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equals, and thus he would only show
Qianlong the same level of respect he would show his own king (he saw the Kowtow as too excessive). Throughout his meetings with Chinese officials, Macartney was repeatedly urged to perform the kowtow during his audience with the emperor. In one message to legate Zhengrui and viceroy Liang Kentang during Macartney's stay in Tianjin, Heshen had instructed the two men to inform Britain's representative that he would be regarded as a "boor" and a "laughingstock" if he did not perform the ritual when the time came. Officials also told Macartney in private that the kowtow was just a "mere exterior and unmeaning ceremony" and he should perform it. Nevertheless, Macartney submitted to Zhengrui a written proposal that would satisfy his requirement of equal status: whatever ceremony he performed, a Chinese official of equal rank would do the same before a portrait of George III. He believed it demeaning that Britain would have to go through the same rituals (and be seen as equal to) Chinese vassal states like Korea.
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822:. The British were not permitted to leave the premises for the duration of their stay. Wanting to be closer to China's political centre, Macartney received permission from Zhengrui to move to a different residence in Beijing, which had been intended to house the embassy after the meeting with the emperor. In Beijing, responsibility for the embassy on the Chinese side would be shared between Zhengrui and two other officials: Jin Jian (金簡), a minister of public works, and his vice minister Yiling'a. The gifts brought by the embassy were stored amongst other tribute items in the throne room at the Old Summer Palace, which Macartney was the first Briton to visit. Barrow and Dinwiddie were responsible for assembling and arranging the gifts. The most important item, the planetarium, was so complex that it took 18 days to assemble.
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1107:". However, after the publication in the 1990s of a fuller range of archival documents concerning the visit, these claims have been challenged. One historian characterized the emperor and his court as "clearly clever and competent political operators", and concluded that they acted within the formal Qing claims to universal rule; they reacted prudently to reports of British expansion in India by placating the British with unspecified promises in order to avoid military conflicts and loss of trade. Qianlong also said that he could have revoked Britain's existing privileges due to the king's behavior, but he would not. He said he felt sympathy for England because it is remote and ignorant of the great Chinese civilization. This angered the king and the public in England.
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Macartney's refusal to kowtow in the presence of the
Emperor, as is sometimes believed. It was also not a result of the Chinese reliance on tradition in dictating foreign policy, but rather a result of competing world views which were uncomprehending and to some extent incompatible. After the conclusion of the embassy, Qianlong sent a letter to King George III, explaining in greater depth the reasons for his refusal to grant the several requests presented to the Chinese emperor by Macartney. The requests had included a call for the relaxation of the restrictions on trade between Britain and China, the acquisition by Britain of "a small unfortified island near
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references to
Christianity and turning the letter into Honorific form (so the word "emperor" is written larger). He was followed by George Staunton, and finally Thomas Staunton. As Thomas had studied the Chinese language, the emperor beckoned him to speak a few words (Thomas said in his diary that he thanked the emperor for the gifts). The British were followed by other envoys, about whom little is written. A banquet was then held to conclude the day's events. The British were seated on the emperor's left, in the most prestigious position.
957:, which requires an individual to kneel with both knees on the ground and bow so as to touch their forehead to the ground, presented a particular dilemma. The kowtow was required not only when meeting the emperor, but also when receiving imperial edicts from his messengers. While Portuguese and Dutch merchants in Canton (now Guangzhou) had acquiesced to the ritual, British subjects, who regarded the act as slavish and humiliating, generally avoided kowtowing to the emperor's edicts by leaving the room when such messages were received.
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its own port of arrival. The
British officials pointed out, however, that the ships carried many large, precious items that might be damaged if taken overland. Moreover, as the governor noted in his report to the emperor, the embassy had journeyed a great distance, and would be greatly delayed if sent back to Guangzhou from Tianjin. The Qianlong Emperor agreed to the request, and instructed his officials to lead the embassy to him with the utmost civility. The emperor's response was brought back to Guangzhou by General
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663:, where they arrived on 19 June 1793. There, George Staunton disembarked to meet with officials of the East India Company. The two Chinese Catholic priests who had been offered free passage to Macau departed there, along with one of the two priests from Naples, leaving only one Chinese interpreter with the mission. For the next leg of the trip, Macartney and Dundas had intended to avoid Guangzhou altogether. Instead of proceeding overland from there, the plan was for the embassy to continue by sea to
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advised Liang not to accompany
Macartney to the capital, so as to avoid giving the British too high a sense of their own status. According to Qianlong, "treated too favorably, a Barbarian becomes arrogant". Instead of the viceroy, Zhengrui would act as the mission's liaison. The mission continued up the Hai River on small boats pulled by men along the shore using ropes and harnesses. It landed at Tongzhou on 16 August.
