976
1873:Lilie 1976
1861:Lilie 1976
1826:Lilie 1976
1814:Lilie 1976
1787:Lilie 1976
1775:Kaegi 2008
1751:Lilie 1976
1739:Lilie 1976
1715:Lilie 1976
1703:Kaegi 2008
1679:Lilie 1976
1667:Kaegi 2008
1654:References
1581:Henry Yule
1466:city walls
1300:Brundisium
1262:Greek fire
1201:Greek fire
1060:Aegean Sea
1008:Asia Minor
972:Background
942:Greek fire
926:Asia Minor
907:Mu'awiya I
862:2nd Aleppo
733:Cephalonia
645:Garigliano
547:Faruriyyah
517:Kopidnadon
403:Alexandria
393:Heliopolis
379:Germanicia
364:1st Aleppo
284:Marj Rahit
277:The Levant
3238:Governors
3106:Marwan II
3096:Yazid III
2960:162205022
2860:0378-8660
2814:0007-7712
2771:797598069
2602:0021-762X
2576:162316850
2449:Yule 1915
1487:Mehmed II
1436:Ibn Abbas
1351:nomismata
1345:Mardaites
1281:al-Tabari
1277:Ibn Wadih
1251:Kyklobion
1118:Chalcedon
1107:Hexapolis
1093:strategos
911:civil war
809:5th Crete
794:Andrassos
753:4th Crete
748:3rd Crete
703:2nd Crete
698:1st Crete
676:2nd Malta
605:1st Malta
413:Darishkur
374:2nd Emesa
354:Jerusalem
114:Byzantine
77:see below
3258:al-Haras
3081:Yazid II
3071:Sulayman
3056:Marwan I
2924:(1915).
2898:(2004).
2870:(1997).
2824:(1978).
2755:(1976).
2671:(2010).
2586:(1926).
1589:Damascus
1545:: 摩拽伐之,
1506:Istanbul
1462:Muhammad
1440:Ibn Umar
1403:defeated
1320:Syllaion
1304:attacked
1296:Tarentum
1292:Calabria
1288:Lombards
1249:and the
1242:Hebdomon
1238:Thracian
1122:Bosporus
1111:Melitene
1087:Saborios
1040:Mu'awiya
1036:Cilician
1020:conquest
852:Basil II
713:Damietta
693:Keramaia
552:Lalakaon
495:Akroinon
459:Anatolia
447:Carthage
432:Sufetula
349:Laodicea
319:Damascus
299:Ajnadayn
179:Strength
98:Istanbul
84:Location
3303:Culture
3115:History
3101:Ibrahim
3076:Umar II
3046:Yazid I
3034:Caliphs
2640:3790642
2531:Sources
1575:as the
1553:), who
1543:Chinese
1519:of the
1515:in the
1481:Sheikh
1479:dervish
1473:to the
1429:complex
1380:Armenia
1228:of the
1168:nomisma
1151:Cyzicus
1138:Amorium
1109:around
1097:of the
1066:in the
1058:in the
1032:falling
1026:, with
930:Cyzicus
857:Orontes
824:Antioch
819:Cilicia
738:Euripos
688:Phoenix
661:Rometta
590:Lentini
580:Messina
537:Amorium
507:Kamacha
452:Tabarka
437:Vescera
418:Bahnasa
344:Yarmouk
184:200,000
158:†
116:victory
3286:Dirham
3268:Mawali
3253:Shurta
3228:Caliph
3122:Uthman
3086:Hisham
3028:topics
2986:9 July
2958:
2910:
2884:
2858:
2832:
2812:
2789:
2769:
2741:
2717:
2681:
2657:
2638:
2619:
2600:
2574:
2568:623724
2566:
1605:Syriac
1560:Fu lin
1547:Pinyin
1539:Da shi
1534:Fu lin
1498:mosque
1456:) and
1384:Iberia
1361:Bulgar
1209:Tarsus
1178:Smyrna
1072:Uthman
1052:Rhodes
1044:Cyprus
1004:Levant
958:Syriac
867:Apamea
834:John I
814:Aleppo
784:Marash
723:Kardia
718:Ragusa
708:Thasos
623:&
585:Butera
564:Sicily
522:Krasos
490:Nicaea
461:&
408:Nikiou
304:Yaqusa
270:Dathin
255:Mu'tah
187:40,000
154:
110:Result
102:Turkey
3361:Media
3248:Barid
3243:Diwan
2956:S2CID
2761:[
2572:S2CID
2564:JSTOR
2552:XVIII
2542:(PDF)
1567:Daqin
1453:Anṣār
1337:Avars
1186:Lycia
1164:Gold
1130:Yazid
1056:Crete
1028:Egypt
1024:Syria
1006:into
962:China
954:Yazid
844:Syria
789:Raban
532:Anzen
480:Tyana
442:Mamma
386:Egypt
359:Hazir
339:Emesa
294:Bosra
265:Firaz
260:Balqa
200:5,700
2988:2012
2908:ISBN
2882:ISBN
2856:ISSN
2830:ISBN
2810:ISSN
2787:ISBN
2767:OCLC
2739:ISBN
2715:ISBN
2679:ISBN
2655:ISBN
2636:OCLC
2617:ISBN
2598:ISSN
1525:and
1442:and
1382:and
1298:and
1279:and
1224:The
1054:and
1030:too
980:and
889:The
876:Azaz
758:Tyre
595:Enna
566:and
329:Fahl
72:Date
3427:678
3422:674
2948:doi
2556:doi
1591:in
1460:of
1048:Kos
1022:of
3408::
2978:.
2954:.
2944:19
2942:.
2906:.
2880:.
2852:33
2806:56
2804:.
2570:.
2562:.
2550:.
2544:.
2403:.
2384:^
2213:^
2114:^
2075:^
2060:^
2021:^
1976:^
1833:^
1794:^
1579:.
1549::
1508:.
1492:r.
1438:,
1397:r.
1322:.
1195:r.
1089:,
1050:,
968:.
917:.
100:,
91:,
3018:e
3011:t
3004:v
2990:.
2962:.
2950::
2916:.
2890:.
2862:.
2838:.
2816:.
2795:.
2773:.
2747:.
2723:.
2687:.
2663:.
2642:.
2625:.
2604:.
2578:.
2558::
2499:.
2415:.
2413:.
1489:(
1394:(
1192:(
229:e
222:t
215:v
104:)
79:)
36:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