193:, who rejected all of the British requests. Although the mission failed to achieve its official objectives, it was later noted for the extensive cultural, political, and geographical observations its participants recorded in China and brought back to Europe. It came to light in 1796 that a court official Heshen was stealing state funds and frustrated the mission.
667:, the closest major port to Beijing. Such a route had never been charted by European sailors as all trade had been through Guangzhou. Macartney wanted to continue to Tianjin instead of taking the inland route partially because of precious items on the boat, but he also wanted to use the mission to explore the Yellow Sea for future missions.
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jurisdiction. He was also to establish a permanent embassy in
Beijing so as to create a direct line of communication between the two governments, cutting out the Cantonese merchants who had served as middlemen. Finally, he was to gather intelligence on the Chinese government and society, about which little was known in Europe at the time.
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rails would dramatically increase the productivity of
Britain in a few years time. The flexibility of steel swords was noted by courtiers, but the model steam engine was not unpacked. Instead it was given to Dinwiddie to show off in India. China would not acquire advanced steel production until several decades into
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emperor alone, stopping each night at one of the lodges prepared for the emperor's use along the way. Guard posts punctuated the route at roughly five mile intervals, and
Macartney observed a large number of troops working to repair the road in preparation for the emperor's return to Beijing later in the year.
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abdication of
Qianlong and forced him to commit suicide. As an official, Heshen acquired silver worth an estimated US$ 270 billion. Heshen's insistence that the British pay for tea in silver would frustrate trade for the next half century. As was typical of imperial edicts, the letter contained commentary in
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Critics in
England said the problem with the embassy was that it "acknowledged the inferiority of its country ". Macartney himself became ridiculed, with caricatures showing him debasing himself before the Emperor. Macartney became more hostile and negative towards China in his later writings, saying
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One of the goals of the embassy was to demonstrate the utility of British science and technology, in hopes of encouraging Chinese purchases of British goods. In keeping with these objectives, the mission was to bring with it a number of gifts including clocks, telescopes, weapons, textiles, and other
295:), was ambivalent about selling the drug to the Chinese, preferring to substitute "rice or any better production in its place". An official embassy would provide an opportunity to introduce new British products to the Chinese market, which the East India Company had been criticised for failing to do.
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made a survey of the Great Wall's fortifications with his men, thereby contributing to the intelligence-gathering aspect of the mission, though at the expense of arousing suspicion among their Chinese hosts. Some of the men, meanwhile, took bricks from the Wall as souvenirs. Past the Great Wall, the
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On 24 August, legate Zhengrui brought a letter to Macartney from Sir Erasmus Gower, who reported that the ships of the embassy had reached Zhoushan as ordered. Macartney replied with instructions for Gower to continue on to Guangzhou, but Zhengrui secretly forwarded the letter to the emperor at Rehe
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was to discover in 1823. Banks advised the embassy to gather as many plants as possible in their travels, especially tea plants. He also insisted that gardeners and artists be present on the expedition to make observations and illustrations of local flora. Accordingly, David Stronach and John Haxton
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mission like any other. Despite Macartney and Staunton's insistence that the items the embassy brought were "gifts", Chinese officials saw them as "tribute" items. Macartney himself was to be seen as only a "conveyor of tribute", not a "legate of the sovereign" as he had earlier referred to himself
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Even before Macartney's departure from Britain, he and Dundas had anticipated that there might be some disagreement with the Chinese side on the details of the ceremonies and rituals to be performed at the meeting between Macartney and the emperor of China. Dundas had instructed Macartney to accept
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Despite this dismissal, Qianlong had noted the military superiority implied by several gifts: six brass cannon, a flintlock with an advanced firing mechanism and a model of HMS Royal Sovereign. The gifts that might really have shifted Chinese perceptions were steel and steam: locomotives and steel
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The meeting with the Qianlong Emperor took place on 14 September. The British set off, with Macartney in a palanquin, from their residence at 3 AM in the darkness, arriving at the imperial encampment at 4 AM. Macartney was accompanied by servants, musicians, and other representatives. The ceremony
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to guide the British visitors, and the governor did so. However, Chinese officials had not anticipated that the British intended to sail the high seas rather than hopping from port to port in shallow waters along the coast, as was typical of Chinese vessels. They expressed surprise at the size and
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Representatives of the East India Company met with the military governor of Guangdong ahead of Macartney's arrival, in order to request permission for the embassy to land at Tianjin instead of Guangzhou. The governor at first refused, as it was considered improper for a tributary mission to select
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retained permanent positions at the imperial court. Macartney was instructed to negotiate a relaxation of the Canton System, such that British traders could operate in more ports and markets, and to obtain a small island on the Chinese coast from which British merchants could operate under British
373:, a merchant who broke protocol by complaining directly to Qianlong about corrupt officials in Canton. Macartney did not want to rely on native interpreters, as was the custom in Canton. The mission brought along four Chinese Catholic priests as interpreters. Two were from the Collegium Sinicum in
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for the residence of British traders, storage of goods, and outfitting of ships"; and the establishment of a permanent British embassy in Beijing. However, Qianlong's letter's continuing reference to all Europeans as "barbarians", his assumption of all nations of the earth as being subordinate to
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Although ultimately unsuccessful in its primary objectives, the circumstances surrounding the mission provided ample opportunity for both British and Chinese parties to feel totally satisfied about the compromises and concessions they had made. The failure of the primary objectives was not due to
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By the late 18th century, British traders felt confined by the Canton System and, in an attempt to gain greater trade rights, they lobbied for an embassy to go before the emperor and request changes to the current arrangements. The need for an embassy was partly due to the growing trade imbalance
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Having left behind the planetarium and other gifts at the Old Summer Palace, about seventy members of the mission, among them forty soldiers, departed Beijing on 2 September, heading north towards Jehol, where the Qianlong Emperor awaited. The mission proceeded alongside a road reserved for the
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The Macartney Embassy is historically significant for many reasons, most of them visible only in retrospect. While to a modern sensibility it marked a missed opportunity by both sides to explore and understand each other's cultures, customs, diplomatic styles, and ambitions, it also prefigured
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For Macartney, one sticking point was the relative status of the two sovereigns, George III and Qianlong. Macartney believed that Britain was now the most powerful nation on Earth. However, as a diplomat, he had decided that whatever ceremony he participated in must present the two monarchs as
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legate Zhengrui, who stipulated that all gifts were to be brought to Rehe and laid at the emperor's feet in accordance with protocol. However, Macartney convinced the viceroy to permit some of the gifts to be left in Beijing to avoid damaging them on the journey to Rehe. The imperial court had
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September (the day of the embassy's arrival in Chengde), was that Macartney could perform a single prostration in lieu of the nine typically called for. However, Staunton submitted Macartney's proposal to Heshen the day after their arrival, reiterating the British stance on the issue. With no
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north of the Great Wall each autumn. During the reign of Qianlong's grandfather Kangxi, an imperial city was built near the hunting grounds at Chengde to house the emperor and his entourage while he was away from Beijing. It was at Chengde that Qing emperors often greeted foreign dignitaries,
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Despite the misgivings of the East India Company about the potential downsides of the mission, the company was compelled by the government to fund the effort. Dundas and Macartney prioritised national interests over those of the company, which feared the loss of its monopoly position, and the
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Macartney stepped up to the platform first, kneeling once, exchanging gifts with Qianlong and presenting King George III's letter. King George's letter had been translated into Chinese by European missionaries in China. They had made the letter more respectful towards the Emperor by removing
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and a favourite of the emperor, stipulated that Zhengrui was not to make reports alone without the signatures of Jin Jian and Yiling'a, nor make decisions unilaterally. Heshen is now regarded as the most corrupt official in Chinese history. The Jiaqing Emperor realised this in 1796 after the
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increasing British pressure on China to accommodate its expanding trading and imperial network. The mutual lack of knowledge and understanding on both sides would continue to plague the Qing dynasty as it encountered increasing foreign pressure and internal unrest during the 19th century.
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Historians both in China and abroad long presented the failure of the mission to achieve its goals as a symbol of China's refusal to change and inability to modernize. They explain the refusal first on the fact that interaction with foreign kingdoms was limited to neighbouring
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products of technology. Macartney intended the display of technical prowess to reflect Britain's "national character", one of ingenuity, exploration, and curiosity about the natural world. Nevertheless, Dundas reminded him that the mission was not "a delegation of the
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at its zenith, was wary of the transformations of Chinese society that might result from unrestricted foreign access. Chinese subjects were not permitted to teach the Chinese language to foreigners, and European traders were forbidden to bring women into China.
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who represented vassal states. Here too, Macartney's embassy was to meet Qianlong on the occasion of the emperor's birthday. Qianlong called off the hunt to return to Chengde for the ceremonies, as he had done previously in 1754 and 1780 for the visits of
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Henry Dundas laid out his goals for the mission in Macartney's official instructions. More British subjects had been trading in China than any other Europeans. Despite this, the British had no direct contact with the emperor, in contrast to the
276:, whose trade monopoly in the East encompassed the tea trade, was obliged by the Qing government to pay for Chinese tea with silver. To address the trade deficit, efforts were made to find British products that could be sold to the Chinese.
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It was difficult for Macartney to find anyone in Britain who could speak Chinese because it was illegal for Chinese people to teach foreigners. Chinese who taught foreigners their language risked death, as was the case with the teacher of
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A Narrative of the British Embassy to China in the years 1792, 1793, and 1794 – Containing the Various Circumstances of the Embassy, with Accounts of the Customs and Manners of the Chinese, and Description of the Country Towns, Cities,
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legal responsibility over commerce in Guangzhou. By the 18th century, Guangzhou, known as Canton to British merchants at the time, had become the most active port in the China trade, thanks partly to its convenient access to the
399:, which trained Chinese boys brought home by missionaries in Christianity. The two wanted to return home to China, to whom Staunton offered free passage to Macau. The 100-member delegation also included scholars and valets.
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734:(known as the Pei Ho in European sources of the time) on 25 July, and dropped anchor, finding the muddy water impassable for the larger vessels. The gifts were unloaded from the British ships and transferred upstream to
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Although the Macartney Embassy returned to London without obtaining any concession from China, the mission could be termed a success in that it brought back detailed observations of a great empire. The painter
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speed of the British ships. Anticipating that these vessels with their deep hulls would not be able to proceed upstream past Tianjin, they hired boats to carry the mission and its cargo to the capital.
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ink by the emperor's own hand. Calling Zhengrui "contemptible and ridiculous", Qianlong ordered him to send Macartney's letter to the viceroy of Zhejiang so the British vessels could leave Zhoushan.
953:"all ceremonials of the Court which may not commit the honour of your Sovereign or lessen your own dignity", and not to let any "trifling punctilio" get in the way of the mission. The ritual of the
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of the Qing military. William Alexander, who stayed behind in Beijing, expressed regret at being unable to see the Wall for himself. Under Macartney's orders, Lieutenant Henry William Parish of the
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which contained the emperor's throne at the center of a raised platform. Several thousand attendees were present, including other foreign visitors (from Burma and from Muslim tribes in near the
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possibility that the embassy would strain diplomatic relations instead of improving them. By sending a direct representative of the British crown, British politician and later Foreign Secretary
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possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce.
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itself, however, rejoined the squadron at Jakarta, after having turned back for repairs after the storm that had struck the ships at the start of their voyage. The full squadron sailed on to
499:, to be executed after completing his mission to China. The instructions stated that it may be useful for him to visit Japan to establish trade relations, particularly to enable a trade in
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was charged with producing the official account of the expedition after their return. This multi-volume work was taken chiefly from the papers of Lord Macartney and from the papers of Sir
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The instructions from Dundas also stipulated that Macartney should establish trade relations with other nations of the East. To that effect, Macartney was given letters of credence to the
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had died of disease in August, and the squadron stopped in Zhoushan to recuperate. Having received word that the British ships were beset with illness, Qianlong instructed the viceroy of
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agreement in sight and the ceremony only days away, Qianlong grew increasingly impatient, and considered scrapping the meeting altogether. Finally, it was agreed that Macartney would
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China, and his final words commanding King George III to "...Tremblingly obey and show no negligence!" used the standard imperial sign off as if the king were a Chinese subject.
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Macartney chose George Staunton as his right-hand man, whom he entrusted to continue the mission should Macartney himself prove unable to do so. Staunton brought along his son,
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321:. Dundas, who had become Home Secretary, suggested in 1791 that Macartney himself take up the mission instead. Macartney accepted on the condition that he would be made an
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181:, Great Britain's first envoy to China. The goals of the mission included the opening of new ports for British trade in China, the establishment of a permanent embassy in
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Harrison, Henrietta (2017). "The Qianlong Emperor's Letter to George III and the Early Twentieth Century Origins of Ideas About Traditional China's Foreign Relations".
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Travels in China, Containing Descriptions, Observations, And Comparison, Made And Collected in the Course of a Short Residence at the Imperial Palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen
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which lasted a month. As young Thomas Staunton studied the Chinese language, Macartney learned everything he could about China from the books he had placed in the
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to ensure the British were quarantined at Zhoushan. The court reprimanded Zhengrui regarding his forwarding of Macartney's letter. An imperial edict written by
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China's power was an illusion and that Qing China would decline and eventually collapse. Macartney predicted that China might collapse within his lifetime.
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Zhengrui objected to this proposal, on the grounds that this notion of reciprocal equality was incompatible with the Chinese view of the emperor as the
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believed that the ship was wrecked, but it actually survived and would reunite with the other ships later. Macartney bought another ship to replace the
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to sell in China. The company made a concerted effort starting in the 1780s to finance the tea trade with opium. Macartney, who had served in India as
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All members of the embassy except Barrow and Dinwiddie were moved to their new quarters in central Beijing on 26 August, as Macartney had requested.
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Chayet, Anne (2004). "Architectural wonderland: An empire of fictions". In Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; et al. (eds.).
440:. Banks, who had been growing tea plants privately since 1780, had ambitions to gather valuable plants from all over the world to be studied at the
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over the proceedings. Macartney entered the tent along with George and Thomas Staunton, and their Chinese interpreter. The others waited outside.
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terrain became more mountainous and difficult for the men's horses to traverse, slowing their progress. The entourage arrived at the outskirts of
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The embassy continued to Tianjin, where it arrived on 11 August. Macartney and Staunton attended a banquet with viceroy Liang and the
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Symons, Van J. (2004). "The imperial tours to Chengde". In Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; et al. (eds.).
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to return to Zhoushan at Macartney's request. He also informed Macartney that the meeting with the emperor was to take place at the
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The embassy departed Macao on 23 June. It stopped in Zhoushan, where Staunton went ashore to meet with the military governor of
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to serve as Britain's first ambassador to China. Cathcart became ill during the voyage, however, and died just before his ship,
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reasoned that the mission would be given greater attention than if it had been sent "only in the name of a trading company".
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317:, reached China. After the failure of the Cathcart Embassy, Macartney proposed that another attempt be made under his friend
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2179:; Chia, Ning (2004). "The Qing hunt at Mulan". In Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; et al. (eds.).
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would produce drawings and paintings of the mission's events. A group of scientists also accompanied the embassy, led by
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1103:. Furthermore, the worldviews on the two sides were incompatible, China holding entrenched beliefs that China was the "
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Radically decentered in the Middle Kingdom:interpreting the Macartney embassy to China froma contact zone perspective
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before the emperor as he would before his own sovereign, touching one knee to the ground, although without the usual
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Some Account of the Public Life, and a Selection from the Unpublished Writings, of the Earl of Macartney
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Series 62: Papers concerning publication of the account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to China, ca 1797.
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was responsible for selecting and arranging engraving of the illustrations in this official record.
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The embassy reached Beijing on 21 August. It was escorted to a residence north of Beijing, near the
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was sent to pilot the ships of the embassy to Tianjin, and joined the squadron when it reached the
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The expedition departed Rio de Janeiro on 17 December and sailed east once more, rounding the
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The Approach of the Emperor of China to His Tent in Tartary to Receive the British Ambassador
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Banks, Joseph. Papers of Sir Joseph Banks; Section 12: Lord Macartney's embassy to China;
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accompanied the embassy, and published numerous engravings based on his watercolours. Sir
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At the time of Macartney's mission to China, the East India Company was beginning to grow
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https://ora4-prd.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4d8b8ce8-ae73-4daf-99ac-0321959a8645
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and William Scott), two secretaries, three attachés, and a military escort. Artists
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Harrison,H. Chinese and British diplomatic gifts in the Macartney Embassy of 1793.
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Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney
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of the reception that he expected Lord Macartney to get from the Qianlong Emperor
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To Begin the World Over Again: How the American Revolution Transformed the Globe
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Lieutenant-Colonel George Benson, Commandant of the fifty-man Ambassador's Guard
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It was the practice of the Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty to lead a ritual
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Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793
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New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
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New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
2152:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
2096:
260:
between China and Great Britain, driven largely by the British demand for
251:
confined all foreign maritime trade to Guangzhou. Qianlong, who ruled the
2050:"Expectations and Expertise: Early British Responses to Chinese Medicine"
1091:
944:, respectively (the latter on the occasion of Qianlong's 70th birthday).
937:
883:
831:
411:
131:
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2547:
870:
One of Lieutenant Parish's technical drawings of the Great Wall of China
2002:
1942:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1927:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1863:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1834:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1702:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1522:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and The End of China's Last Golden Age
1497:
Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
896:
771:
680:
664:
644:
589:
292:
182:
711:. The emperor had sent instructions to every port in China to provide
2346:
1748:
1286:
954:
835:
562:
449:
437:
374:
222:
1143:
The Macartney Embassy comprised about a hundred people, including:
561:. A storm soon hit the squadron, forcing it to stop temporarily at
1077:
1025:
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906:
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857:
805:
674:
660:
546:, belonging to the East India Company (and later purchased by the
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453:
332:
284:
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31:
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Forging Romantic China: Sino-British Cultural Exchange 1760–1840
999:
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off the coast of Africa forced them to sail west all the way to
322:
269:
177:
to China, which took place in 1793. It is named for its leader,
2588:
K'o-ssu tapestry depicting the arrival of the Macartney embassy
2503:(Nov 1993), Vol. 43 Issue 11, pp 28–34; popular history; online
976:
Qianlong's compromise on the issue, stated in an edict dated 8
826:
instead of dispatching it to Zhoushan. Several men aboard the
500:
261:
2515:. 2019/1 (43). Presses universitaires de Vincennes: 143–172.
2499:
Gillingham, Paul. "The Macartney embassy to China, 1792-94."
1635:
1633:
742:. From there, they were unloaded again onto smaller boats to
429:, as well as the driving force behind the 1787 expedition of
234:
as "hong") selected by the imperial government. In 1725, the
2439:
The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History
1006:), viceroy Liang Kentang and the emperor's son, the future
2125:
British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783-1793
216:
Foreign maritime trade in China was regulated through the
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377:, where George Staunton had recruited them: Paolo Cho (
1451:
1449:
596:
later that same month. On 1 November, they arrived at
402:
Among those who had called for a mission to China was
1499:. New York: Penguin Random House LLC. pp. 3–13.
531:
aboard three ships on 26 September 1792. The warship
466:) was already growing natively in Assam, a fact that
115:
1565:
Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
998:
was to be held in the imperial tent, a large yellow
325:, and given the authority to choose his companions.
2269:. Cambridge Studies in Romanticism. Vol. 105.
130:
123:
109:
102:
97:
72:
51:
42:
2085:Acupuncture, Expertise and Cross-Cultural Medicine
1704:. New York: Penguin Random House. pp. 19–20.
1585:
1524:. New York: Penguin Random House LLC. p. 35.
700:, who had recently returned after fighting in the
1929:. New York: Penguin Random House LLC. p. 44.
1865:. New York: Penguin Random House LLC. p. 37.
1191:Botanical gardeners: David Stronach, John Haxton
604:, they continued on their journey. The crew of
452:. Above all, he wanted to grow tea in Bengal or
27:First British diplomatic mission to China (1793)
1040:
814:, where the embassy's gifts were put on display
762:. On 6 August, Macartney and Staunton met with
189:(Canton). Macartney's delegation met with the
2383:Stone, Christopher; Leeson, Lorraine (2017).
397:Pontificio Collegio Urbano de Propaganda Fide
78:
57:
8:
2385:Interpreting and the Politics of Recognition
2206:Harlow, Vincent Todd; Madden, A. F. (1953).
1624:
471:served as the embassy's botanical gardeners.
2339:Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908).
1944:. Penguin Random House LLC. pp. 47–48.
1795:
1783:
1639:
1544:
1440:
1131:, who was Commander of the expedition. Sir
2362:. History of Imperial China. Vol. 6.
2007:(Retrospective Theses and Dissertations).
1846:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1428:
730:. The mission arrived at the mouth of the
94:
2653:Diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
2016:
1882:. University of California, Santa Barbara
1010:. The emperor arrived at 7, presiding as
264:, as well as other Chinese products like
18:First British diplomatic mission to China
2208:British Colonial Developments, 1774–1834
1988:
1912:
774:to see them. Liang agreed to permit the
1874:
1872:
1556:
1318:
1880:"Qianlong Letter to George III (1792)"
1839:
1771:
1759:
1663:
1612:
1479:
1467:
1307:Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest
39:
2623:Foreign relations of the Qing dynasty
1819:
1807:
1736:
1724:
1687:
1675:
1651:
1455:
1156:, accompanied by his 12-year-old son
7:
2322:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
1490:
1488:
1325:
1148:George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney
345:, who served the mission as a page.
337:George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney
2638:18th-century diplomatic conferences
2359:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing
2048:Bivins, Roberta (1 December 1999).
1297:Foreign relations of imperial China
478:Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville
2495:. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies.
2477:. London: T. Cadell And W. Davies.
600:. After waiting five days for the
25:
2507:Guo, Fuxiang (20 December 2019).
1213:Lieutenant Henry William Parish,
573:resumed their voyage without the
444:at Kew and the newly established
1959:State Library of New South Wales
1266:
1252:
1158:Sir George Staunton, 2nd Baronet
1154:Sir George Staunton, 1st Baronet
302:and East India Company official
2633:Diplomatic conferences in China
2546:Lindorff, Joyce (August 2012).
2513:Extrême-Orient Extrême-Occident
2001:Sample, Joseph Clayton (2004).
1584:. 16 March 2007. Archived from
1217:officer and a trained draftsman
639:on 7 January 1793. They passed
137:
2618:China–United Kingdom relations
1292:China–United Kingdom relations
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
408:President of the Royal Society
391:
386:
382:
378:
163:
116:
79:
58:
36:Lord Macartney's embassy, 1793
1:
922:, by William Alexander (1793)
592:in early October, and at the
404:Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet
2648:Diplomatic missions in China
1164:Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet
565:. After making repairs, the
2236:Hevia, James Louis (1995).
1976:Yale Center for British Art
1836:. New York. pp. 35–36.
973:which annoyed the emperor.
538:, commanded by Captain Sir
2669:
2521:10.4000/extremeorient.2457
2444:W. W. Norton & Company
2349:: E.P. Dutton and Company.
2290:Lockwood, Matthew (2019).
2271:Cambridge University Press
2217:American Historical Review
2210:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2130:Cambridge University Press
2068:10.1177/007327539903700404
1070:People's Republic of China
862:The Great Wall at Gubeikou
228:thirteen trading companies
2356:Rowe, William T. (2010).
2263:Kitson, Peter J. (2013).
2036:Anderson, Aeneas (1796).
1578:"Gifts of hope and glory"
1223:Interpreters: Paolo Cho (
643:in February, and reached
446:Calcutta Botanical Garden
148:
93:
80:
59:
47:
2364:Harvard University Press
2083:Bivins, Roberta (2000).
2018:10.31274/rtd-180813-8774
1625:Harlow & Madden 1953
770:, who had traveled from
588:The squadron stopped at
527:The delegation departed
300:William Pitt the Younger
298:In 1787, Prime Minister
138:Maa5gaa1ji5nei4 Si3tyun4
53:Traditional Chinese
2643:18th century in Beijing
1940:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1925:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1861:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1832:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1796:Elliott & Chia 2004
1784:Elliott & Chia 2004
1700:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1545:Stone & Leeson 2017
1520:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1495:Platt, Stephen (2018).
1054:, Second Edict to King
854:Crossing the Great Wall
784:Chengde Mountain Resort
542:, led the mission. The
74:Simplified Chinese
2487:Macartney, Earl George
1086:
1068:'s premiership in the
1061:
1058:of Great Britain, 1792
1038:
923:
912:
878:The group crossed the
871:
863:
815:
746:, the endpoint of the
688:
479:
338:
213:
37:
2608:1793 in Great Britain
2296:Yale University Press
2244:Duke University Press
2229:10.1093/ahr/122.3.680
2122:Black, James (1994).
2097:10.1057/9780230287518
2041:. J. Debrett, London.
2009:Iowa State University
1274:United Kingdom portal
1081:
1029:
918:
910:
903:Meeting with Qianlong
869:
861:
809:
698:Viceroy of Liangguang
678:
477:
442:Royal Botanic Gardens
410:. Banks had been the
336:
204:
35:
1082:Chinese soldier, by
911:The Qianlong Emperor
210:Jakob van der Schley
2434:Waley-Cohen, Joanna
2319:The Immobile Empire
1615:, pp. 135–142.
1328:, pp. 141–144.
1152:Second-in-command:
880:Great Wall of China
489:Jesuit missionaries
319:Sir George Staunton
306:dispatched Colonel
166:), also called the
2089:Palgrave Macmillan
2055:History of Science
1590:on 18 October 2016
1561:Cardinal Antonelli
1227:) and Jacobus Li (
1087:
1039:
942:Sixth Panchen Lama
928:hunting expedition
924:
913:
872:
864:
838:, a member of the
816:
689:
480:
381:) and Jacobus Li (
339:
289:Governor of Madras
274:East India Company
214:
175:diplomatic mission
117:Mǎjiā'ěrní Shǐtuán
38:
2566:10.1093/em/cas095
2314:Peyrefitte, Alain
2106:978-0-333-91893-7
1786:, pp. 75–77.
1774:, pp. 33–34.
1762:, pp. 57–60.
1739:, pp. 92–93.
1678:, pp. 66–67.
1654:, pp. 57–58.
1600:HighBeam Research
1177:William Alexander
1121:William Alexander
1084:William Alexander
820:Old Summer Palace
812:Old Summer Palace
702:Sino-Nepalese War
685:William Alexander
651:, to replace the
637:Cape of Good Hope
459:camellia sinensis
355:William Alexander
245:Pearl River Delta
236:Yongzheng Emperor
168:Macartney Mission
156:Macartney Embassy
152:
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104:Standard Mandarin
43:Macartney Embassy
16:(Redirected from
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1052:Qianlong Emperor
1044:Celestial Empire
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948:The kowtow issue
899:on 8 September.
768:Viceroy of Zhili
497:Emperor of Japan
393:
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308:Charles Cathcart
249:Qianlong Emperor
191:Qianlong Emperor
179:George Macartney
170:, was the first
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1215:Royal Artillery
1187:James Dinwiddie
1172:, William Scott
1141:
1125:George Staunton
1105:central kingdom
1075:
1060:
1050:
1033:, a cartoon by
1024:
1008:Jiaqing Emperor
995:
977:
950:
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892:Royal Artillery
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523:Voyage to China
363:James Dinwiddie
331:
247:. In 1757, the
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2582:External links
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2062:(4): 459–489.
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1991:, p. 435.
1981:
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1990:
1989:Lockwood 2019
1985:
1982:
1977:
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1964:
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1822:, p. 79.
1821:
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1809:
1804:
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1798:, p. 82.
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1711:9780307961730
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1648:
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1627:, p. 48.
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1198:, captain of
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1196:Erasmus Gower
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1181:Thomas Hickey
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966:Son of Heaven
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2003:
1996:
1984:
1966:
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1908:
1896:
1884:. Retrieved
1862:
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1720:
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1608:
1598:– via
1592:. Retrieved
1587:the original
1581:
1572:
1557:Robbins 1908
1552:
1547:, p. 8.
1540:
1521:
1515:
1496:
1475:
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1436:
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1260:China portal
1236:
1201:
1142:
1133:Joseph Banks
1117:
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1109:
1097:
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993:The ceremony
987:hand kissing
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933:Inner Asians
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679:A fort near
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468:Robert Bruce
463:
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432:
423:first voyage
417:
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329:Preparations
313:
304:Henry Dundas
297:
278:
258:
253:Qing dynasty
239:
221:
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167:
155:
153:
111:Hanyu Pinyin
29:
2553:Early Music
1772:Chayet 2004
1760:Symons 2004
1664:Kitson 2013
1613:Kitson 2013
1582:China Daily
1480:Bivins 2000
1468:Bivins 1999
1207:Lieutenant
1194:Commander:
1185:Scientist:
1170:Hugh Gillan
1004:Caspian Sea
748:Grand Canal
632:s library.
618:trade winds
425:of Captain
371:James Flint
351:Hugh Gillan
347:John Barrow
2597:Categories
2030:References
1886:30 January
1820:Hevia 1995
1808:Hevia 1995
1737:Hevia 1995
1725:Hevia 1995
1688:Hevia 1995
1676:Hevia 1995
1652:Hevia 1995
1456:Black 1994
1209:John Crewe
1066:Mao Zedong
1056:George III
758:, and the
728:Yellow Sea
694:Fuk'anggan
598:Cape Verde
548:Royal Navy
529:Portsmouth
485:Portuguese
427:James Cook
230:(known in
197:Background
2539:240997712
2414:Routledge
2389:Routledge
2187:Routledge
2157:Routledge
2076:162745173
1842:cite book
1326:Rowe 2010
1238:Li Zibiao
1175:Artists:
1168:Doctors:
983:genuflect
845:vermilion
780:Hindostan
760:Endeavour
732:Hai River
724:Endeavour
610:Hindostan
583:Hindostan
571:Hindostan
554:Hindostan
544:Hindostan
418:Endeavour
414:on board
392:Li Zibiao
266:porcelain
238:gave the
232:Cantonese
187:Guangzhou
2574:23327765
2489:(1807).
2471:(1804).
2436:(2000).
2316:(2013).
2115:73389679
1282:Qianlong
1246:See also
1072:period.
1049:—
940:and the
938:Amursana
884:Gubeikou
832:Zhejiang
756:Clarence
744:Tongzhou
649:Clarence
581:and the
487:, whose
464:assamica
421:for the
412:botanist
132:Jyutping
1563:of the
1139:Members
1022:Outcome
970:tribute
897:Chengde
802:Beijing
772:Baoding
766:(梁肯堂),
752:Jackall
709:Dinghai
681:Tianjin
671:Arrival
665:Tianjin
657:Jackall
653:Jackall
645:Jakarta
614:Jackall
602:Jackall
590:Madeira
575:Jackall
559:Jackall
293:Chennai
183:Beijing
172:British
160:Chinese
2572:
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2527:
2450:
2420:
2395:
2370:
2347:London
2326:
2302:
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2103:
2074:
1749:Heshen
1708:
1594:28 May
1528:
1503:
1287:Heshen
1092:Chusan
978:
955:kowtow
836:Heshen
795:Manchu
754:, the
713:pilots
687:(1793)
655:. The
616:. The
563:Torbay
450:Bengal
438:Tahiti
433:Bounty
375:Naples
343:Thomas
314:Vestal
272:. The
240:Cohong
223:Cohong
212:(1749)
164:馬加爾尼使團
162::
2570:JSTOR
2535:S2CID
2111:S2CID
2072:S2CID
1313:Notes
740:junks
683:, by
661:Macau
630:Lion'
462:var.
454:Assam
285:India
281:opium
208:, by
2525:ISBN
2448:ISBN
2418:ISBN
2393:ISBN
2368:ISBN
2324:ISBN
2300:ISBN
2275:ISBN
2248:ISBN
2191:ISBN
2161:ISBN
2134:ISBN
2101:ISBN
1888:2014
1848:link
1706:ISBN
1596:2015
1526:ISBN
1501:ISBN
1202:Lion
1200:HMS
1042:Our
1012:khan
1000:yurt
828:Lion
810:The
788:Rehe
778:and
776:Lion
736:Dagu
719:The
641:Java
626:gout
608:and
606:Lion
579:Lion
569:and
567:Lion
552:HMS
535:Lion
533:HMS
431:HMS
416:HMS
357:and
323:earl
312:HMS
270:silk
268:and
154:The
82:马加尔尼
61:馬加爾尼
2562:doi
2517:doi
2225:doi
2221:122
2093:doi
2064:doi
2039:etc
2013:doi
1233:李自標
1229:李雅各
1225:周保羅
882:at
786:in
738:by
550:as
519:".
501:tea
448:in
436:to
387:李自標
383:李雅各
379:周保羅
283:in
262:tea
2599::
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1961:.]
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1840:{{
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64:使團
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2021:.
2015::
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158:(
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